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com/

A Toxicological Overview of:

FLUORIDE / FLUORINE (F)

Revision A (01/07/2010)

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Contents:

• Questions for the Reader

• Public Relations Information on Fluoride Consumption for Humans

• “Take Aways” Summary Page

• Excerpts of Interest from:

(A) ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY - Second Edition

Biological and Health Effects of Pollutants
Ming-Ho Yu
ISBN: 1-56670-670-X

(B) Scientific Studies:

i. Exposure to high fluoride concentrations in drinking water is associated

with decreased birth rates.
ii. Effect of Fluoride on Rat Testicular Steroidogenesis - Narayana MV,
Chinoy NJ

(C) ENCYCLOPEDIA OF TOXICOLOGY

FOUR-VOLUME SET -- Volume 2

NOTES:
• Excerpts of special interest are highlighted in RED.
• My comments are highlighted in GREEN.

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Questions for the Reader

Take some time to think about and answer the following questions on fluoride:

- What do you know about fluoride?

- How do you know what you know about fluoride?

- What do you know about the source of your fluoride information?

- How would you describe your confidence in this source?

- How do you feel when you think about this knowledge?

- How do you feel when you think about not using fluoride?

- How do you think removing all unnatural sources of fluoride would affect you?

- Are you aware of any negatives to consuming non-naturally occurring levels of fluoride?

- How would you feel if there were negatives associated with consumption of fluoride?

- How much are you attached to the value you place on the reported benefits of fluoride?

- Are you aware of any methods other than fluoridation to achieve the same reported
benefits?

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Public Relations Information on Fluoride Consumption for Humans

Here's what the American Dental Association (ADA), and maybe your dentist, says
about Fluoridated products:

“For over five decades, the American Dental Association has continuously endorsed
the fluoridation of community water supplies and the use of fluoride-containing
products as safe and effective measures for preventing tooth decay.

No further specifics on how fluoride "prevents tooth decay" were located on the ADA
website. They do have a PDF document available for review that, under the "Water
Fluoridation's Role in Reducing Dental Decay, states the following:

It is important to note that dental decay is caused by dental plaque, a thin, sticky,
colorless deposit of bacteria that constantly forms on teeth. When sugar and other
carbohydrates are eaten, the bacteria in plaque produces acids that attack the tooth
enamel. After repeated attacks, the enamel breaks down, and a cavity (hole) is
formed. There are a number of factors that increase an individual's disk for dental
decay.

- Recent history of dental decay

- Elevated oral bacteria count
- Inadequate exposure to fluorides
- Exposed roots
- Frequent intake of sugar and sugary foods
- Poor or inadequate hygiene
- Decreased flow of saliva
- Deep pits and fissures in the chewing surfaces of teeth

Exposure to fluoride is not the only measure available to decrease the risk of decay.
In formulating a decay prevention program, a number of intervention strategies may
be recommended such as changes in diet and placement of dental sealants.
However, fluoride is a key component in any recommended strategy.”

...and...

“Fluoride protects teeth in two ways - systemically and topically. ...Systemic fluorides
can also give topical protection because ingested fluoride is present in saliva, which
continually bathes the teeth...”

Here's what the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) says about Fluoridated products:

“Fluoride works by stopping or even reversing the decay process. It keeps tooth
enamel strong and solid.”

That's it. Doesn’t make teeth white. No naked-eye visible effect.

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Reflect back on your answers to the previous questions knowing that the above ADA and
CDC information is the public relations, nominalized information given as reasoning for use
of fluoride for human consumption.

How does that affect your understanding of the use of fluoride?

Do you have any new questions that come to mind?

Read on and hopefully you will understand a bit more about this particular subject or at least
have more questions for your dental caretakers.

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TAKE-AWAYS:

Here are some of the more interesting “take-aways” from this summary document:

• ‘Too much’ fluoride can have the opposite effect of what is desired in the form of dental fluorosis (a
weakening of the tooth enamel).

• In China and India millions of people are suffering from dental and skeletal fluorosis – abnormal or
poisoned tooth and bone conditions induced by Fluroide (F) – mainly due to consumption of high levels
of F in drinking water. Symptoms of poisoning are lameness, stiff joints, and chronic pain.

• Fluoride pollution is a major problem through-out the globe arising mostly from coal combustion, dust
from fresh concrete used for construction, and runoff from application of insecticides and herbicides.

• Fluoride is a bioaccumulative toxin and the rate of decay of fluoride is unknown in humans.

• Daily intake of fluoride comes from consumed water, wine, beer, soda, tea, air, toothpaste, mouth-
washes, dental treatments, infant formula, processed cereals, juice, cigarettes, fluoridated salt,
seafood, bone products such as bone meal and gelatin, and bathing/swimming in water.

• Even at low levels of F intake, appreciable levels of F will, in time, accumulate in calcified tissues.

• Several groups of researchers have reported reproductive effects of F in humans.

• There have been reports of a decrease in fertility in women and decreased serum testosterone levels in
men living in communities with high fluoride levels in municipal water.

• Fluoride treatment has been shown to induce embryotoxicity in pregnant rats.

• Exposure of male mice to NaF (sodium fluoride) has shown a marked decrease in fertility rate.
Withdrawal of NaF treatment for 30 days produced incomplete recovery.

• A review of fluoride toxicity showed decreased fertility in most animal species studied.

• Fluoride exposure leads to cell damage, induces necrosis, and inhibits DNA repair. Eventually, F
produces massive impairment in the functions of vital organs, particularly when given orally.

• Studies have shown that it is known that fluoride inhibits actions involving calcium (such as those
involved in the learning processes).

• Fluoride negatively affects Vitamin C levels in the body, but supplemental vitamin C greatly lowered F
deposition in the bone.

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(A) FLUORIDE
10.1 INTRODUCTION
• …high levels of waterborne F are also hazardous to both human and animal health. For example, in
China and India millions of people are suffering from dental and skeletal fluorosis – abnormal or
poisoned tooth and bone conditions induced by F – mainly due to consumption of high levels of F in
drinking water.

10.2.5 FOODS
• F intake from food and beverages by a male residing in a fluoridated community in the U.S. is about 1
to 3 mg/day. It is decreased to 1.0 mg/day in a nonfluoridated area. The intake from drinking water
ranges from 0.1 to 0.5 mg/day in nonfluoridated communities, whereas in fluoridated communities it
may amount to 1 to 2 mg/day.
• Several plant species are known as F accumulators. Examples include camellia (620 ppm), tea (leaves,
760 ppm), and elderberry (3600 ppm, dry basis).

10.3 INDUSTRIAL SOURCES OF FLUORIDE POLLUTION

10.3.2 MANUFACTURE OF PHOSPHATE FERTILIZERS
• In the aqueous scrubber, SiF4 readily reacts with water, forming fluorosilicic acid (H2SiF6), as shown in
Reaction 10.3. Fluorosilicic acid is highly soluble in water and is readily absorbed by plants.

10.3.3 MANUFACTURE OF ALUMINUM

• A number of other substances are emitted in the process. This is because several catalysts, including
CaF2, AlF3, and cryolite, are used in the eletrolysis of alumina, and as these are heated at high
temperatures, some will escape from the cells, contaminating the surrounding atmosphere.
• …several other gases, including SO2, SiF4, HF, COS, CS2, He, and water vapor, are also produced…
• Moreover, a large number of particulates are also emitted, including Al2O3, carbon (C), cryolite, AlF3,
CaF2, Fe2 O3, and chiolite (Na5Al3F14).

10.3.4 MANUFACTURE OF STEEL

• In the manufacture of steel, calcium fluoride (CaF2) is used as a flux… F compounds emitted from this
operation include HF and CaF2.

10.3.5 COMBUSTION OF COAL

• As mentioned previously, coals mined in U.S. contain about 0.001 to 0.048% F, usually as fluorapatite
or fluorspar. Combustion of coal in power plants, therefore, emits considerable quantities of F into the
atmosphere. During combustion, about half of the F in coal is emitted as gaseous HF and SiF4 and
particulate matter.
• For example, studies show that several cities in China, including Chongqing and Beijing, are
experiencing severe fluoride air pollution problems arising mostly from coal combustion.
• Another important source of F in Beijing is dust from fresh concrete used for construction.
• Fluoride has also been traced to runoff from application of insecticides and herbicides.

10.4 EFFECTS ON PLANTS

• HF is the most phytotoxic air pollutant.
• F accumulates in the foliage of plants. The plants then serve as a vehicle for transfer of F to herbivores,
with the potential for inducing dental and skeletal fluorosis.

10.5 EFFECTS ON ANIMALS

10.5.1 INTRODUCTION
• Animals normally ingest small amounts of F in their rations without observable adverse effects, but
excessive intake can be detrimental. [How is ‘excessive’ defined? How does that apply to you? How
do you come about this information? Do you trust the source? How much?]

10.5.3 CHRONIC EFFECTS

• The two most conspicuous and thoroughly studied manifestations of chronic F poisoning are dental
and skeletal fluorosis. Once absorbed into animal body, F has a great affinity for developing and

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mineralizing teeth. This affinity can either enhance tooth development or induce dental lesions,
depending on the amounts of fluorides ingested. [Note well the reference to ‘studied’ effects, which
leads one to question why those studies are not more frequently talked about. More importantly, what
affects are there that haven’t been ‘studied’? Why haven’t they been studied?]
• Furthermore, it is often found that F levels are inversely related to the distance between the industrial
facilities and the site of animal collection.
• Lameness or stiffness is an intermittent sign of F toxicity. … The clinical basis for the lameness is not
well understood.

10.6 EFFECTS ON HUMANS

10.6.1 DAILY INTAKE
• Daily intake of F by individuals in the U.S. is about 0.2 to 0.3 mg from food, 0.1 to 0.5 mg from water (1
to 2 mg if water is fluoridated), and varying quantities from beverages (F content of wine is 0 to 6.3
ppm, beer contains 0.15 to 0.86 ppm, and milk, 0.04 to 0.55 ppm). The amount of F inhaled from air is
about 0.05 mg/day.
o NOTE: Toothpaste not mentioned (1 or 2 times daily), dermal contact and inhalation during
showering / bathing / swimming is also not mentioned.
o There is approximately 1,000 ppm F in toothpaste and approximately 0.22 ppm F is actually
ingested by a 5 year old child per brushing. This does not include what remains in the mouth
when done / rinsed.

http://www.fluoridealert.org/f-concentrations.data.htm#tp
o Soda usually contains approximately 0.60 ppm F, infant formula, processed cereals, juice,
cigarettes, and fluoridated salt are other sources.

http://www.fluoridealert.org/f-sources.htm

10.6.2 ABSORPTION
• Absorption of F from the gastrointestinal tract occurs through a passive process; it does not involve
active transport.1 Absorption is rapid and probably occurs in the lumen. The rate of absorption is
dependent on the F compounds involved, e.g., 97% of NaF, 87% of Ca10F2(PO4)6, 77% Na3AlF6, and
62% CaF2 are absorbed. About 50% of the absorbed F is excreted by the kidneys while the remainder
is stored, primarily in calcified tissues. [Note that NaF is the form of fluoride most readily absorbed by
the gastrointestinal tract and is the main form used in toothpaste, water fluoridation, et cetera]
• Even at low levels of F intake, appreciable levels of F will, in time, accumulate in calcified tissues. [Low
level intake… accumulate… over time… appreciable levels… remember these terms… try and define
them for yourself now.]

10.6.3 ACUTE EFFECTS

• The lethal dose of inorganic F has been estimated to be in the range of 2.5 to 5 g for a 70 kg male…

10.6.4 CHRONIC EFFECTS

• Fluoride accumulates in the skeleton during prolonged, high-level exposures. Radiological evidence
shows hypermineralization (osteofluorosis) occurs when bone F concentrations reach about 5000 ppm.
• Fluoride exposure leads to cell damage and induces necrosis. Eventually, F produces massive
impairment in the functions of vital organs, particularly when given orally. [Do you consume fluoride
orally? Are your children given ‘fluoride tablets’? Do you receive ‘fluoride treatments’ at the dentist’s
office?]
• Airborne F from the combustion of coal was found to pollute extensively both the living environment and
the food, such as corn, chilies, and potatoes that the residents consume.
• Several groups of researchers have reported reproductive effects of F in humans. [Several groups
report reproductive impacts from Fluoride. Reproductive impacts… for teeth. Do humans exist without
teeth? Do humans exist without reproduction?]
• Levels of reproductive hormones were also measured; the High Fluoride Exposure Group showed
higher follicle stimulating hormone but lower inhibibin-B, prolactin, and free testosterone serum
concentrations than the Low Fluoride Exposure Group.

10.7 BIOCHEMICAL EFFECT

10.7.2 IN ANIMALS AND HUMANS

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• F inhibits the metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins. In animals and humans, a large number
of enzymes are depressed by F, including enolase, ATPase, lipase, and cholinesterase. Inhibition of
glycolysis, due in part to decreased enolase activity, may be responsible for the hyperglycemia
observed in laboratory animals exposed to F. [Metabolism of carbs, fats, and proteins is slowed by
fluoride. Enolase is involved in carbohydrate metabolism, lipase breaks down fats, ATPase aids in the
body’s energy production faculties, cholinesterase is an important factor for the transmission of nerve
impulses, and hyperglycemia is a (the) main characteristic of diabetes.]
• F stimulates adenylcyclase activity in all tissues so far examined… Fluoride inhibition of reactions
involving Ca is generally attributed to the formation of CaF2,
o In neurons, calcium-sensitive adenylate cyclases are located next to calcium ion channels for
faster reaction to Ca2+ influx; they are suspected of playing an important role in learning
processes. This is supported by the fact that adenylate cyclases are coincidence detectors,
meaning that they are activated only by several different signals occurring together.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenylate_cyclase
[From the adenyl cyclase entry, it is known that fluoride inhibits actions involving calcium and
that very important processes involve calcium. (such as learning processes)]
• F also affects functions controlled by Ca in humans, as it does in plants. These functions include blood
clotting, membrane permeability, and cholinesterase activity.
• In the presence of F, Mg2þ and MgADP form a complex MgADP– MgFx that traps the active site of S1
and inhibits myosin ATPase. As previously mentioned, F is shown to inhibit protective enzymes, such
as SOD, glutathione peroxidase (GSHPx), and catalase, in various human tissues. Inhibition of one or
more of these enzymes may allow free-radical-induced reactions to occur, leading to cellular and
tissue damages. [Fluoride contributes to free-radical cellular / tissue damage.]

10.8 NUTRITIONAL FACTORS AFFECTING FLUORIDE TOXICITY

• … several nutrients have been shown to alleviate injuries caused by exposure to F. The nutrients
studied so far include proteins and Ca, and vitamins C (ascorbic acid), D, and E. Glutathione (GSH),
which is not a nutrient but a well-known antioxidant, has also been studied. [Readily available (and
cheap!) vitamins can help with Fluoride damage.]
• …F-treated chicks showed a marked decrease in ascorbic acid levels in the heart, spleen, brain,
gizzard, and pancreas, while the levels were increased in the lungs and kidneys. [The Vitamin C
deprived organs NEED Vitamin C to function. Fluoride contributes to the depletion thereof, which must
be supplemented back into the system.]
• Results showed marked decline of ascorbic acid in adrenal glands and kidneys in the F-treated
cockerels. Furthermore, the levels of DHA in the kidneys of the F-exposed cockerels increased more
than 100% compared with the control levels.
• In laboratory mice, both protein and vitamin C were shown to lower F accumulation in bone. For
example, mice fed a low-protein diet (containing 4% protein) supplemented with 150 ppm NaF
deposited five times more F in the tibia than did control mice fed a regular diet (containing 27% protein)
and exposed to the same level of NaF. Furthermore, supplemental vitamin C greatly lowered F
deposition in the bone. [It should be noted that mice can synthesize vitamin C without supplementation
while humans cannot.]
• Fluoride treatment has been shown to induce embryotoxicity in pregnant rats. … A higher incidence
of skeletal and visceral abnormalities (subcutaneous hemorrhage) was observed in the fetuses of the F-
treated pregnant rats. Oral administration of vitamin C (50 mg/kg body weight) with NaF significantly
reduced the severity and incidence of F-induced embryotoxicity in the rats. [Two things here: F is
especially bad for developing animals/humans and Vitamin C can help counteract its negative effects.]
• Exposure of male mice to NaF (10 mg/kg body weight) for 30 days showed a marked decrease in
cauda epididymal sperm count, motility, and viability, resulting in significant reduction in fertility
rate. Withdrawal of NaF treatment for 30 days produced incomplete recovery. However, when
vitamin E or vitamin D was supplemented during the withdrawal period, the toxic effect of NaF was
significantly alleviated, as the treated mice restored their reproductive functions and fertility.
Additionally, it was found that a combined administration of vitamins D and E was generally more
effective than either vitamin D or E administered alone. [Reproductive effects again: sperm count, ability
to move, and ability to survive all decreased by Fluoride. Again, teeth or babies – what furthers the
human race?]

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ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY - Second Edition

Biological and Health Effects of Pollutants
Ming-Ho Yu
ISBN: 1-56670-670-X

====================================================================
=== END OF ABOVE SOURCE ===========================================
====================================================================

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(B) Scientific Studies

J Toxicol Environ Health. 1994 May;42(1):109-21.

Exposure to high fluoride concentrations in drinking water is associated with decreased birth
rates.

Division of Biometry and Risk Assessment, National Center for Toxicological Research, Jefferson,
Arkansas 72079.

A review of fluoride toxicity showed decreased fertility in most animal species studied. The current
study was to see whether fluoride would also affect human birth rates. A U.S. database of drinking
water systems was used to identify index counties with water systems reporting fluoride levels of at
least 3 ppm. These and adjacent counties were grouped in 30 regions spread over 9 states. For each
county, two conceptionally different exposure measures were defined, and the annual total fertility rate
(TFR) for women in the age range 10-49 yr was calculated for the period 1970-1988. For each region
separately, the annual TFR was regressed on the fluoride measure and sociodemographic covariables.
Most regions showed an association of decreasing TFR with increasing fluoride levels. [Again, teeth or
babies?] Meta-analysis of the region-specific results confirmed that the combined result was a negative
TFR/fluoride association with a consensus combined p value of .0002-.0004, depending on the
analytical scenario. There is no evidence that this outcome resulted from selection bias, inaccurate
data, or improper analytical methods. However, the study is one that used population means rather
than data on individual women. Whether or not the fluoride effect on the fertility rate found at the county
level also applies to individual women remains to be investigated.

PMID: 8169995 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

===================================================================================

Fluoride 1994; 27(1): 7-12

Effect of Fluoride on Rat Testicular Steroidogenesis - Narayana MV, Chinoy NJ

ABSTRACT: In view of reports of infertility among human populations in fluorosis prevailing regions, we
investigated the effect of fluoride ingestion on testicular steroidogenesis in rats. Sodium fluoride (NaF)
was administered to the rats orally at a daily dose of 10mg/kg bodyweight for 50 days. The treatment
did not cause significant change in testicular cholesterol levels, indicating that metabolism was not
altered and that there was no hypo/hypercholesterolemic effect. In addition, activities of the
intermediary enzymes in androgenesis, viz., 3ß- and 17ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase were only
modestly decreased by NaF ingestion. Subsequently, the determination of circulating androgen levels
was similar in NaF-treated rats showed a downward trend compared to those of the control group,
suggesting alteration in testosterone concentration. The histomorphometric studies revealed significant
change in the Leydig cell diameter m correlation with the androgen levels. These results indicate that
fluoride does interfere with steroidogenesis in short-term lowdose exposures in rats. [Lowered
testosterone levels / more ‘feminine’ males. Bisphenol A (BPA) causes the same type of response and
is now recognized as detrimental to humans. (you should note that plastic containers now advertise
being ‘BPA Free’)]

====================================================================
=== END OF ABOVE SOURCE ===========================================
====================================================================

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(C) Fluoride
Uses
• It is used in hydrofluoric acid, fluoropolymers, and refrigerating agents.

Exposure Routes and Pathways

• Ingestion, dermal exposure (most notably via hydrofluoric acid), and inhalation are possible routes of
exposure.

Toxicokinetics
• Chronic ingestion of fluorides causes exaggerated buildup on teeth, bones, and ligaments. Exposure to
skin, eyes, and mucous membranes has a corrosive effect. [‘Too much’ fluoride can have the opposite
effect of what is desired by the person consuming the fluoride.]

Mechanism of Toxicity
• Fluoride interferes with the metabolism of cells and enzymes. It is a cross-linking agent and rarely
occurs in an elemental state in nature. It is a metabolic inhibitor, interfering with calcium metabolism
and electron transport. Calcium is essential for maintaining cardiac membrane potentials and in
regulating coagulation.

Acute and Short-Term Toxicity (or Exposure): Human

• Chronic over-absorption can cause hardening of bones, calcification of ligaments, and buildup on teeth.
Fluoride can cause irritation or corrosion to eyes, skin, and nasal membranes. Large ingestion of
fluoride salts or hydrofluoric acid may result in fatal arrhythmias due to profound hypocalcemia. ... The
American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists threshold-limit value/time-weighted
average for fluorine is 1 ppm. National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health reports that
concentrations of 25 ppm are immediately dangerous to life and health.

Chronic Toxicity (or Exposure): Animal

• Sheep fed fluoride 10ppm in water over 7 years demonstrated decreased wool production. Flourosis,
painful stiff gait, lameness, decreased milk production, and dental changes developed in cattle fed 40
ppm fluoride in their diet over 6 months to 1 year.

Chronic Toxicity (or Exposure): Human

• Fluorosis is a chronic public health problem in many parts of the world. Exposures to fluoride in
concentrations greater that [sic] 1 ppm result in bone deformities, spinal compressions, and restricted
movements of joints.

===============================================================================

Fluorine
Uses
• The presence of fluorine as a soluble fluoride in drinking water to the extent of 2 ppm may cause
mottled enamel in teeth, when used by children acquiring permanent teeth; in smaller amounts;
however, fluorides are added to water supplies to prevent dental cavities. [Again, exactly not what the
person is looking for in fluoride use.]
• ...Fluorine has been studied as a rocket propellant...
• …involved in ozone depletion and global warming effects... Fluorine will react with water or steam to
produce heat, and toxic and corrosive fumes.

Background Information
• It is the most electronegative and reactive of all the elements.
• Many later investigators, including Davy, Gay-Lussac, Lavoisier, and Thenard, experimented with
hydrofluoric acid, with some experiments ending in tragedy.

Exposure Routes and Pathways

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• The general population is exposed to fluoride through consumption of drinking water, foods, and
dentifrices, primarily in the form of sodium fluoride and stannous fluoride.

Toxicokinetics
• Fluoride, rather than fluorine, appears to be the agent that is toxicologically active in the body because
fluorine is so reactive that it is not absorbed chemically unchanged. Existing data indicate that all
common forms of inorganic fluoride are rapidly and quite extensively absorbed. The highest degree of
absorption has been noted with aqueous solutions of sodium fluoride resulting in absorption within 30
min of oral exposure. [So if you actually want to consume fluoride, the fluoridated city water, toothpaste,
and fluoride treatments at the dentists’ offices fit this bill exceptionally well.]
• Cessation of exposure will decrease the fluoride levels in bone slowly; however, the rate of decay is
undetermined in humans. [Chronic exposure is bad due to the gradual accumulation of Fluoride in the
body, but yet we don’t know how quickly Fluoride decays/leaves the body? How do we adequately
determine what levels of consumption are safe given this rather large unknown variable?]

Mechanism of Toxicity
• Fluoride appears to interfere with cell metabolism, and fluoride is a cross-linking agent.
• The inorganic fluoride ion forms metal–fluoride–phosphate complexes that interfere with any enzymes
that require a metal ion cofactor.
• ...the fluoride ion is thought to be a general inhibitor of the energy production organization of the cell,
specifically the oxidative phosphorylation necessary in ATP formation.

Acute and Short-Term Toxicity (or Exposure): Human

• Elemental fluorine and the fluoride ion are highly toxic. Low overdose ingestion produces local
gastrointestinal upset, salivation, and a metallic taste that may last 48 h. Acute inhalation of fluorine can
cause severe respiratory irritation, dyspnea, and death. High overdose ingestion, in addition to causing
more severe local manifestations, may produce systemic symptoms of convulsions, coma,
dysrhythmias, hypotension without compensatory tachycardia, acidosis, paresthesias, and coagulation
disturbances. Hypocalcemia can develop very rapidly. Coagulopathies can develop as a result of
hypocalcemia.
• The acute toxic dose of fluoride ranges from 0.1 to 0.8 mg/kg of body weight. [See the table below that I
created to show the ‘acute toxic’ dose for the “5 to 50 lb subject” range – keep these numbers in mind
and reference the nominal daily exposure noted in Section (A), 10.2.5 (Foods) and 10.6.1 (Daily Intake)
above. Also, keep in mind that Fluoride accumulates in the body and the rate of decay is not known
(but by being classified as an accumulative toxin, it is implied that it is some amount of time greater
than immediate/short duration)]

Fluoride Acute Fluoride Acute

Weight Weight
Toxic Dose [mg] Toxic Dose [mg]
[lb] [lb]
LOW HIGH LOW HIGH
5 0.23 1.82 20 0.91 7.27
6 0.27 2.18 25 1.14 9.09
7 0.32 2.55 30 1.36 10.91
8 0.36 2.91 35 1.59 12.73
9 0.41 3.27 40 1.82 14.55
10 0.45 3.64 45 2.05 16.36
15 0.68 5.45 50 2.27 18.18

Chronic Toxicity (or Exposure): Animal

• High doses of fluorine gas and hydrogen fluoride in animal studies have resulted in testicular
degeneration. The available animal and human data strongly suggest that the reproductive system
is a target of fluoride toxicity at high exposure levels. [Again…]
• The (US) National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Toxicology Program (NTP) oral
carcinogenicity study on sodium fluoride concluded that there was ‘‘equivocal evidence that fluoride is a
carcinogen in male rats, but not in female rats or mice of either gender.’’

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Chronic Toxicity (or Exposure): Human

• Chronic exposure to excessive amounts of fluorine can result in mottled teeth (fluorosis), for example, a
chronic fluoride ingestion of 1 ppm of fluoride in drinking water can cause mottling of the teeth, and an
exposure of 1.7 ppm will produce mottling in 30–50% of patients. Chronic poisoning may cause
osteosclerosis, calcification of ligaments and tendons, bony exostoses, and renal calculi. Chronic
inhalation exposure to high levels of hydrogen fluoride and fluoride dusts, or chronic oral exposure to
high levels of fluoride can cause skeletal malformations and severe joint pain, and an increased
incidence of nonvertebral skeletal fractures. The existing data do not indicate that fluoride is a
carcinogen in humans.
• There have been reports of a decrease in fertility in women and decreased serum testosterone
levels in men living in communities with high fluoride levels in municipal water. [Reproductive
problems in both human genders.]

In Vitro Toxicity Data

• A fluoride level of 0.4–1.0 mg/l inhibited DNA repair after irradiation of mouse spleen cells in vitro.
Sodium fluoride was not mutagenic in cell cultures of human leukocytes at concentrations of 18 and 54
mg/l.

Environmental Fate
• Fluorine is not destroyed in the environment, but rather it combines with minerals to form salts, which
remain in the soil. [The reason]
• Calcium carbonate precipitation dominates the removal of dissolved fluoride from seawater. The next
most important removal mechanism is incorporation into calcium phosphates. Undissolved fluoride is
generally removed by sedimentation. The residence time of fluoride in ocean sediments has been
computed at 2–3 million years.
• Foods characteristically high in fluoride content are certain types of seafood (1.9–28.5 mg kg/1),
especially those types in which the bones are consumed, bone products such as bone meal and
gelatin, tea, and baby formula processed with fluoridated water.

Exposure Standards and Guidelines

• The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) threshold limit value, 8 h
time-weighted average, for fluorine is 1 ppm, and the short-term exposure limit, 15 min, is 2 ppm. The
(US) Occupational Safety and Health Administration permissible exposure limit, 8 h TWA, is 0.1 ppm
(0.2mg/m3). The (US) National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) recommended
exposure level, averaged over a 10 h work day is 0.1 ppm (0.2mg/m3), and the NIOSH Immediately
Dangerous to Life or Health value is 25 ppm.

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF TOXICOLOGY, FOUR-VOLUME SET – Volume 2

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