This chapter is .r considcration of mech.

nisms: mcchmisms are dcvices

which .an be considcrcd to be motion converters in rhat thev rnnsfirrm
moriun lrom on( li,rm ro \oml u$(r requir(Ll turm. The) mrtshr, tor
exmple, transform lireff morion into rotarional morion, or motion in one
direction into i motion in I direction ar ;ghr anslc$ or perhaps a lincar
ieciprocrting motion into rorarJ motion, as in thc intemat combustion
enginc where the rcciprocating motion of rhe pistons is converted into
roution of the crmk ind hence rh drivc shafr.
Mcchan;cal elmcnrs cm includc the use of lintags, cams, ge s, rack
and pinion, chaitrs, belr drives, etc. For ex.lmple, thc rack .md-pinion can be
uscd to coNrt rotationd notion to l;nelrmotion. Par:llel shaft gcars mighr
be used to rcduce a shaft spccd. Bevelsears misht be used for thc transmission ofrot 'y motion rhrough 90". A toothcd belt or chain drim mighr be
used to trusform rotd) modon about onc axis to motion rbout anorher
Cams and lint:rges can bc used ro obtain morions which uc presoibed to
lary in a pdticular mamcr This chryter is a considerarion of the basic
chrracteristi.s of I range ol such nechmisms.
Nlany of the acrions rvhich previously wcr. obhined by thc use of mech
.nisms arc, however, oftcn noNxdays beins obra;ned, as a rcsulr of a mcha
tronics approach, by the use of microprccessor systms. For example, crms
on a rotating shalf wcre preliously nsed lor domcsti. washing machincs in
order to give a timed sequence of actions suctr as opcning I vdve to tct wxter
into the drum, ssit hing the wa.cr ofl s$itchiry i heater on. etc. Modem
washing mrhines use a microprocessor-bascd sysrem with the m;croprocessol programmed to switch on outpurs in the requircd sequence.
ADother examplc is the hrirspring balarce whcel md gers rid ponrier of a
w.tch vhich h . now largely bceD replaced by m integrated circuit wirh
prlups a Uquid crystal displal'l'lc mecharronics approach has resultcd in !
simplification, md often a reduction in cost.

t74

CHAPTEF

I\'1ECI]AN CAL ACTI]AT ON SYSTEMS

lor
ho\ercr hxlc x 'olc iD mc'h'tturics s\stems
n 1u*
,.,.r],f i,.,".. 'i:." .+n.
"i:Tilli.JT:'il::illl;.
rn\ nl\ rs i t
t\t)'rsurLs
,nc th. rn.r",,. t.""'^"
.ii. o' h, duur,'r- r
Iur.mJn\ r,,nc,ru,F.hi,,.,(.,
\\ hne tlern.nrcs nrrsht no$ he u\eJ ortor
b(
t'
'u
,,,,,1\ se[ lull'rcd b' n''1r'r''m'' ""'"''"*
"" '"rl 'r'ctl
luech.rnisms stiu'

:'

pror.idc sucb functions rs:

L\es
t lorrE alnllifi.athn. t ! thrr 3i\(nb\ h\icJr'
I ('l r,nc. u, l.(J ' '" rt 'r ' 'r'
, .i+.-., i",.,' .,',t"r' J n '\F ''r^rrrr'r''r''Jr 'nu'l'(''r'e '"r "r!
h,,lr
m"h'nitm'
I ;:;',^,h, 'p.'', n nrror' e'r' rh ;r'c'r b J 'rui L-(ru'r
ofmorion withour regid to
-fhe rcrm kirematics is uscd lor the strdl

$ithoul anv
Iust the motros
r".*' rir,." "".""',a;' rhtn
fll;:d;;:ii:l:i:l:
(i'rl
ur
rnF
sE
arc
nnLcs ur .nerq! rnr"l\ Ld

"- '

.,;'

;F .

.i' " . i' -n r1'r.J'| fri"n'" 'J''n

Themotionol.n' rignibod\ or

be

JorbiJ(r't"on'

onsidered ro bc acombinxtion oltrans

n,iio' u. 'o''"r''h.l:rl:1i'illTi."i
li,l:, rlnstrtion
"l ";,r^,motiun
!Jn hc e'ntdtre(

."-",

o, ,h. \,ee J\,

;;.i,; :::i:;;.;;; .. "
rel1' J r'r"n"hi'h
,l ,ntre ..lL-,). \ rutarionJ I mnrron c r o( 'nn'id'r"rr::u"" 8
"br)
;. ;f;.:;,.,;.",i;s,.oJ, 01. o"n'.c,r,5'

Fisure8.l TrP.solmorion:
(i) lluslxtion.i, (b) rotlrn'n!1'

L"tufrr'n'rti"nJl 'nd ror'rr'nI I

\.nl'Dl.\ 'r "'r rr' o" '' ' 'n'hrnjrrur'
(qr"
ed r'" \"r ro p;cl 'r "
nu'i'''r
^ ,, -. i", "' nlr,le tr't L ''l rh'
i.'"r'.
.-,
'r r prr. ra
:.;::l; .., .,'i,i: i,'.; "i'
"
""""r
nu'r r\w'
rrr
mrre
rr'"''r
r
r''r"rr'r
rUn'''t"
' : :i,,..",;:,r:. i,i,'.. ""'
pu'i""r'
quirrr
;"..,' "J -,'.r''. r'*'" hr "+ rior'\ TIU$rler'
.I:J'"1:,'i:;.|,"r';";
-tl,i'
:' J +qJ.r''( r o'r:re'u'r'p"r
::.,,-",, i'-".',
J
,ir"r
, , ,' r"', .,,"r, .,"u r' ur rrr rri"n 'r -rd
..,-,..
,'.
-',,1,:l'j".1'"
r'r
1'r''rorr isr'''rin3Iruhn"
;,i'r,:. ;," ;'.'j," ^r'p''i'
ro
;r
i"1
ru
t-r.
t
r"
"n
.1,, iil. ;' i"'i ;:";',.,,. I' n..-.,'
"^'n'rre
rhat we an dcsisn mcch
so
mornrns
rorationar
i::1";',*;,;fi;l;;;i;nd
I"r ( rn Ph
.;l:; . ;, , ',,: ; .-' ,r,\e'. "n ,'r' r r' 'l rh' r'i!'n
'.,',1,;,,r',.i.'r..,i. ' h,,'er.'ir'rrJ'1 r''r1'| lr"'n'Jrer'\ 2'' rr''r'nr2t"
he.iten,te.l t'1 + nxn t' rrin'lirr"nJt nl'tron'

1?5

TYPES OF MOTION

:a8.38

Freedom and constraints

An imporBnt aspect in th. dcsip of mechanic,rl elenenrs is the oricntation

p ts. A body that is free in spacc can
move in rhree, i.dependcnt, n tualb pcryendicular directions and rotatc in
three {ays about those dirctions (Fisurc 8.1). lt is said ro h.!e six desrces
of freedom. The number of des.ecs oflrcedom is the number of compo
nents of motion thxt rc rcquircd in order to generlte thc motion. lfi joint
is constrained to morc along a line then ils rmslrtional dcgrccs of frcedom
and arangement of th. clcmcnts and

Fisrrc8.2(a) shows a ioint wih just this one trmslational

degree offreedon. Ifa joint is constrdned to move on a plmc thcn it has two
translnional desrees offrecdon. l'igure 8.2(b) shows.] joint which has on
translationd degree of frecdom md one rotational degree offrccdom.
are reduced to one.

Frgrre 8.2 Johts vith: (a) ore,

ib) Mo desrees of freedom.

The problem in desisn is often to reduce the nmbcr ofdegrees of free

dom ,rnd this then r.quncs an rppropriate numbcr and orient ion of con
stnints. Withour any constraints i body sould harc six degrees of freedom.
A constraint is needed lbr cach degree of freedom that is to be preYcntcd
from occurring. Prolidcd we have no redundant constrrints then thc Dum_
ber of degiecs of liedom sould bc 6 minus the number of oNtr nts
However, redundmt constraints oftn occur rnd so for constraints on a
single rigid body m have the basic rulc

6-

number ofconstraints

number ofdcsees offreedom

runbcr ofredurdamics
Thus ifabody is required to be fixcd, i.c. hrve zero degrccs ofheedom, the!
if no rcdundant consraints .rc introduced the numbcr irf consraints

A concept that ;s uscd in design is th,rt of thc principle of least

.oBtrairt. 'l'his strtes that itr fuing r body or guiding it to:r particular twc
of motion. the minimum number of consmints should be used, i.e. thcrc
should be no redund.D.ics. This is ofien referr.d to .s kinematic desigr
For exmple, to tur'e . shaii which only rotat s about one {is rvith no
translatioml inotions. we have to rcducc the number of dcgrces of freedom
to 1.Thusthcmi mum number ofconstraints to do this is 5.Ary moie constraints t}laD this sill give redunddcics. 'r'he mounring that misht be used
to mount thc shaft h.s l bdl bearing at otrc end and I rollcr bcuing it the
other (Figllrc 8.3). 'l'he pdr of bcarinss together prev.nt transl iond
motiotr at right angles to rhe shaft, thc.l,, axis, rnd rotations ibout the z_lxis
and thc l-rxis. The brll be ing prevents translational motion :long rhe
r axis a dong rhe , rxis. Thus there is a total of firc constnints. This
Icares just one degree of frccdom, the required rotation $out the r axis.

a76

CHAPTER

fisrE 8.3 Shaft*ith

MECHANICAL ACTUATION SYSTEMS

no

Il thcrc had

ben a roller be$ing at erch end of the shaft then both the bear
ings could have pro.ented transhtional motion nlons the 1-axis and the: axis
md thus there would hale been rcdundmcy. Such redundancy might cause
dmsc. If ball bearings ue used n botfi ends of the sh.ft, the. in order to
pro.ent redundancy one of the bei;ngs would have irs outer nce noi larcd in
its housing so that it could slide ro some extent in x. axiil direction.

i$l}(

Loaaing

Mechanisms rrc structurcs and as such tlansmit and support loads. Andysis
is thus ncccssary to dctcrmin thc loads to be crried by individud elemenrs.
Then co$idcration can bc givcn to thc dimensions of the element so that it
misht, for cxmplc', harc sufiicicnt snensth md perhaps stiffness under such
Ioadins.

when we consider the movements of a mechanism sithout any reference to

the forces involved, we cin treat the mechanisrn as being conposed of a
scries ofindividual linls. Each put ofa nechanism which has motion rcla

dlc n) $mc othcr part is tcrmed a link. A link tucd not ncccssarily be a risid
bodl but it must be . rcsistint bodt s.hich is c.pablc of xansmittiDg dlc
rcquircd forcc with ncglisiblc dcfbrmation. For this rcason it is usually taken
as bcing rcprcsented by a rigid body ich has tso or morc points of dtt ch
meDt to other lints, these beins termd nodcs. Each link is capablc of
moving relative to its neighbouring links. l'igure 8.1 shNs exmplcs of links
with twq three and four nodes. A ioint is rcontrection bctwccn tvo or morc
links n their nodes and which alloss some motiotr bcivccn the .onneded
linls. Lelers, crmks, connecting lods snd pistons, slidc.s, pullcys, belts md
shifts e dl exmples of links.

figure

8.4

nodcs, (h)

Lints: (!) \rirh rro

snh rhrcc nodes,

ru

8,3

177

KINEMATIC CHAINS

A sequence oI ioitrts and links is known as a kinematic ch.in. tur a

linemitic chain b trrnsm;t motion, one link must bc fixcd. Movcment of
one link rvill thcn produce predicLrble rclative movcmcnts ofthc oth$s. It is
possiblc to obtain iiom one kinemrtic chain r numbor of diilircDr mechinisms by haring a diffe.enr linli
As an

rhe fixed oDe.

illustrition of.l linematic chdn, considcr

m{)tor.ir cngi.c uhere

thc rociprocrting motioo oli pistofl is transtbrmed turo rotational motion of

a crinkshair on bc,rrinss mounled in r fixed lnnc (!'isurc 8.s(r)). Wc cin
rcprcscnt this rs bcins four connectd links (l.isure 8.5(b)). Lir* I is thc
cranl{shali, link 2 thc connecting rod, linl 3 thc fixcd iranc rnd link + thc
slidcr, i.c. pisn)n, which moles rel ive ro thc fixcd linmc (scc Scction 8.1.2

lbr inrthcr discussn)n).

tiflre 8.5 Simplccnsirc

The designs of mml mechanisms are based on two basic forms ofkine
m. ic chiins, rhe four-bar chdn rnd the slider crank chr.. The following
illLrsr'rre'

8,3,1

'ome

of rhe forms such ch:ins crn 11kr.

The fourbar chaln

'Ihc four-bar chain

consists ol lbur hrk$ conncctcd to sivc lbur jonrts

about shich tumins cnn occur. Fisurc 8.6 shows r numbcr ol forms of the
fi)uFbrr chain p()durcd by altrring thc rclativc lcngrhs ol thc links. If thc

Figuru

8.6 lun

csolrbur

a7a

CHAPTER

sum

IVIECHANICAL ACIUATION SYSTEI\4S

olrhe kng'h ot rhe.horresr tinl pluj rhe len#h or rhc tong(\r linL i!

le\s thJn or (quJl ro rh. sum otdre t(ngh, ot rhe orhrr r$o Iint\
rh(n L tead
on( linl$iU bc epabh otmal,ing, tuU re\uturjon sidr resprcr ro l]le fired
tt tnrs (ondrnon rs nol m(r rhen nn lin[ n I aprbt. ot r (omplerr revo_

Inr

lut;on. This is known as the crashof condjtiotr. r; Fisure 8.6(1), LDI is

3
fixed md rhe rclative len8ths of the tinks are such that li;ks 1 *;
i c- .scil_
late but not rirtate. Thc result is a doubte-leve. mechanism. By
shorten_
ing link 4.elativ to link 1, then link 4.an rotate (Fisure 8.66D;ith
[ne I
osciUaring anJ rhe r<sutr is rermed a terer-+rmk me.hinis;. Widr tinks
I mJ + rhe \ame lentsrh Jnd bor} abte ro rourr lFigur( A.b(c)). dren rh. relLrh
is a doubl({ranl me.hanism. ts} atrerins trhiih tint is fi\cd.
orhcr rormc
ol rnechrnism ran bc lroduurd.
Figu.e 8.7 illusFates how such r mechanism can be used to .dwce rhe
film in I cinc carnera. As liDk I rotates so thc end of tink 2 loct{s inio r
sprockct of thc film, pulls it fomard bcfore rctensing and moving up and
brc& to lock into rhe ncxt sprocket.

FiSrre

8.7

Cine film advuce

linlages may have togglc positions.

.linLase
.Some
llnn ,ea,1 rorm

Thesc are positions whre the

rnfur rromon(otir\jint.. r,,g... S.t

irrr.i.;.

such J roggli..heing rhe.lu rge usd,o cunrrot rhr mo\(menr

ot rhe rJrtsare
ol a truct {, rhar $hen linL I recchc\ ,he hori/onratposrrion no fuflher

i;Jd

oa link 2_will caurc a.y turther movement. Therc is uother tosgle posirion

for the linlage and thar is vhen links 3 and 4 are both

,..ti

*a *,"

Figur.8.a T,sslcl,nLasc.

The slider-4rank mechanism

This form ur mechui\m ,.nn\isr\ ota cmnt. J .onn( fing rud,nd

J slidrr
Jnd F rhe r\|e ot mechui\m .lrsffibcJ in li8ure t.S ;hr.h ,ho$ed
rhc
vmrre engrne m(hinism. Uirh rhjr cunfig!radon. tinl I is ti\eJ, i.e
rh(re
r\ n,, relJtr\c mo!(menr bcrue(n lhe (cnrre ol rorrriun oi rhc
crant rnd rhc

4.4

CAN4S

L79

housing in which the p;sron slidcs- I-;nL 1is th. ffanl that rotates, Iink 2 thc
connccting rod and link + thc sl;der which moves rel ilt to rh Exed link_
WhcD the piston moles back$ards and forwards. i.e. link l moves backiards
and forlr$ds, .he. rhe crmk, linl l, is forced io rotatc. Hence the mccha
nism transforms.n input of bxclwrrds and fo.wrds motio. into rorational

Figure 8.9 shofls anothcr form of this tvpe of Dcchanisrn, a quick-

.ctum mechanism. k

FEUE

8.9

quick-rcrum

consists ofa rotating crxnk, linkAB, whjch rotatcs

round a fixed ccntre, an os.illidng lercr (D which is caused ro oscillatc
about C bt thc slidins of thc block at B ory CD $ AB rorates. .lnd r link
DE $hich causcs E to mor. back\nds and forwards. l- mishr be rhe ram oi'
a Dachine and hale I curting tool aftachcd ro ir. 'l'hc rm will be at th.
cxhemes of its movement $nen the positions of the crank are ABr ind ABr.
Thus as thccrankmoves mti cloclwisc flon Br ro Br, the ram m*es a com
plete stroLc, the cuuing sti)ke. WheD thc crank contiNes ;ts movement from
B, mti-clockwise ro Br, the. rhe Iam again makes a comptete st.oke in the
opposite direction, thc rcturn srroke. With the crank rorating ff constant
speed, then, because rhc mgle of oank rotition requircd for rhe cottins

rtr.le i, srg,cr rhrn rh( ansk lo. rhe rrrurn'rrnle. rhe, urring.role rat$
more time than the rctum strol{e. Hence rhe rerm quick rcturn aor thc

Fsure

8.10 Cim

A cam is a body which rotates or oscillrtcs.nd in doing so imparrs a recip

rocatins or oscillatory modon to a sccond bod), called rhc follower, with
shich it is in contact (Fisure 8.10). As thc.am rorates so thc follower;s made
!o rise, dilell and frll, the lengrhs of timcs ryenr ar e:rch of thcse posirions
depending on the shapc of the can.'lhe risc scc.ion ofthe cam is the pirrr
that dircs the follower trpwards, its profile detcrmi.inghow quickly thc car
follower will be lifted. Thc fail secrion of thc cam is rhe part thit loxcrs the
lollowc5 its profile dctcrrnini.g how quicLly the cam follower *ill frll. The
dwell scction of thc cm is the plrt thar allos's rhe follower n) remain ar rhe
same lelel for a sisnificnt period of rimc. The dlyell sedion of the cllm is
sncre ;t is circular w;th a rrdius that does .or changrThe cilm shape required to produce n particuh motion of the follower
will depend otr the shape of rhc cam and rhe tvpc of foltos,er used.
Fisure 8.11 shows the rlpes of ibllo$rcr displ,cement diasrms thxr can be
produced with diliarent shaped cams a either point or knifc folowers.
'l hc r.di. distucc from rhe aris of roration of rhe clm to thc poitrt of conttct of the clm with the folloser givcs the disphcement of thc follower rvirh
relcrcnce to the alis of rotaljon of thc cam. The ligures shov hoiq these radial
distances, and hcnce follouer displicementsj !:rry with thc mgle otroration

The eccentri. c]n (Figure 8-11(r)) is r circulu an with an otl-set centrc

ol rotation. It produces m oscillation of the followcr rvhich ;s simpte harmodc
motion md is often used with pmps. The heart shapcd c.m (I.igure 8. 1 1(b))
siles a tolloivcr displacement which inoeases a constam tare rvith timc
beibre decreasing at a consrmt rate with r;mq hencc a unitorm speed for the
folNcr. The ped shaped cim (!'isurc 8.11(c)) siyes r iolloiver morion wbich
is stationaiy for about half a relolution ofrhe cJm and rises and fails symmetri(rlh in e.tLh ol$c remiiningqurr.r rerolurion.. srrrh r pear shrped um

CHAPTER

MECHANICAL ACTUATION SYSTEIVS

FErt 8.11 Gms:

(a)

ec@Eic, (b) h@r-shaped,

$,*
E

.{

,|

900 r3f

27{rp 3itr

is used for engine valve control. The rtwell holds lhe rdve open wbile
peEol/eir oirture passes into the cylinder. The longEr the dvEll, i.e
greater the length of th cam surface vith a constant mdiuq the more
is dlowed for the cylinder to b complerely ch.rgEd widr flmmable
Pigure 8.12 shws a number ofexanplcs ofdiffcrent types ofcrm
ers. Roller followers .r essentially bal or roller bearings. Thy ha\
advant g of lo{,r fiictior thatr a slidirlg crffrct but catr b mor
Flat-facd fouotirrc ar often usd be.ause they arc cheaper and c.n be
smaler thm rouer follorer& Such follow s ere widelv used flith (
valve c.ms. Wlile clrlrs can b rutr dry, rhey aft oftf, usd wiri lutdc!
and may b immdsed in an oil barl.

& & & c'&'&

FEU]!

8.u Gn folor.rE: (a) poinr O) krife, (c) rcncr, (d) stidi,B od

@itL:ins, (e) tut, (0

msh@E