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Pressure
ManometerBasics
October1,2001

By: RickD'Angelo,MeriamInstrument, DaveThomas,MeriamInstrument

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Oneoftheearliestpressuremeasuringinstrumentsisstillinwideusetodaybecauseofitsinherentaccuracyandsimplicityof
operation.It'stheUtubemanometer,whichisaUshapedglasstubepartiallyfilledwithliquid.Thismanometerhasnomovingparts
andrequiresnocalibration.Manometrymeasurementsarefunctionsofgravityandtheliquid'sdensity,bothphysicalpropertiesthat
maketheUtubemanometeraNISTstandardforaccuracy.

Manometersarebothpressuremeasurement
instrumentsandcalibrationstandards.Theyrange
fromsimpleUtubesandwellsfilledwithliquidto
portabledigitalinstrumentswithacomputer
interface.

AsshowninFigure1,witheachlegofaUtubemanometerexposedtotheatmosphere,theheightofliquidinthecolumnsisequal.
Usingthispointasareferenceandconnectingeachlegtoanunknownpressure,thedifferenceincolumnheightsindicatesthe
differenceinpressures(seeFigure2).

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Figure1.WithbothlegsofaUtube
manometeropentotheatmosphere
orsubjectedtothesamepressure,
theliquidmaintainsthesamelevelin
eachleg,establishingazero
reference.

Figure2.Withagreaterpressure
appliedtotheleftsideofaUtube
manometer,theliquidlowersinthe
leftlegandrisesintherightleg.The
liquidmovesuntiltheunitweightof
theliquid,asindicatedbyh,exactly
balancesthepressure.

Thefundamentalrelationshipforpressureexpressedbyaliquidcolumnis:

p=P2P1=gh

(1)

where:

p=differentialpressure
P1 =pressureatthelowpressureconnection
P2 =pressureatthehighpressureconnection
=densityoftheindicatingfluid(ataspecifictemperature)
g =accelerationofgravity(ataspecificlatitudeandelevation)
h =differenceincolumnheights
Theresultingpressureisthedifferencebetweenforcesexertedperunitofsurfaceareaoftheliquidcolumns,withpoundspersquare
inch(psi)ornewtonspersquaremeter(pascals)astheunits.Themanometerissooftenusedtomeasurepressurethatthedifference
incolumnheightsisalsoacommonunit.Thisisexpressedininchesorcentimetersofwaterormercuryataspecifictemperature,
whichcanbechangedtostandardunitsofpressurewithaconversiontable.
Allpressuremeasurementsaredifferential.Thereferencecanbezeroabsolutepressure(atotalvacuum),atmosphericpressure(the
barometricpressure),oranotherpressure.Withonelegofamanometeropentotheatmosphere(seeFigure3A),themeasured
pressureisthatwhichexceedsatmosphericpressure,whichatsealevelis14.7psi,101.3kPa,or76cmHg.

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Figure3.Gaugepressureisameasurementrelativetoatmosphericpressure
anditvarieswiththebarometricreading.Agaugepressuremeasurementis
positivewhentheunknownpressureexceedsatmosphericpressure(A),and
isnegativewhentheunknownpressureislessthanatmosphericpressure(B).

Thismeasurementiscalledgaugepressure,andtherelationshipforapositivepressureisexpressedby:

absolutepressure=atmosphericpressure+positivegaugepressure

(2)

Foranegativepressure(vacuum)measurement(seeFigure3B),thecolumnheightsreverseandtherelationshipisexpressedby:

absolutepressure=atmosphericpressure+negativegaugepressure

(3)

ThesepressurerelationshipsareshowninFigure4.

Figure4.Agraphicalrepresentationofpositiveandnegativegaugepressureshowsthe
differentialaspectofallpressuremeasurements,wheregaugepressureisthedifference
betweenabsolutepressureandatmosphericpressure.

Amanometercanbedesignedtodirectlymeasureabsolutepressure.ThemanometerinFigure
5measuresthepressurecomparedtozeroabsolutepressureinasealedlegaboveamercury
column.Themostcommonformofthismanometeristheconventionalmercurybarometer
usedtomeasureatmosphericpressure.Withjustoneconnection,thisconfigurationcan
measurepressuresaboveandbelowatmosphericpressure.

VariationsontheUTubeManometer
Thedifferentialpressureisalwaysthedifferenceincolumnheights,regardlessofthesizeor
shapeofthetubes.AsshowninFigure6A,thelegsofbothmanometersareopentothe
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atmosphereandtheindicatingfluidsareatthesamelevel.Connectingthesamepressuretothe
leftlegofeachmanometercausesitsleveltolower.Becauseofthevariationinvolumeinthe
manometerlegs,thefluidineachcolumnmovesadifferentdistance.However,thedifference
betweenthefluidlevelsinbothmanometersisidentical(seeFigure6B).

Figure5.Inasealedtube
manometer,thepressurereference
isavacuum,orzeroabsolute
pressure.Themostcommonformof
asealedtubemanometeristhe
conventionalmercurybarometer
usedtomeasureatmospheric
pressure.

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Figure6.Thepressurereadingisalwaysthedifferencebetweenfluidheights,regardlessofthe
tubesizes.Withbothmanometerlegsopentotheatmosphere,thefluidlevelsarethesame
(A).Withanequalpositivepressureappliedtoonelegofeachmanometer,thefluidlevels
differ,butthedistancebetweenthefluidheightsisthesame.

Carryingthisvariationintubesizesfurtheristhewelltype(orreservoir)manometer(see
Figure7).Aspressureisappliedtothewell,thelevelfallsslightlyascomparedtothelevel
riseinthecolumn.Bycompensatingthecolumn'sscalegraduationstocorrectforthewell
drop,itispossibletomakeadirectreadingofdifferentialpressure.Thereareconnection
guidelinesplacedonwelltypemanometers,comparedtotheUtubestyle:
Connectpressureshigherthanatmospherictothewellconnectpressureslowerthan
atmospherictothetube.
Fordifferentialmeasurements,connectthehigherpressuretothewell.
Forraisedwellmanometers,thewellconnectioncanbeusedforgaugeandvacuum
measurements.
Avariationofthewelltypemanometeristheinclinedtube(ordraftgauge)manometerin
Figure8.Withaninclinedindicatingtube,1in.ofaverticalriseisstretchedoverseveral
inchesofscalelength.Theinclinedtubemanometerhasbettersensitivityandresolutionfor
lowpressures.

Figure7.Inawelltypemanometer,
thecrosssectionalareaofoneleg
(thewell)ismuchlargerthanthe
otherleg.Whenpressureisapplied
tothewell,thefluidlowersonly
slightlycomparedtothefluidrisein
theotherleg.

Figure8.Lowpressureandlowdifferentialsarebetterhandledwithan
inclinedtubemanometer,where1in.ofverticalliquidheightcanbestretched
to12in.ofscalelength.

IndicatingFluids
Liquidmanometersmeasuredifferentialpressurebybalancingtheweightofaliquidbetweentwopressures.Lightliquidssuchas
watercanmeasuresmallpressuredifferencesmercuryorotherheavyliquidsareusedforlargepressuredifferences.Foran
indicatingfluid3timesheavierthanwater,thepressuremeasurementrangeis3timesgreater,buttheresolutionisreduced.
Indicatingfluidscanbecoloredwater,oil,benzenes,bromides,andpuremercury.Whenselectinganindicatingfluid,checkthe
specificationsforspecificgravity,operatingtemperaturerange,vaporpressure,andflashpoint.Corrosiveproperties,solubility,and
toxicityarealsoconsiderations.

DigitalManometers
Aliquidmanometerhaslimitations.Glasstubing,indicatingfluids,andlevelmountingrequirementsaremoresuitedtoalaboratory
thanthefield.Also,itcannotbeinterfacedwithacomputerorPLC.Suchlimitationscanbeovercomewithdigitalmanometers.
Thesemicroprocessorbasedinstrumentsareavailableinconvenient,portablesizesforeaseofuseinthefield,orinpanelorstand
alonemountingstyles,withoutputsforcontrollingaprocessortransferringmeasurementdata.
Variationsfromstandardconditionsofdensityandgravitymustbecompensatedformanuallywhenmakingpressuremeasurements
withliquidmanometers.Thisiseasierwithdigitalmanometers,becausesomeofthecorrectionfactorsforliquidmanometerscanbe
ignoredandotherscanbecompensatedforinsoftware.
Withdualports,swappingsensorsisallthatisneededtochangeamongdifferential,gaugeandabsolutepressuremeasurements.
Othercommonfeaturesofdigitalmanometersinclude:
Onboardmemoryfordataloggingorstoringmin./max.readings
Averaginganumberofreadingstodampenpressurepulses
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Higheraccuracydigitalmanometersareusedtocalibratepressuretransmittersandotherpressureinstrumentationinthefield.Digital
calibratorsarefasterandsimplerastheyrequirenoboxes,gascylinders,regulators,orweightstosetupandhavenospecial
platformsorcriticallevelingrequirements.FurthercomparisonsofliquidanddigitalmanometerspecificationsareshowninTable1.

TABLE1
ManometerSpecifications

Range

Accuracy

LiquidManometers

DigitalManometers

Utube

Well

Inclined

GeneralPurpose

Calibrating

100in.

100in.

20in.

202000inH2 O,

2000inH2 O,

202000psig,

2000psig,

2000mmHg

2000mmHg

ofminorscale
graduation

ofminor
scale
graduation

ofminorscale
graduation

0.0250.1%F.S.

0.0250.1%F.S.

Wetted
Castiron,
Parts
stainlesssteel,
orMedia
PVC,glass,Viton
Compatibility

Stainless
steel,glass,
Viton

Acrylic,stainless
steel,aluminum,
glass,Viton

Clean,drynoncorrosive
gasesliquidscompatiblewith
stainlesssteel

Clean,drynoncorrosive
gasesliquidscompatiblewith
stainlesssteel

Pressure
Rating

250psig

250500
psig

100350psig

2range

2range

Mounting

Wall,table

Wall,table,
flushfront,
pipe

Wall,table

Portable

Portable

Relative
Cost

Low

Low/medium

Medium

Medium

High

ForFurtherReading
Massey,B.S.1989.MechanicsofFluids,6thEd.,London:VanNostrandReinhold.
MeriamInstrument.1997.UsingManometerstoPreciselyMeasurePressure,FlowandLevel,Cleveland:MeriamInstrument.
Meriam,J.B.1938.TheManometerandItsUses.2ndEd.,Cleveland:MeriamInstrument.
OmegaEngineering.1999.TransactionsinMeasurementandControl:ForceRelatedMeasurements,2ndEd.Stamford,CT:Putnam
PublishingandOmegaPress.
Yeager,John,andHruschTupta,M.A.,Eds.1998.LowLevelMeasurements.5thEd.Cleveland:KeithleyInstruments.

SIDEBAR:

ManometerPressureandAccuracyGlossary

AbsolutePressure.Ameasurementreferencedtozeropressureequalsthesumofgaugepressure
andatmosphericpressure.Commonunitsarepoundspersquareinch(psia),millimetersmercury
(mmHga),andinchesmercury(in.Hga).

Accuracy.Ameasureoftheclosenessofagreementofareadingtothatofastandard.Forabsolute
accuracy,comparetoaprimarystandard(onerecognizedbyNIST).Accuraciesareusuallyspecifiedas
aplusorminuspercentoffullscale.Calibrationaccuraciesareoftengivenasplusorminuspercentof
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readingwithplusorminuscounts.
AmbientPressure.Thepressureofthemediumsurroundingadevice.Itvariesfrom29.92in.Hgatsea
leveltoafewinchesathighaltitudes.
AtmosphericPressure.Thepressureoftheatmosphereonaunitsurface.Alsocalledbarometric
pressure.Atsealevelitis29.92in.Hgabsolute.
Count.ThesmallestincrementofanA/Dconversionthatisdisplayed.
DifferentialPressure.Thedifferencebetweentwomeasurementpoints.Commonunitsareinchesof
water(in.H2O),poundspersquareinch(psi),andmillibars(mbar).
DisplayResolution.Themaximumnumberofdigitsonadigitaldisplay.Forexample,adisplay
resolutionof4digitsreadsamaximumof19,999countsandadisplayresolutionof5significantdigits
readsamaximumof99,999counts.
GaugePressure.Ameasurementreferencedtoatmosphericpressure.Itvarieswiththebarometric
reading.Alsousedtospecifythemaximumpressureratingofmanometers.Commonunitsinclude
poundspersquareinch(psig).
Range.Theregionbetweenthelowerandupperlimitsofmeasurements.
Resolution.Thesmallestportionofameasurementthatcanbedetected.
Sensitivity.Thesmallestchangeinmeasurementthatcanbedetected.
Uncertainty.Anestimateofthepossibleerrorinameasurement.Thisistheoppositeofaccuracy.
Vacuum.Anypressurebelowatmosphericpressure.Whenreferencedtotheatmosphere,itiscalleda
vacuum(ornegativegauge)measurement.Whenreferencedtozeropressure,itisanabsolutepressure
measurement.
ZeroAbsolutePressure.Thecompleteabsenceofanygasaperfectvacuum.

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