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1.0 INTRODUCTION
2.0 BASIC GEOMETRY OF SPUR GEARS
2.1 Basic Spur Gear Geometry
2.2 The Law of Gearing
2.3 The Involute Curve
2.4 Pitch Circles
2.5 Pitch
2.5.1 Circular Pitch
2.5.2 Diametral Pitch
2.5.3 Relation of Pitches
3.0 GEAR TOOTH FORMS AND STANDARDS
3.1 Preferred Pitches
3.2 Design Tables
3.3 AGMA Standards
4.0 INVOLUTOMETRY
4.1.1 Gear Nomenclature
4.1.2 Symbols
4.2 Pitch Diameter and Center Distance
4.3 Velocity Ratio
4.4 Pressure Angle
4.5 Tooth Thickness
4.6 Measurement Over-Pins
4.7 Contact Ratio
4.8 Undercutting
4.9 Enlarged Pinions
4.10 Backlash Calculation
4.11 Summary of Gear Mesh Fundamentals
5.0 HELICAL GEARS
5.1 Generation of the Helical Tooth
5.2 Fundamental of Helical Teeth
5.3 Helical Gear Relationships
5.4 Equivalent Spur Gear
5.5 Pressure Angle
5.6 Importance of Normal Plane Geometry
5.7 Helical Tooth Proportions
5.8 Parallel Shaft Helical Gear Meshes
5.8.1 Helix Angle
5.8.2 Pitch Diameter
5.8.3 Center Distance
5.8.4 Contact Ratio
5.8.5 Involute Interference
5.9 Crossed Helical Gear Meshes
5.9.1 Helix Angle and Hands
5.9.2 Pitch

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5.9.3 Center Distance

5.9.4 Velocity Ratio
5.10 Axial Thrust of Helical Gears

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6.0 RACKS
7.0 INTERNAL GEARS
7.1 Development of the Internal Gear
7.2 Tooth Parts of Internal Gear
7.3 Tooth Thickness Measurement
7.4 Features of Internal Gears
8.0 WORM MESH
8.1 Worm Mesh Geometry
8.2 Worm Tooth Proportions
8.3 Number of Threads
8.4 Worm and Wormgear Calculations
8.4.1 Pitch Diameters, Lead and Lead Angle
8.4.2 Center Distance of Mesh
8.5 Velocity Ratio
9.0 BEVEL GEARING
9.1 Development and Geometry of Bevel Gears
9.2 Bevel Gear Tooth Proportions
9.3 Velocity Ratio
9.4 Forms of Bevel Teeth
10.0 GEAR TYPE EVALUATION
11.0 CRITERIA OF GEAR QUALITY
11.1 Basic Gear Formats
11.2 Tooth Thickness and Backlash
11.3 Position Error (or Transmission Error)
11.4 AGMA Quality Classes
11.5 Comparison With Previous AGMA and International Standards
12.0 CALCULATION OF GEAR PERFORMANCE CRITERIA
12.1 Backlash in a Single Mesh
12.2 Transmission Error
12.3 Integrated Position Error
12.4 Control of Backlash
12.5 Control of Transmission Error
13.0 GEAR STRENGTH AND DURABILITY
13.1 Bending Tooth Strength
13.2 Dynamic Strength
13.3 Surface Durability
13.4 AGMA Strength and Durability Ratings
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14.0 GEAR MATERIALS

14.1 Ferrous Metals
14.1.1 Cast Iron
14.1.2 Steel
14.2 Non Ferrous Metals
14.2.1 Aluminum
14.2.2 Bronzes
14.3 Die Cast Alloys
14.4 Sintered Powder Metal
14.5 Plastics
14.6 Applications and General Comments
15.0 FINISH COATINGS
15.1 Anodize
15.2 Chromate Coatings
15.3 Passivation
15.4 Platings
15.5 Special Coatings
15.6 Application of Coatings
16.0 LUBRICATION
16.1 Lubrication of Power Gears
16.2 Lubrication of Instrument Gears
16.3 Oil Lubricants
16.4 Grease
16.5 Solid Lubricants
16.6 Typical Lubricants
17.0 GEAR FABRICATION
17.1 Generation of Gear Teeth
17.1.1 Rack Generation
17.1.2 Hob Generation
17.1.3 Gear Shaper Generation
17.1.4 Top Generating
17.2 Gear Grinding
17.3 Plastic Gears
18.0 GEAR INSPECTION
18.1 Variable-Center-Distance Testers
18.1.1 Total Composite Error
18.1.2 Gear Size
18.1.3 Advantages and Limitations of Variable-Center-Distance Testers...
18.2 Over-Pins Gaging
18.3 Other Inspection Equipment
18.4 Inspection of Fine-Pitch Gears
18.5 Significance of Inspection and Its Implementation
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19.0 GEARS, METRIC

19.1 Basic Definitions
19.2 Metric Design Equations
19.3 Metric Tooth Standards
19.4 Use of Strength Formulas
19.5 Metric Gear Standards
19.5.1 USA Metric Gear Standards
19.5.2 Foreign Metric Gear Standards
20.0 DESIGN OF PLASTIC MOLDED GEARS
20.1 General Characteristics of Plastic Gears
20.2 Properties of Plastic Gear Materials
20.3 Pressure Angles
20.4 Diametral Pitch
20.5 Design Equations for Plastic Spur, Bevel, Helical and Worm Gears
20.5.1 General Considerations
20.5.2 Bending Stress - Spur Gears
20.5.3 Surface Durability for Spur and Helical Gears
20.5.4 Design Procedure - Spur Gears
20.5.5 Design Procedure Helical Gears
20.5.6 Design Procedure - Bevel Gears
20.5.7 Design Procedure - Worm Gears
20.6 Operating Temperature
20.7 Eftect of Part Shrinkage on Gear Design
20.8 Design Specifications
20.9 Backlash
20.10 Environment and Tolerances
20.11 Avoiding Stress Concentration
20.12 Metal Inserts
20.13 Attachment of Plastic Gears to Shafts
20.14 Lubrication
20.15 Inspection
20.16 Molded vs Cut Plastic Gears
20.17 Elimination of Gear Noise
20.18 Mold Construction
20.19 Conclusion
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1.0 INTRODUCTION
This section presents a technical coverage of gear fundamentals. It is intended as a broad coverage written in a manner that is
easy to follow and to understand by anyone interested in knowing how gear systems function. Since gearing involves specialty
components it is expected that not all designers and engineers possess or have been exposed to all aspects of this subject
However, for proper use of gear components and design of gear systems it is essential to have a minimum understanding of gear
basics and a reference source for details.
For those to whom this is their first encounter with gear components, it is suggested this section be read in the order
presented so as to obtain a logical development of the subject. Subsequently, and for those already familiar with gears, this
material can be used selectively in random access as a design reference.
2.0 BASIC GEOMETRY OF SPUR GEARS
The fundamentals of gearing are illustrated through the spur-gear tooth, both because it is the simplest, and hence most
comprehensible, and because it is the form most widely used, particularly in instruments and control systems.
2.1 Basic Spur Gear Geometry
The basic geometry and nomenclature of a spur-gear mesh is shown in Figure 1.1. The essential features of a gear mesh are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

center distance
the pitch circle diameters (or pitch diameters)
size of teeth (or pitch)
number of teeth
pressure angle of the contacting involutes

Details of these items along with their interdependence and definitions are covered in subsequent paragraphs.
2.2 The Law of Gearing
A primary requirement of gears is the constancy of angular velocities or proportionality of position transmission, Precision
instruments require positioning fidelity. High speed and/or high power gear trains also require transmission at constant angular
velocities in order to avoid severe dynamic problems.
Constant velocity (i.e. constant ratio) motion transmission is defined as conjugate action of the gear tooth profiles. A
geometric relationship can be derived (1,7)* for the form of the tooth profiles to provide cojugate action, which is summarized as
the Law of Gearing as follows:
A common normal to the tooth profiles at their point of contact must, in all positions of the contacting teeth, pass through a
fixed point on the line-of-centers called the pitch point.
Any two curves or profiles engaging each other and satisfying the law of gearing are conjugate Curves.

___________

*Numbers in parenthesis refer to references at end of text.

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2.3 The Involute Curve

There are almost an infinite number of curves that can be developed to satisfy the law of gearing, and many different curve forms
have been tried in the past. Modem gearing (except for clock gears) based on involute teeth. This is due to three major
advantages of the involute curve:
1. Conjugate action is independent of changes in center distance.
2. The form of the basic rack tooth is straight-sided, and therefore is relatively simple and can be accurately made; as a
generating tool ft imparts high accuracy to the cut gear tooth.
3. One cutter can generate all gear tooth numbers of the same pitch.
The involute curve is most easily understood as the trace of a point at the end of a taut string that unwinds from a cylinder. It is
imagined that a point on a string, which is pulled taut in a fixed direction, projects its trace onto a plane that rotates with the
base circle. See Figure 1.2. The base cylinder, or base circle as referred to in gear literature, fully defines the form of the involute
and in a gear it is an inherent parameter, though invisible.
The development and action of mating teeth can be visualized by imagining the taut string as being unwound from one
base circle and wound on to the other, as shown in Figure 1.3a Thus, a single point on the string simultaneously traces an
involute on each base circles rotating plane. This pair of involutes is conjugate, since at all points of contact the common normal
is the common tangent which passes through a fixed point on the line-of-centers. It a second winding/unwinding taut string is
wound around the base circles in the opposite direction, Figure 1 .3b, oppositely curved involutes are generted which can
accommodate motion reversal. When the involute pairs are properly spaced the result is the involute gear tooth, Figure 1.3c.
2.4 Pitch Circles
Referring to Figure 1.4 the tangent to the two base circles is the line of contact, or line-of-action in gear vernacular. Where this
line crosses the line-of-centers establishes the pitch point, P. This in turn sets the size of the pitch circles, or as commonly called,
the pitch diameters. The ratio of the pitch diameters gives the velocity ratio:
Velocity ratio of gear 2 to gear 1 = Z = D1
D2

(1)

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2.5 Pitch
Essential to prescribing gear geometry is the size, or spacing of the teeth along the pitch circle. This is termed pitch and there are
two basic forms.
2.5.1 Circular pitch A naturally conceived linear measure along the pitch circle of the tooth spacing. Referring to Figure
1.5 it is the linear distance (measured along the pitch circle ar between corresponding points of adjacent teeth. it is equal to the
pitch-circle circumference divided by the number of teeth:
pc = circular pitch = pitch circle circumference = D
(2)
number of teeth
N
2.5.2 Diametral pitch A more popularly used pitch measure, although geometrically much less evident, is one that is a
measure of the number of teeth per inch of pitch diameter. This is simply: expressed as:
Pd = diametral pitch = N
(3)
D
Diametral pitch is so commonly used with fine pitch gears that it is usually contracted simply to "pitch" and that it is diametral is
implied.
2.5.3 Relation of pitches: From the geometry that defines the two pitches it can be shown that they are related by the
product expression:
Pd x Pe =
(4)
This relationship is simple to remember and permits an easy transformation from one to the other.

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3.0 GEAR TOOTH FORMS AND STANDARDS

involute gear tooth forms and standard tooth proportions are specified in terms of a basic rack which has straight-sided teeth for
involute systems. The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and the American Gear Manufacturers Association (AGMA)
have jointly established standards for the USA. Although a large number of tooth proportions and pressure angle standards have
been formulated, only a few are currently active and widely used. Symbols for the basic rack are given in Figure 1.6 and
pertinent standards for tooth proportions in Table 1.1.
Note that data in Table 1.1 is based upon diametral pitch equal to one. To convert to another pitch divide by diametral pitch.
3.1 Preferred Pitches
Although there are no standards for pitch choice a preference has developed among gear designers and producers. This is given
in Table 1.2. Adherence to these pitches is very common in the fine- pitch range but less so among the coarse pitches.
3.2 Design Tables
For the preferred pitches it is helpful in gear design to have basic data available as a function of the number of teeth on each
gear, Table 1.3 lists tooth proportions common to a given diametral pitch, as well as the diameter of a measuring wire. Table 1.6
lists pitch diameters and the over-wires measurement as a function of tooth number (which ranges from 18 to 218) and various
diametral pitches, including most of the preferred fine pitches. Both tables are for 20 pressure-angle gears.
3.3 AGMA Standards
In the United States most gear standards have been developed and sponsored by the AGMA. They range from general and basic
standards, such as those already mentioned for tooth form, to specialized standards. The list is very long and only a selected few,
most pertinent to fine pitch gearing, are listed in Table 1.4. These and additional standards can be procured from the AGMA by
contacting the headquarters office at 1500 King Street; Suite 201; Alexandria, VA 22314 (Phone: 703-684-0211).

a = Addendum
b = Dedendum
c = Clearance
hk = Working Depth
ht = Whole Depth
Pc = Circular Pitch
rf = Fillet Radius
t = circular Tooth Thickness
= Pressure Angle

Figure 1.6 Extract from AGMA 201.02 (ANSI B6.1 1968)

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TABLE 1.1 TOOTH PROPORTIONS OF BASIC RACK FOR

STANDARD INVOLUTE GEAR SYSTEMS
Tooth Parameter
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

System Sponsors
Pressure Angle
Addendum
Dedendum
Whole Depth
Working Depth
Clearance.
Basic Circular Tooth
Thickness on Pitch Line
9. Fillet Radius In
Basic Rack
10. Diametral Pitch Range
11. Governing Standard:
ANSI
AGMA

Symbol
in
Rack
Fig. 1.6

a
b
ht
hk
C
t

14-1/2
Full Depth
involute
System

20
Full Depth
involute
System

20
Coarse-Pitch
involute
Spur Gears

20
Fine-Pitch
involute
System

ANSI & AGMA

14-1/2
1/P
1.157/P
2.157/P
2/P
0.157/P
1 5708/P

ANSI
20
1/P
1.157/P
2.157/P
2/P
0.157/P
1.5708/P

AGMA
20
1.000/P
1.250/P
2.250/P
2.000/P
0250/P
/2P

ANSI & AGMA

20
1.000/P
1.200/P + 0.002
2.200/P + 0.002
2.000/P
0.200/P + 0.002
1.5708/P

rf

1-1/3 x

1-112 X

0.300/P

not standardized

--

not specified

not specified

not specified

not specified

---

B6.1
201.02

B6.1
--

-201.02

B6.7
207.06

TABLE 1.2 PREFERRED DIAMETRAL PITCHES

Class

Coarse

Pitch

1/2
1
2
4
6
8
10

Class

MediumCoarse

Pitch

12
14
16
18

Class

Pitch

Class

Pitch

Fine

20
24
32
48
64
72
80
96
120
128

Ultra-Fine

150
180
200

TABLE 1.3 BASIC GEAR DATA FOR 20 P.A. FINE-PITCH GEARS

Diameter Pitch
32
48
64
72
80
96
Diameter of
.0540
.0360
.0270
.0240
.0216
.0180
Measuring Wire*
Circular Pitch
.09817
.06545
.04909
.04363
.03927
.03272
Circular Thickness
.04909
.03272
.02454
.02182
.01963
.01638
Whole Depth
.0708
.0478
.0364
.0326
.0295
.0249
Addendum
.0313
.0208
.0156
.0139
.0125
.0104
Dedendum
.0395
.0270
.0208
.0187
.0170
.0145
clearance
.0083
.0062
.0051
.0048
.0045
.0041
Note: Outside Diameter for N number of teeth equals the Pitch Diameter far (N+2) number at teeth.
*For 1.7290 wire diameter basic wire system.
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120

200

.0144

.0086

.02618
.01309
.0203
.0083
.0120
.0037

.01571
.00765
.0130
.0050
.0080
.0030

TABLE 1.4 SELECTED LIST OF AGMA STANDARDS

General
spurs And
Helicals
Non-Spur

AGMA 390
AGMA
2000-A88
AGMA 201
AGMA 207
AGMA
2005-B88
AGMA 203
AGMA 374

Gear Classification Handbook

Gear Classification And Inspection Handbook
Tooth portions For Coarse-Pitch Involute Spur Gears
Tooth Proportions For Fine-Pitch Involute Spur Gears And Helical Gears
Design-Manual For Bevel Gears
Fine-Pitch On-Center Face Gears For 20 Involute Spur Pinions
Design For Fine-Pitch Worm Gearing

4.0 INVOLUTOMETRY
Basic calculations for gear systems are included in this section for ready reference in design. More advanced calculations are
available in the listed references.
4.1.1 GEAR NOMENCLATURE*
ACTIVE PROFILE is that part of the gear tooth profile which actually comes in contact with the profile of its mating tooth along the
line of action.
ADDENDUM (a) is the height by which a tooth projects beyond the pitch circle or pitch line; also, the radial distance between the
pitch circle and the addendum circle (Figure 1.1); addendum can be defined as either nominal or operating.
AXIAL PITCH (pa) is the circular pitch in the axial plane and in the pitch surface between corresponding sides of adjacent teeth, in
helical gears and worms. The term axial pitch is preferred to the term linear pitch. (Figure 1.7)
AXIAL PLANE of a pair of gears is the plane that contains the two axes. In a single gear, an axial plane may be any plane
containing the axis and a given point.
BASE DIAMETER (Db = gear, and db = pinion) is the diameter of the base cylinder from which involute tooth surfaces, either
straight or helical, are derived. (Figure 1.1); base radius (Rb = gear, rb = pinion) is one half of the base diameter.
BASE PITCH (pb) in an involute gear is the pitch on the base circle or along the line-of-action. Correspcndng sides of involute
gear teeth are parallel curves, and the base pitch is the constant and fundamental distance between them along a common
normal in a plane of rotation. (Figure 1.8)
BASIC RACK is a rack that is adopted as the basis for a system of interchangeable gears.
BACKLASH (B) is the amount by which the width of a tooth space exceeds the thickness of the engaging tooth on the pitch
circles. As actually indicated by measuring devices, backlash may be
______________
*Portions of this section are repented with permission from the Barber-Colman Co., Rockford, Ml.
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determined variously in the transverse, normal, or axial planes, and either in the direction of the pit circles or on the
line-of-action. Such measurements should be corrected to corresponding values a transverse pitch circles for general
comparisons. (Figure 1.9)
CENTER DISTANCE (C), Distance between axes of rotation of mating spur or helical gears.
CHORDAL ADDENDUM (ac) is the height from the top of the tooth to the chord subtending the circular-thickness arc. (Figure
1.10)
CHORDAL THICKNESS (tc) is the length of the chord subtending a circular-thickness arc. (Figure 1.10)
CIRCULAR PITCH (pc) is the distance along the pitch circle or pitch line between corresponding profiles of adjacent teeth. (Figure
1.1)
CIRCULAR THICKNESS (t) is the length of arc between the two sides of a gear tooth on the p4 circle, unless otherwise specified.
(Figure 1.10)
CLEARANCE-OPERATING (c) is the amount by which the dedendum in a given gear exceeds addendum of its mating gear. (Figure
1.1)
CONTACT RATIO (Spur) is the ratio of the length-of-action to the base pitch.
CONTACT RATIO (Helical) is the contact ratio in the plane of rotation plus a contact portion a tributted to the axial advance.
DEDENDUM (b) is the depth of a tooth space below the pitch line; also, the radial distance beta, the pitch circle and the root
circle. (Figure 1.1); dedendum can be defined as either nominal or operating.
DIAMETRAL PITCH (Pd) is the ratio of the number of teeth to the number of inches in the pitch diameter. There is a fixed relation
between diametral pitch (Pd) and circular pitch (pc): pc = / Pd
FACE WIDTH (F) is the length of the teeth in an axial plane.
FILLET RADIUS (r,) is the radius of the fillet curve at the base of the gear tooth. In generated this radius is an approximate radius
of curvature. (Figure 1.13)
FULL DEPTH TEETH are those in which the working depth equals
2000"
diametral pitch
GENERATING RACK is a rack outline used to indicate tooth details and dimensions for the design of a hob to produce gears of a
basic rack system.
HELIX ANGLE () is the angle between any helix and an element of its cylinder. In helical gears a worms, it is at the pitch
diameter unless otherwise specified. (Figure 1.7)
INVOLUTE TEETH of spur gears, helical gears, and worms are those in which the active portion of the profile in the transverse
plane is the involute of a circle.
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LEAD (L) is the axial advance of a helix for one complete turn, as in the threads of cylindrical worms and teeth of helical gears.
(Figure 1.11)
LENGTH-OF-ACTION (ZA) is the distance on an involute line of action through which the point of contact moves during the action
of the tooth profiles. (Figure 1.8)
LEWIS FORM FACTOR (Y, diametral pitch; yc, circular pitch). Factor in determination of beam strength of gears.
LINE-OF-ACTION is the path of contact in involute gears. It is the straight line passing through the pitch point and tangent to the
base circles. (Figure 1.12)
LONG- AND SHORT-ADDENDUM TEETH are those in which the addenda of two engaging gears are unequal.
MEASUREMENT OVER PINS (M). Distance over two pins placed in diametrically opposed tooth spaces (even number of teeth) or
nearest to it (odd number of teeth).
NORMAL CIRCULAR PITCH, Pcn, is the circular pitch in the normal plane, and also the length of the arc along the normal helix
between helical teeth or threads. (Figure 1.7)
NORMAL CIRCULAR THICKNESS (tn) is the circular thickness in the normal plane. In helical gears. it is an arc of the normal helix,
measured at the pitch radius.
NORMAL DIAMETRAL PITCH (Pdn) is the diametral pitch as calculated in the normal plane.
NORMAL PLANE is the plane normal to the tooth. For a helical gear this plane is inclined by the helix angle, , to the plane of
rotation.
OUTSIDE DIAMETER (Do gear, and do = pinion) is the diameter of the addendum (outside) circle (Figure 1.1); the outside radius
(Ro gear, ro pinion) is one half the outside diameter.
PITCH CIRCLE is the curve of intersection of a pitch surface of revolution and a plane of rotation. According to theory, it is the
imaginary circle that rolls without slip with a pitch circle of a mating gear. (Figure 1.1)
PITCH CYLINDER is the imaginary cylinder in a gear that rolls without slipping on a pitch cylinder or pitch plane of another gear.
PITCH DIAMETER (D = gear, d = pinion) is the diameter of the pitch circle. In parallel shaft gears, the pitch diameters can be
determined directly from the center distance and the number of teeth by proportionality. Operating pitch diameter is the pitch
diameter at which the gears operate. (Figure 1.1) The pitch radius (R = gear, r pinion) is one half the pitch diameter (Figure 11).
PITCH POINT is the point of tangency of two pitch circles (or of a pitch circle and pitch line) and is on the line-of-centers. Also, for
involute gears, it is at the intersection of the line-of-action and a straight line connecting the two gear centers. The pitch point of
a tooth profile is at its intersection with the pitch circle. (Figure 1.1)
PLANE OF ROTATION is any plane perpendicular to a gear axis.
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PRESSURE ANGLE (), for involute teeth, is the angle between the line-of-action and a line tangent to the pitch circle at the pitch
point. Standard pressure angles are established in connection with standard gear-tooth proportions. (Figure 1.1)
PRESSURE ANGLE NORMAL (n) is the pressure angle in the normal plane of a helical or spiral tooth
PRESSURE ANGLE OPERATING (r) is determined by the specific center distance at which the gears operate. It is the pressure
angle at the operating pitch diameter.
STUB TEETH are those in which the working depth us less than
2.000
diametral pitch
TIP RELIEF is an arbitrary modification of a tooth profile whereby a small amount of material is removed near the tip of the gear
tooth. (Figure 1.13)
TOOTH THICKNESS (T) Tooth thickness at pitch circle (circular or chordal Figure 1.1).
TRANSVERSE CIRCULAR PITCH (Pt) is the circular pitch in the transverse plane. (Figure 1.7)
TRANSVERSE CIRCULAR THICKNESS (tt) is the circular thickness in the transverse plane.
TRANSVERSE PLANE is the plane of rotation and, therefore, is necessarily perpendicular to the go axis.
TRANSVERSE PRESSURE ANGLE (t) is the pressure angle in the transverse plane.
UNDERCUT is the loss of profile in the vicinity of involute start at the base circle due to tool cutter action in generating teeth with
low numbers of teeth. Undercut may be deliberately introduced to facilitate finishing operations. (Figure 1.13)
WHOLE DEPTH (ht) is the total depth of a tooth space, equal to addendum plus dedendurn, also equal to working depth plus
clearance. (Figure 1.1)
WORKING DEPTH (hk) is the depth of engagement of two gears; that is, the sum of their addenda.
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4.1.2 Symbols
The symbols used in this section are summarized below.This is consistent with most gear literature and the publications of AGMA
and ANSI.
SYMBOL NOMENCLATURE & DEFINITION
backlash, linear measure along
pitch circle

addendum

backlash, linear measure

along line-of-action

dedendum

aB

backlash in arc minutes

clearance

center distance

change in center distance

Co

operating center distance

Cstd

standard center distance

hk working depth

pitch diameter

ht whole depth

Db

base circle diameter

mp contact ratio

Do

outside diameter

DR

root diameter

nw number of threads in worm

face width

pa axialpitch

factor; general

pb base pitch

length, general; also lead of worm

pc circular pitch

measurement over-pins

number of teeth, usually gear

Nc

critical number of teeth for no undercutting

rb base circle radus, pinion

Nv

virtual number of teeth for helical gear

rt

Pd

diametral pitch

ro outside radius, pinion

B
BLA

Pdn

normal diametral pitch

pitch diameter, pinion

pin
diameter, for over-pins
dw
measurement
e

eccentricity

number of teeth, pinion

pcn normal circular pitch

r

pitch radius, pinion

fillet radius

tooth thickness, and for

general use for tolerance

pt

horsepower, transmitted

yc Lewis factor, circular pitch

pitch radius, gear or general use

pitch angle, bevel gear

Rb

base circle radius, gear

rotation angle, general

Ro

outside radius, gear

lead angle, worm gearing

RT

testing radius

mean value

tooth thickness, gear

gear stage velocity ratio

Wb

beam tooth strength

pressure angle

Lewis factor, diametral pitch

mesh velocity ratio

operating pressure angle

helix angle (Wb = base helix angle;

operating helix angle)

angular velocity
inv involute function

4.2 Pitch Diameter and Center Distance

As already mentioned in par. 2.4, the pitch diameters for a meshing gear pair are tangent at a point on the line-of-centers called
the pitch point. See figure 1.4. The pitch point always divides the line of centers proportional to the number of teeth in each gear.
Center distance = C = D1 + D2 = N1 + N2
2
2Pd

(5)

and the pitch-circle dimensions are related as follows:

D1 = R1 = N1
(6)
D2 R2 N2
4.3 Velocity Ratio
The gear ratio, or velocity ratio, can be obtained from several different parameters:
Z = D1 = N1 = 1
(7)
D2 N2
2
The ratio, Z, in this equation is the ratio of the angular velocity of gear 2 to that of gear 1.
4.4 Pressure Angle
The pressure angle is defined as the angle between the line- of-action (common tangent to the base circles in Figs. 1.3 and 1.4)
and a perpendicular to the line-of-centers. See Figure 1.14. From the, geometry of these figures, it is obvious that the pressure
angle varies (slightly) as the cen distance of a gear pair is altered. The base circle is related to the pressure angle and pitch
dinmeter by the equation:
Db = D cos
Db = D cos

where D and are the standard values or alternately,

where D and are the exact operating values.

(8)

This basic formula shows that the larger the pressure angle the smaller the base circle. Thus, for standard gears, 14 pressure
angle gears have base circles much nearer to the roots of teeth than 20 gears. It is for this reason that 14 gears encounter
greater undercutting problems than 20 gears. This is further elaborated on in section 4.8.
4.5 Tooth Thickness
This is measured along the pitch circle. For this reason it is specifically called the circular tooth thickness. This is shown in Figure
1.1. Tooth thickness is related to the pitch as follows:
T = Pc =
(9)
2
2Pd

T38

The tooth thickness (T2) at a given radius, R2, from the center can be found from a known value (T1) and known
pressure angle (1) at that radius (R1), as follows:
T2 = T1 R2 - 2R2 -2R2 (inv 2 - inv 1)
R1
where:
inv =tan - = involute function.

(10)

To save computing time involute-function tables have been computed and are available in the references. An abridged liting
is given in Table 1.5.
4.6 Measurement Over-Pins
Often tooth thickness is measured indirectly by gaging over pins which are placed in diametrically opposed tooth spaces, or the
nearest to it for odd numbered gear teeth. This is pictured in Figure 1.15.
For a specified tooth thickness the over-pins measurement, M, is calculated as follows:
For an even number of teeth:

M = D cos + dw
cos 1
For an odd number of teeth
M = D cos cos 90 + dw
cos 1
where the value of 1 is obtained from
inv 1 = T + inv +
dw
-
D
D cos

(11)

(12)

(13)

Tabulated values of over-pins measurements for standard gears are given in Table 1.6. This provides a rapid means for
calculating values of M, even for gears with slight departures trom standard tooth thicknesses.
When tooth thickness is to be calculated from a known over-pins measurement, M, the equations can be manipulated to
yield:
T = D ( + inv c - inv dw
)
(14)
N
D cos
where:
cos c = D cos
2Rc

(15)

for an even number of teeth:

Rc = M - dw
2
and for an odd number of teeth:
Rc =
M - dw
2 cos 90
N

(16)
(17)

T39

TABLE 1.5 INVOLUTE FUNCTONS

Inv = tan - for values of from 10 to 40
Degrees

10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40

0
0.00180
0.00239
0.00312
0.00398
0.00488
0.00615
0.00750
0.00902
0.01076
0.01272
0.01490
0.01734
0.02006
0.02304
0.02635
0.02998
0.03394
0.03829
0.04302
0.04816
0.05375
0.05981
0.06636
0.07345
0.08110
0.08934
0.09822
0.10778
0.11806
0.12911
0.14097

Minutes
24
0.00202
0.00267
0.00344
0.00436
0.00543
0.00667
0.00809
0.00969
0.01142
0.01357
0.01585
0.01840
0.02122
0.02433
0.02776
0.03152
0.03563
0.04013
0.04503
0.05034
0.05612
0.16237
0.06913
0.07644
0.08432
0.09281
0.01096
0.11180
0.12238
0.13375
0.14595

12
0.00191
0.00253
0.00328
0.00417
0.00520
0.00640
0.00779
0.00935
0.01113
0.01314
0.01537
0.01786
0.02063
0.02368
0.02705
0.03074
0.03478
0.03920
0.04402
0.04924
0.05492
0.06108
0.06773
0.07493
0.08270
0.09106
0.10008
0.10978
0.12020
0.12141
0.14344
T40

36
0.00214
0.00281
0.00362
0.00457
0.00566
0.00694
0.00839
0.01004
0.01191
0.01400
0.01634
0.01894
0.02182
0.02499
0.02849
0.03232
0.03650
0.04108
0.04606
0.05146
0.05733
0.06368
0.07055
0.07797
0.08597
0.09459
0.10388
0.11386
0.12459
0.13612
0.14850

48
0.00226
0.00296
0.00379
0.00476
0.00590
0.00721
0.00870
0.01039
0.01231
0.01444
0.01683
0.01949
0.02242
0.02566
0.02922
0.03313
0.03739
0.04204
0.04710
0.05260
0.05856
0.06502
0.07199
0.07952
0.08765
0.09639
0.10582
0.11594
0.12683
0.13853
0.15108

T41

T42

T43

4.7 Contact Ratio

To assure smooth continuous tooth action, as one pair of teeth ceases contact a succeeding pair of teeth must already have come
into engagement. It is desired to have as much overlap as possible. A measure of this overlapping action is the contact ratio. This
is a ratio of the length of the line-of-action to the base pitch. Figure 1.16 shows the geometry. The length-of-action is determined
from the intersection of the length-of-action arid the outside radii. The ratio of the length-of-action to the base pitch is
determined from:
mp = (Ro - Rb) +(ro - rb) - Csin
(18)
Pc COS
It is good practice to maintain a contact ratio of 1.2 or greater. Under no circumstances should the ratio drop below 1.1,
calculated for all tolerances at their worst-case values.
A contact ratio between 1 and 2 means that part of the time two pairs of teeth are in contact and during the remaining time
one pair is in contact. A ratio between 2 and 3 means 2 or 3 pairs of teeth are always in contact. Such as high contact ratio
generally is not obtained with external spur gears, but can be developed in the meshing of an internal and external spur gear pair
or specially designed non-standard external spur gears.
4.8 Undercutting
From Figure 1.16 it can be seen that the maximum length of the line-of-contact is limited to the length of the common tangent.
Any tooth addendum that extends beyond the tangent points (T and T') is not only useless, but interferes with the root fillet area
of the mating tooth. This results in the typical undercut tooth, shown in Figure 1.17. The undercut not only weakens the tooth
with a wasp-like waist, but also removes some of the useful involute adjacent to the base circle.

From the geometry of the limiting length-of-contact (T-T', Figure 1.16) it is evident that interference is first encountered by the
addenda of the gear teeth digging into the mating-pinion tooth flanks. Since addenda are standardized by a fixed ratio (1/Pd) the
interference condition becomes more severe as the number of teeth on the gear increases. The limit is reached when the gear
becomes a rack. This is a realistic case since the hob is a rack-type cutter. The result is that standard gears with
T44

tooth numbers below a critical value are automatically undercut in the generating process. The limiting number of teeth in a gear
meshing with a rack is given by the expression:
Nc =
2
(19)
sin

This indicates the minimum number of teeth free of undercutting decreases with increasing Pressure angle. For 14 the
value of Nc is 32, and for 20 it is 18. Thus, 200 pressure angle gears with low numbers of teeth have the advantage of much
less undercutting and, therefore, are both stronger and smoother acting.
4.9 Enlarged Pinions
Undercutting of pinion teeth is undesirable because of losses of strength, contact ratio and smoothness of
action. The seventy of these faults depends upon how far below N, the tooth number is. Undercutting for the first few numbers is
small and in many applications its adverse effects can be neglected.

For very small numbers of teeth, such as ten and smaller, and for
high-precision applications, undercutting should be avoided. This is achieved by
pinion enlargement (or correction as often termed), wherein the pinion teeth, still
generated with a standard cutter, are shifted radially ourward to form a full
involute tooth free of undercut The tooth is enlarged both radially and
circumferentially. Comparison of a tooth form before and after enlargement is
shown in Figure 1.18.
The details of enlarged pinion design, mating gear design and, in general,
profile-shifted gears is a large and involved subject beyond the scope of this
writing. References 1, 3, 5 and 6 offer additional information. For measurement
and inspection Figure 1.18 Comparison of such gears, in particular, consult
reference 5.

4.10 Backlash Calculation

Up to this point the discussion has implied that there is no backlash. If the gears are of standard tooth proportion design and
operate on standard center distance they would function ideally with neither backlash nor jamming.
Backlash is provided for a variety of reasons and cannot be designated without consideration of machining conditions. The
general purpose of backlash is to prevent gears from jamming and making contact on both sides of their teeth simultaneously. A
small amount of backlash is also desirable to provide for lubricant space and differential expansion between the gear components
and the housing. Any error in machining which tends to increase the possibility of jamming makes it necessary to increase the
amount of backlash by at least as much as the errors. Consequently, the smaller the amount of backlash, the more accurate
must be the machining of the gears. Runout of both gears, errors in profile, pitch, tooth thickness, helix angle and center
distance all are factors to consider in the specification of the amount of backlash. On the other hand, excessive backlash is
objectionable, particularly if the drive is frequently reversing or if there is an overrunning load. The amount of backlash must not
be excessive for the requirements of the job, but it should be sufficient so that machining costs are not higher than necessary.
In order to obtain the amount of backlash desired, it is necessary to decrease tooth thickness (see Figure 1.19). This
decrease must almost always be greater than the desired backlash because of
T45

the errors in manufacturing and assembling. Since the amount of the decrease in tooth thickness depends upon the accuracy of
machining, the allowance for a specified backlash will vary according to the manufacturing conditions.
It is customary to make half of the allowance for backlash on the tooth thickness of each gear of a pair, although there are
exceptions. For example, on pinions having very low numbers of teeth, it is desirable to provide all of the allowance on the
mating gear so as not to weaken the pinion teeth.

In spur and helical gearing, backlash allowance is usually obtained by sinking the hob deeper into the blank than the
theoretically standard depth. Further, it is true that any increase or decrease in center distance of two gears in any mesh will
cause an increase or decrease in backlash. Thus, this is an alternate way of designing backlash into the system.
In the following we give the fundamental equations for the determination of backlash in a single gear mesh. For the
determination of backlash in gear trains, it is necessary to sum the backlash of each mated gear pair. However, to obtain the
total backlash for a series of meshes it is necessary to take into account the gear ratio of each mesh relative to a chosen
reference shaft in the gear train. For details see Reference 5.
Backlash is defined in Figure 1.20a as the excess thickness of tooth space over the thickness of the mating tooth. There are
two basic ways in which backlash arises: Tooth thickness is below the zero-backlash value; and the operating center distance is
greater than the zero-backlash value.
If the tooth thickness of either or both mating gears is less than the zero-backlash value, the amount of backlash
introduced in the mesh is simply this numerical difference:
B = Tstd - Tact = T
(20)
where:
B
= linear backlash measured along the pitch circle (Figure 1.20b)
Tstd = no backlash tooth thickness on the operating-pitch circle, which is the standard teeth
thickness for ideal gears
Tact = actual tooth thickness
T46

When the center distance is increased by a relatively small amount, C, a backlash space develops
between mating teeth, as in Figure 1.21. The relationship between center distance increase and linear
backlash, BLA, along the line of action, is:
BLA = 2(C)sin

(21)

This measure along the line-of-action is useful when inserting a feeler gage between teeth to measure backlash.
The equivalent linear backlash measured along the pitch circle is given by:
B = 2(C) tan

(22a)

where:
C = change in center distance
= pressure angle
Hence, an approximate relationship between center distance change and change in backlash is:

C= 1.933 B for 14 pressure-angle gears

C= 1.374 B for 20 pressure-angle gears

(22b)
(22c)
T47

Although these are approximate relationships they are adequate for most uses. Their derivation, limitations, and correction
factors are detailed in Reference 5.
Note that backlash due to center distance opening is dependent upon the tangent function of the pressure angle. Thus, 20
gears have 41% more backlash than 14 gears, and this constitutes one of the few advantages of the lower pressure angle.
Equations 22 are a useful relationship, particularly for converting to angular backlash. Also for fine-pitch gears the use of
feeler gages for measurement is impractical, whereas an indicator at the pitch line gives a direct measure. The two linear
backlashes are related by:
BLA

(23)

B = _____
cos
The angular backlash at the gear shaft is usually the critical factor in the gear application. As seen
from Figure 1.20a this is related to the gears pitch radius as follows:
B
(24)

aB = 3440

____ (arc minutes)

R1

Obviously, angular backlash is inversely proportional to gear radius. Also, since the two meshing gears are usually of
different pitch diameters, the linear backlash of the measure converts to different angular values for each gear. Thus, an angular
backlash must be specified with reference to a particular shaft or gear center.
4.11 Summary of Gear Mesh Fundamentals
The basic geometric relationships of gears and meshed pairs given in the above sections are summarized in Table 1.7.
T48

To Obtain

TABLE 1.7 SUMMARY OF FUNDAMENTALS

SPUR GEARS
From Known

Pitch diameter

Number of teeth and pitch

Circular Pitch

Diametral pitch or number of

teeth and pitch diameter

Diametral pitch

Circular pitch or number of

teeth and pitch diameter

Number of teeth

Pitch and pitch diameter

Outside diameter

Pitch and pitch diameter or

pitch and number of teeth

Root diameter

Pitch diameter and dedendum

Base circle diameter

Pitch diameter and pressure angle

Base pitch

Circular pitch and pressure angle

Tooth thickness at
standard pitch diameter

Circular pitch

Addendum

Diametral pitch

Center distance

Pitch diameters Or number

of teeth and pitch

Contact ratio

Outside radii, base radii, center

distance and pressure angle

Backlash (linear)
Backlash (linear)
Backlash (linear)
along line of acvon

==
Pd

D
N

=N
Pc D
N =DPd = D
Pc

Pd =

Do =D + 2 = N+2
Pd Pd
DR = D - 2b
Db=D cos
Pb = Pc cos
Tstd = Pc = D
2
2N
a= 1
Pd
C=D1+D2=N1+N2=Pc(N1+N2)
2
2Pd
2

From change in center distance

From change in tooth thickness
Linear backlash along pitch cirde

BLA = B cos

Linear backlash

Minimum number of
teeth for no undercutting

Pressure angle

Clearance
Working depth
Pressure angle
( standard )
Operating pressure
angle

Pc

mp = (Ro-Rb)+(ro-rb)-C sin
Pc cos
B = 2 (C) tan
B = T

Backlash, angular

Dedendum

Symbol and Formula

D = N = NPc
Pd

Pitch diameter and

root diameter ( DR )
Addendum and dedendum
Addendum
Base circle diameter and pitch
diameter
Actual operating pitch diameter
and base circle diameter
T49

aB = 6880 B (arc minutes)

D
N=
2
sin
b = (D-DR)
c=b-a
hk = 2a
=cos-1 Db/D
=cos-1 Db/D'

TABLE 1.7 CONT. - SUMMARY OF FUNDAMENTALS

HELICAL GEARING
To Obtain

From Known

Symbol and Formula

Normal circular pitch

Transverse circular pitch

Pcn = Pc cos

Normal diametral pitch

Transverse diametral pitch

Axial pitch

Circular pitches

Pa = Pc cot = Pcn
sin

Normal pressure angle

Transverse pressure angle

tan n = tan cos

Pitch diameter

Number of teeth and pitch

Center distance
(parallel shafts)

Number of teeth and pitch

C = N1 + N2
2 Pdn cos

Center distance
(crossed shafts)

Number of teeth and pitch

C= 1
( N1 + N2
)
2 Pdn
cos 1
cos 2

Shaft angle
(Crssed shafts)

Helix angles of 2 mated gears

= 1 + 2

Addendum

Pitch; or outside and pitch

diameters

a = 0.5 ( Do - D ) = 1
Pd

Dedendum

Pitch diameter and root

diameter (DR)

b = 0.5 ( D - DR )

Clearance

Addendum and dedendum

c = b-a

Working depth

Addendum

hk = 2a

Transverse pressure
angle

Base circle diameter and

pitch circle diameter

cos t = Db / D

Pitch helix angle

Number of teeth,
normal diametral pitch and
pitch diameter

cos = N
Pn D

Lead

Pitch diameter and

pitch helix angle

L = D cos

To Obtain

Symbols

Spur or Helical Gears ( g gear; p = pinion)

Length of action

ZA

ZA = (C - (Rb+rb)) (maximum)
ZA = (Ro-Rb) (ro-rb-C sin r)

Start of active profile

SAP

SAPp = -(Ro-Rb)
SAPg = Zmax-(ro-rb)

Contact ratio

Rc

Rcg = ((SAP) + Rb); Rcp = ((SAP) + rb)

Pdn =

D =

Pd
cos

N =
Pd

N
Pdn cos

INVOLUTE GEAR PAIRS

T50

To Obtain

TABLE 1.7 CONT. - SUMMARY OF FUNDAMENTALS

WORM MESHES
From Known

Pitch diameter of worm

Number of teeth and pitch

Pitch diameter of
worm gear

Number of teeth and pitch

Lead angle

Pitch, diameter, teeth

Lead of worm

Number of teeth and pitch

Normal circular pitch

Transverse pitch and lead angle

Center distance

Pitch diameters

Center distance

Pitch, lead angle, teeth

Velocity ratio

Number of teeth

To Obtain

BEVEL GEARING
From Known

Symbol and Formula

dw = nw Pcn
p sin
Dg = Ng Pcn
cos
-1
= tan
nw = sin-1 nw Pcn
Pddw
pdw
L = nwpc = nw pcn
cos
Pcn = Pc cos
C = dw + Dg
2
C = Pcn [ Ng + nw ]
2
cos
sin
Z = Ng
nw
Symbol and Formula
Z = N1
N2

Velocity ratio

Number of teeth

Velocity ratio

Pitch diameters

Z = D1
D2

Velocity ratio

Pitch angles

Z = sin 1
sin 2

Shaft angle

Pitch angles

= 1 + 2

T51

5.0 HELICAL GEARS

The helical gear differs from the spur gear in that its teeth are twisted along a helical path in the axial direction. It resembles the
spur gear in the plane of rotation, but in the axial direction it is as if there were a series of staggered spur gears. See Figure 1.22.
This design brings forth a number of different features relative to the spur gear, two of the most important being as follows:

1. tooth strength is improved because of the elongated helical wrap around

tooth base support.
2. contact ratio is increased due to the axial tooth overlap. Helical gears thus
tend to have greater load-carrying capactiy than spur gears of the same size.
Spur gears, on the other hand, have a somewhat higher efficiency.
Helical gears are used in two forms:
1. Parallel shaft applications, which is the largest usage.
2. Crossed-helicals (or spiral gears) for connecting skew shafts, usually at tight
angles.

5.1 Generation of the Helical Tooth

The helical tooth form is involute in the plane of rotation and can be developed in a manner similar to that of the spur gear.
However, unlike the spur gear which can be viewed essentially as two dimensional, the helical gear must be portrayed in three
dimensions to show changing axial features.
Referring to Figure 1.23, there is a base cylinder from which a taut plane is unwrapped, analogous to the unwinding taut
string of the spur gear in Figure 12. On the plane there is a straight line AB, which when wrapped on the base cylinder has a
helical trace AoBo. As the taut plane is unwrapped any point on the line AB can be visualized as tracing an involute from the base
cylinder. Thus, there is an infinite series of involutes generated by line AB, all alike, but displaced in phase along a helix on the
base cylinder.
Again a concept analogous to the spur-gear tooth development is to imagine the taut plane being wound from one base
cylinder on to another as the base cylinders rotate in opposite directions. The result is the generation of a pair of conjugate
helical involutes. If a reverse direction of rotation is assumed and a second tangent plane is arranged so that it crosses the first, a
complete involute helicoid tooth is formed.

T52

5.2 Fundamental of Helical Teeth

In tho piano of rotation the helical gear tooth is involute and all of the relationships govorning spur gears apply to the helical.
However, tho axial twist of the teeth introduces a holix anglo. Since the helix angle varies from the base of the tooth to the
outside radnjs, the helix angle, w~ is detned as the angle between the tangent to the helicoidal tooth at the intersection of the
pitch cylinder and the tooth profile, and an element of the pitch cylinder. See Figure 1.24.
The direction of the helical twist is designated as either left or right. The direction is defined by the right-hand rule.
5.3 Helical Gear Relationships
For helical gears there are two related pitches: one in the plane of rotation and the other in a plane normal to the tooth. In
addition there is an axial pitch. These are defined and related as follows: Referring to Figure 1.25, the two circular pitches are
related as follows:
Pcn = Pc cos = normal circular pitch

(25)

The normal circular pitch is less than the transverse or circular pitch in the plane of rotation, the ratio between the two being
equal to the cosine of the helix angle. Consistent with this, the normal diametral pitch is greater than the transverse pitch:
Pdn =

Pd
= normal diametral pitch
cos

(26)

The axial pitch of a helical gear is the distance between corresponding points of adjacent teeth measured parallel to the
gears axissee Figure 1.26. Axial pitch, p1. is related to circular pitch by the expressions:
Pa = Pc cot = Pcn = axial pitch
sin

(27)

T53

5.4 Equivalent Spur Gear

The true involute pitch and involute geometry of a helical gear is that in the plane of rotation. However, in the normal plane, looking
at one tooth, there is a resemblance to an involute tooth of a pitch corresponding to the normal pitch. However, the shape of the
tooth corresponds to a spur gear of a larger number of teeth, the exact value depending on the magnitude of the helix angle.

The geometric basis of deriving the number of teeth in this equivalent tooth
form spur gear is given in Figure 1.27. The result of the transposed geometry
is an equivalent number of teeth given as:
NV = N
(28)
cos
This equivalent number is also called a virtual number because this spur
gear is imaginary. The value of this number is its use in determining helical
tooth strength.

5.5 Pressure Angle

Although strictly speaking, pressure angle exists only for a gear pair, a nominal pressure angle can be considered for an individual
gear. For the helical gear there is a normal pressure angle as well as the usual pressure angle in the plane of rotation. Figure 1.28
shows their relationship, which is expressed as:
tan = tan n
(29)
cos
5.6 Importance of Normal Plane Geometry
Because of the nature of tooth generation with a rack-type hob, a single tool can generate helical gears at all helix angles as well as
spur gears. However, this means the normal pitch is the common denominator, and usually is taken as a standard value. Since the
true involute features are in the transverse plane, they will differ from the standard normal values. Hence, there is a real need for
relating parameters in the two reference planes.
T54

5.7 Helical Tooth Proportions

These follow the same standards as those for spur gears. Addendum, dedendum, whole depth and clearance are the same
regardless of whothor measured in tho piano of rotation er the normal piano. Pressure angle and pitch are usually specified as
standard values in tho normal plane, but there are times when they are specified standard in the transverse plane.
5.8 Parallel Shaft Helical Gear Meshes
Fundamental information for the design of gear meshes is as follows:
5.8.1 Helix angle Both gears of a meshed pair must have the same helix angle. However, the
helix directions must be opposite, i.e., a left-hand mates with a right-hand helix.
5.8.2 Pitch dIameter This is given by the same expression as for spur gears, but if the normal
pitch is involved it is a function of the helix angle. The expressions are:
D=N=
N
(30)
Pd
Pdn cos
5.8.3 Center distance Utilizing equation 30, the center distance of a helical gear mesh is:
C = ( N1+N2 )
(31)
2 Pdn cos
Note that for standard parameters in the normal plane, the center distance will not be a standard value compared to
standard spur gears. Further, by manipulating the helix angle () the center distance can be adjusted over a wide range of
values. Conversely, it is possible
a. to compensate for significant center distance changes (or erors) without changing the speed ratio between parallel geared
shafts; and
b. to alter the speed ratio between parallel geared shafts without changing center distance by manipulating helix angle along with
tooth numbers.
5.8.4 Contact Ratio The contact ratio of helical gears is enhanced by the axial overlap of the teeth. Thus, the contact ratio is
the sum of the transverse contact ratio, calculated in the same manner as for spur gears (equation 18), and a term involving the
axial pitch.
(mp)total = (mp)trans + (mp)axial
(32)
where
T55

New Page 4
(mp)trans = value per equation 18
(mp)axial = F = F tan = F sin
Pa
Pc
Pcn
and F = face width of gear.
5.8.5 Involute interference Helical gears cut with standard normal pressure angles can have considerably higher pressure
angles in the plane of rotation (see equation 29), depending on the helix angle. Therefore, referring to equation 19, the minimum
number of teeth without undercutting can be significantly reduced and helical gears having very low tooth numbers without
undercutting are feasible.
5.9 Crossed Helical Gear Meshes
These are also known as spiral and screw gears. They are used for interconnecting skew shafts, such as in Figure 1.29. They can
be designed to connect shafts at any angle, but in most applications the shafts are at right angles.
5.9.1 Helix angle and hands The helix angles need not be the same. However, their sum must equal the shaft
angle:
1 + 2 =
(33)
where:
1, 2 = the respective helix angles of the two gears

= shaft angle (the acute angle between the two shafts when viewed in a direction parallel
ing a common perpendicular between the shafts)
Except for very small shaft angles, the helix hands are the same.
5.9.2 Pitch Because of the possibility of ditferent helix angles for the gear pair, the transverse pitches may not be the same.
However, the normal pitches must always be identical.

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file:///C|/A3/D190/HTML/D190T56.htm [9/30/2000 10:10:44 AM]

5.9.3 Center Distance The pitch diameter of a crossed-helical gear is given by equation 30, and the center distance
becomes:
C = 1 ( N1 +
N2 )
(34)
2Pdn
cos 1
cos 2
Again it is possible to adjust the center distance by manipulating the helix angle. However, both gear helix angles must be
altered consistently in accordance with equation 33.
5.9.4 Velocity ratio Unlike spur and parallel shaft helical meshes the velocity ratio (gear ratio) cannot be determined from
the ratio of pitch diameters, since these can be altered by juggling of helix angles. The speed ratio can be determined only from
the number of teeth as follows:
velocity ratio Z = N1
(35)
N2
or if pitch diameters are introduced the relationship is:
Z = D1 cos 1
(36)
D2 cos 2
5.10 Axial Thrust of Helical Gears
In both parallel-shaft and crossed shaft applications helical gears develop an axial thrust load. This is a useless force that loads
gear teeth and bearings and must accordingly be considered in the housing and bearing design. In some special instrument
designs this thrust load can be utilized to actuate face clutches, provide a friction drag, or other special purpose. The magnitude
of the thrust load depends on the helix angle and is given by the expression:
WT =Wt tan

(37)

where:
WT = axial thrust load
Wt = transmitted load
The direction of the thrust load is related to the hand of the gear and the direction of rotation. This is depicted in Figure 1.29.
When the helix angle is larger than about 20, the use of double helical gears with opposite hands (Figure 1 .30b) or herringbone
gears (Figure 1.30a) is worth considering.

T57

6.0 RACKS
Gear racks (Figure 1.31) are important components in that they are a means of converting rotational motion into linear motion.
In theory the rack is a gear with infinite pitch diameter, resulting in an involute profile that is essentially a straight line, and the
tooth is of simple V form. Racks can be both spur and helical. A rack will mesh with all gears of the same pitch. Backlash is
computed by the same formula as for gear pairs, equation 22. However, the pressure angle and the gears pitch radius remain
constant regardless of changes in the relative position of the gear and rack. Only the pitch line shifts accordingly as the gear
center is altered. See Figure 1.32.

7.0 INTERNAL GEARS

A special feature of spur and helical gears is their capability of being made in an internal form, in which an internal gear mates
with an ordinary external gear. This offers considerable versatility in the design of planetary gear trains and miscellaneous
instrument packages.
7.1 Development of the Internal Gear
The gears considered so far can be imagined as equivalent pitch circle friction discs which roll on each other with external contact
If instead, one of the pitch circles rolls on the inside of the ether, it forms the basis of internal gearing. In addition, the larger
gear must have the material forming the teeth on the convex side of the involute profile, such that the internal gear is an inverse
of the common external gear, see Figure 1.33a.
The base circles, line of action and development of the involute profiles and action are shown in Figure 1.33b. As with spur
gears there is a taut generating string that winds and unwinds between the base circles. However, in this case the string does not
cross the line of centers, and actual contact and involute development occurs on an extension of the common tangent. Otherwise,
action parallels that for external spur gears.
T58

7.2 Tooth Parts of Internal Gear

Because the internal gear is reversed relative to the external gear, the tooth parts are also reversed relative to the ordinary
(external) gear. This is shown in Figure 1.34. Tooth proportions and standards are the same as for external gears except that the
addendum of the gear is reduced to avoid trimming of the teeth in the fabrication process.

T59

Tooth thickness of the internal gear can be calculated with equations 9 and 20, but one must remember that the tooth and space
thicknesses are reversed, (see Figure 1.35). Also, in using equation 10 to calculate tooth thickness at various radii, (see Figure
1.36), it is the tooth space that is calculated and the internal gear tooth thickness is obtained by a subtraction from the circular
pitch at that radius, Thus, applying equation 10 to Figure 1.36,

7.3 Teeth Thickness Measurement

In a procedure similar to that used for external gears, tooth thickness can be measured indirectly by gaging with pins, but this
time the measurement is "under" the pins, as shown in Figure 1.37. Equations 11 thru 13 are modified accordingly to yield:
For an even number of teeth:
M= 2 ( Rc - dw )
(38)
2
For an odd number of teeth:
M = 2(Rc cos 90 - dw )
(39)
N
2
inv 1=inv + - T - dw
N
D
Dcos
where:
Rc = cos R
cos 1
T60

7.4 Features of Internal Gears

General advantages:
1. Lend to compact design since the center distance is less than for external gears.
2. A high contact ratio is possible.
3. Good surface endurance due to a convex profile surface working against a concave surface.
General disadvantages:
1. Housing and bearing supports are more complicated, because the external gear nests
within the internal gear.
2. Low velocity ratios are unsuitable and in many cases impossible because of interferences.
3. Fabrication is limited to the shaper generating process, and usually special tooling is required.
8.0 WORM MESH
The worm mesh is another gear type used for connecting skew shafts, usually 90, see Figure 1.38. Worm meshes are
characterized by high velocity ratios. Also, they offer the advantage of the higher load
capacity associated with their line contact in contrast to the point contact of the crossed-helical mesh
8.1 Worm Mesh Geometry
The worm is equivalent to a V-type screw thread, as evident from Figure 1.39. The mating worm-gear teeth have a helical lead. A
central section of the mesh, taken through the worms axis and perpendicular to the wormgears axis, as shown in Figure 1.39,
reveals a rack-type tooth for the worm, and a curved involute tooth form for the wormgear. However, the involute features are
only true for the central section. Sections on either side of the worm axis reveal non-symmetric and non-involute tooth profiles.
Thus, a worm-gear mesh is not a true involute mesh. Also, for conjugate action the center distance of the mesh must be an exact
duplicate of that used in generating the wormgear. To increase the length of action the wormgear is made of a throated shape to
wrap around the Worm.
T61

8.2 Worm Tooth Proportions

Worm tooth dimensions, such as addendum, dedendum, pressure angle, etc., follow the same standards as those for spur and
helical gears. The standard values apply to the central section of the mesh, (see Figure 1.40a). A high pressure angle is favored
and in some applications values as high as 25 and 30 are used.
8.3 Number of Threads
The worm can be considered resembling a helical gear with a high helix angle. For extremely high helix angles, there is one
continuous tooth or thread. For slightly smaller angles them can be two, three, or even more threads. Thus, a worm is
characterized by the number of threads, nw.
8.4 Worm and Wormgear Calculations
Referring to Figure 1.40b and recalling the relationships established for normal and transverse pitches in Par.5, the following
defines the geometry of worm mesh components.
T62

8.4.1 Pitch Diameters, Lead snd Lead Angle

Pitch diameter of worm = dw = nw Pcn
sin

(40)

Pitch diameter of wormgear = Dg = Ng Pcn

cos

(41)

where:
nw = number of threads of worm
L = lead of worm = nwpc = nw Pcn
cos
= lead angle = tan-1 nw
Pddw
= sin-1 nw Pcn
dw

Pcn = Pc cos

8.4.2 Center Distance of Mesh

c = dw + Dg = Pcn [ Ng
2

cos

nw ]
sin

(42)

T63

8.5 Velocity Ratio

The gear ratio of a worm mesh cannot be calculated from the ratio of the pitch diameters. It can be determined only from the
ratio of tooth numbers:
velocity ratio = Z = no. teeth in worm gear =
no. threads in worm

Ng

(43)

9.0 BEVEL GEARING

For intersecting shafts, bevel gears offer a good means of transmitting motion and power. Most transmissions occur at right
angles (Figure 1.41), but the shaft angle can be any value. Ratios up to 4:1 are common, although higher ratios are possible as
well.

9.1 Development and Geometry of Bevel Gears

Bevel gears have tapered elements because they can be generated by rolling cones, their pitch surfaces lying on the surface of a
sphere. Pitch diameters of mating bevel gears belong to frusta of cones, as shown in Figure 1.42. In the full development on the
surface of a sphere, a pair of meshed bevel gears and a crown gear are in conjugate engagement as shown in Figure 1.43.
The crown gear, which is a bevel gear having the largest possible pitch angle (defined in Figure 1.43), is analogous to the rack
of spur gearing, and is the basic tool for generating bevel gears. However, for practical reasons the tooth form is not that of a
spherical involute, and instead, the crown gear profile assumes a slightly simplified form. Although the deviation from a true
spherical involute is minor, it results in a line of action having a figure-S trace in its extreme extension, see Figure 1.44. This
shape gives rise to the name "octoid" for the tooth form of modem bevel gears.

T64

T65

9.2 Bevel Gear Tooth Proportions

Bevel gear teeth are proportioned in accordance with the standard system of tooth proportions used for spur gears. However, the
pressure angle of all standard design bevel gears is limited to 200. Pinions with a small number of teeth are enlarged
automatically when the design follows the Gleason system.
Since bevel-tooth elements are tapered, tooth dimensions and pitch diameter are referenced to the outer end (heel). Since
the narrow end of the teeth (toe) vanishes at the pitch apex (center of reference generating sphere) there is a practical limit to
the length (face) of a bevel gear. The geometry and identification of bevel gear parts is given in Figure 1.45.
9.3 Velocity Ratio
The velocity ratio can be derived from the ratio of several parameters:
velocity ratio = Z = N1 = D1 =
N2

sin 1
D2

(44)
sin 2

where:

= pitch angle (Figure 1.45)

T66

In the simplest design the tooth elements are straight radial, converging at the cone apex. However, it is possible to have the
teeth curve along a spiral as they converge on the cone apex, resulting in greater tooth overlap, analogous to the overlapping
action of helical teeth. The result is a spiral bevel tooth. In addition, there are other possible variations. One is the zerol bevel,
which is a curved tooth having elements that start and end on the same radial line.
Straight bevel gears come in two variations depending upon the fabrication equipment. All current Gleason straight bevel
generators are of the Ceniflex form which gives an almost imperceptible convexity to the tooth surfaces. Older machines produce
true straight elements.. See Figure 1 .46a. Straight bevel gears are the simplest and most widely used type of bevel gear for the
transmission of power and/or motion between intersecting shafts. Straight-bevel gears are recommended:
1. When speeds are less than 1000 fpm at higher speeds, straight bevel gears may be noisy.
2. When loads are light, or for high static loads when surface wear is not a critical factor.
3. When space, gear weight, and mountings are a premium. This includes planetary gear
sets, where space does not permit the inclusion of rolling-element bearings. In this case
ground gears are a necessity.
Other forms of bevel gearing include the following:
Conii1ex gears (Figure 1.46b) are made in special straight-bevel gear-cutting machines that crown the sides of the teeth in
their lengthwise direction. The teeth, therefore, tolerate small amounts of misalignment in the assembly of the gears and some
displacement of the gears under load without concentrating the tooth contact at the ends of the teeth. As a result, these gears
are capable of transmitting heavier loads than the straight bevel gears under the same operating conditions.
Spiral bevels (Figure 1.46c) have curved oblique teeth which contact each other gradually and smoothly from one end to the
other. Imagine cutting a straight bevel into an infinite number of short face-width sections, angularly displace one relative to the
other, and one has a spiral bevel gear. Well-designed spiral bevels have two or more teeth in contact at all times. The
overlapping tooth action transmits motion more smoothly and quietly than with straight bevel gears.
Zerol bevels (Figure 1.46d) have curved teeth similar to these of the spiral bevels, but with zero spiral angle at the middle of
the face width; and they have lithe end thrust.
Both spiral and Zerol gears can be cut on the same machines with the same circular face-mill cutters or ground on the same
grinding machines. Both are produced with localized tooth contact which can be controlled for length, width, and shape.
Functionally, however, Zerol bevels are similar to the straight bevels and thus carry the same ratings. In fact, Zerols can be
used in the place of of straight bevels without mounting changes. Zerol bevels are widely employed in the aircraft industry, where
ground-tooth precision gears are generally required. Most hypoid cutting machines can cut spiral bevel, Zerol or hypoid gears.

________

The material in this paragraph has been reprinted with the permission of McGraw Hill Book Co., Inc.,
New York, N.Y. from Design of Bevel Gears by W. Coleman, Gear Design and Applications, N.
Chironis, Editor, McGraw Hill, New York, N.Y. 1967, p.57.
T67

10.0 GEAR TYPE EVALUATION

The choice of gear type is dependent upon a number of considerations involving physical space and shaft arrangement, load, gear
ratio, and desired precision or quality level. A general guide is to choose the simplest gear type that can accomplish the
objectives.
Spur gears are the first choice if they can do the job, as they are the easiest to make. That means they are the least
expensive and, if required, can be made to the highest precision. Helical gears are slightly more complicated than straight spurs,
but are the choice if loads and speeds are demanding. Helicals are superior to spurs in load capacity. Also, they offer avoidance of
undercutting in small tooth number pinions; and helicals can be designed to neatly span non-standard center distances. Crossed
helicals are an acceptable skew shaft drive only if the loads are small. Worm gearing and bevels offer right angle drives for skew
and intersecting shafts respectively. Each offers special features and advantages if needed.
Internal gears can fill a real need nicely, but they should only be used when the application requires their unique feature.
Special gears such as spiroid, helicon beveleid and face should be avoided as much as possible because of limited features,
complex forms to produce and inspect, limited fabrication sources, and relative high cost.
Table 1.8 summarizes comments and evaluations of the various gear types.
11.0 CRITERIA OF GEAR QUALITY
In addition to the sizing of gear parameters, it is necessary to ensure that their specifications and manufacture result in the
desired gear quality, This includes not only tolerances, but an understanding of what compromises gear quality.
11.1 Basic Gear Formats
Specification of a gear requires a drawing that shows details of the gear body, the mounting design, face width, any special
features, and the fundamental and essential gear data. This gear data can be efficiently and consistently specified on the gear
drawing in a standardized block format. The format varies in accordance with gear type. A typical data block for standard
fine-pitch spur gears is given in Figure 1.47. Formats for coarse pitch gears, helical gears and other gear types are given in detail
in the appendix of Ref. 5.
T68

Type
Spur

Helical

Crossed
- helical

Internal
spur

Bevel

Worm
mesh

Specials
(face,
Spiroid,
Helicon,
Beveloid)

TABLE 1.8 SUMMARY AND EVALUATION OF GEAR TYPES

Precision
Comments
Features
Applications
Rating
Regarding Precision
excellent Parallel shafting
Applicable to all
Simplest tooth elements offering max High speeds
types of trains and
imum precision. First choice, recom and loads
a wide range of
mended for all gear meshes, except
Highest efficiency
velocity ratios,
where very high speeds and loads or
special features of other types, such as
right - angle drive, cannot be avoided.
good
Parallel shafting
Most applicable to
Equivalent quality to spurs except for
Very high speeds
high speeds and
complication of helix angle.
and loads
loads; also used
Recommended for all high- speed
Efficiency slightly
wherever spurs
and high-load meshes. Axial thrust
less than spur mesh
are used.
component must be accommodated.
poor
Skewed shafting
Relatively low
To be avoided for precision meshes.
Point contact
velocity ratio;
Point contact limits capacity and precision.
High sliding
low speeds and
Suitable for right - angle drives if
low speeds
light loads only.
A less expensive substitute for bevel
light load.
Any angle
gears. Good lubrication essential because
skew shafts.
of point contact and high sliding action.
fair
Parallel shafts
Internal drives
Not recommended for precision meshes
High speeds
requiring high
because of design, fabricabon, and
High loads
speeds and high
inspection limitations. Should only be
loads; offers low
used when internal feature is necessary.
sliding and high
stress loading; good
for high capacity,
long tie. Used In
planetary gears to
produce large
reduction ratios.
fair to
Intersecting
Suitable for 1:1 and
Good choice for right-angle drive,
good
shafts
higher velocity
particularly low ratios. However,
High speeds
ratios and for rightcomptcaled tooth form and fabrication
High loads
angle mashes
limits achievement of precision.
(and other angles)
Should be located at one of the less
critical meshes of the train.
fair to
Right - angle
High velocity ratio
Worm can be made to high precision,
good
skew shafts
Angular meshes
but worm gear has inherent limitations.
High velocity
High loads
To be considered for average precision
ratio
meshes, but can be of high precision with
High speeds
care. Best choice for combination high
and loads
velocity ratio and right- angle drive. High
Low efficiency
sliding requires excellent lubrication.
Most designs
nonreversible
poor to
Intersecting and
Special cases
To be avoided as precision meshes. Sig fair
skew shafts
nificant nonconjugate action with depart
Modest speeds
ure from nominal center distance and
and loads
shaft angles. Fabrication requires special
equipment and inspection is limited.
T69

11.2 Tooth Thickness and Backlash

One of the most important criteria of gear quality is the specification and control of tooth thickness. As mentioned in Par. 4.10,
the magnitude of tooth thickness and its tolerance is a direct measure of backlash when the gear is assembled with its mate.
Although it is possible to set the tooth thickness and tolerance to any value within a wide range, convenient quality classes
have been established by AGMA in Gear Classification and Inspection Handbook (ANSI/AGMA 2000 - A88 ). This information is
reproduced in Table 1.9. The previous issue of this specification, (390.02), offered a more detailed table of backlash allowance
and tolerance which is still a useful design guide. See Table 1.10. Although no longer part of current AGMA standards, it is
consistent with Table 1.9.
Note that the data in Table 1.9 is for unassembled spur and helical gears; i.e. an individual gear. Backlash for a meshed gear
pair due to tooth thickness tolerance will be the sum of two values from Table 1.9, Most often the same tolerance is applied to
each gear of a meshed pair.
11.3 Position Error (or Transmission Error)
In many precision gear applications the transmission of motion from shaft-to shaft must have a high degree of linearity. This is
known by several names: transmission linearity, angular transmission accuracy, and index accuracy. Theoretically, involute gears
will function perfectly. However, in practice there are deviations from ideal motion transmission due to involute profile variations,
spacing errors, pitch line runout, and radial out-of-position. Combinations of all these errors cause a net position error, which is
transmitted to the instrument or machine involved.
T70

The single most important criterion of the above position errors is the total composite error of the gear (TCE). This is defined
simply as the maximum variation in center distance as the gear is rolled, intimately meshed with a master gear, on a
variable-center-distance fixture. The device has one floating center, and as the gears are rolled any eccentricity, tooth-to-tooth
variation, and profile deviation results in center distance variation. This variation can be measured and plotted, as shown in
Figure 1 .48.TheTCE parameter encompasses the combination of run out and tooth-to-tooth errors as indicated in Figure 1.48.
The latter, which is essentially the variation over a tooth cycle, is known as tooth-to-tooth composite error (TTCE).
Control of TCE and TTCE is achieved by specifying maximum values. Since TCE includes TTCE it is only necessary to specify
both when a finer control of the TFCE is desired.
The relationship between TCE and transmission error, ET, is adequately approximated by the expression:
ET = Etc

sin
2

, where = angular position of the gear

(45)

This relationship indicates that the position error fluctuates sinusoidally between maximum lead and lag values.
*TABLE1.9 TOOTH THICKNESS TOLERANCE, (tT) (ALL TOLERANCE VALUES IN INCHES)
FOR UNASSEMBELED SPUR AND HELICAL GEARS
Tolerance Codes
Quality
Diametral
Number
Pitch
A
B
C

3
and
4

7
thru
15

0.5

0.074

1.2

0.031

2.0

0.019

3.2

0.012

5.0

0.0075

0.5

0.074

1.2

0.031

2.0

0.019

0.0093

3.2

0.012

0.006

5.0

0.0075

0.0037

8.0

0.005

0.0025

0.5

0.074

1.2

0.031

2.0

0.019

0.0093

3.2

0.012

0.006

5.0

0.0075

0.0037

8.0

0.005

0.0037

12.0

0.003

0.0018

20.0

0.0024

0.0012

0.0006

32.0

0.0016

0.0008

0.00043

0.5

0.074

1.2

0.031

2.0

0.019

0.0093

0.0048

3.2

0.012

0.006

0.003

5.0

0.0075

0.0037

0.0019

8.0
12.0
20.0
32.0
50.0
80.0
120.0

0.005
0.003
0.0024
0.0016
0.0012
0.0008
0.00067

0.0025
0.0018
0.0012
0.0008
0.0006
0.00045
0.00034

0.00125
0.0009
0.0006
0.00043
0.0003
0.00022
0.00017

0.00063
0.00044
0.0003
0.0002
0.00014
0.00011
0.00009

*Extracted from AGMA Standard 2000-ABB, Gear Classification and Inspection Handbook Tolerances and Measuring Methods for
Unassembled Spur and Helical Gears, with permmision of the publisher, American Gear Manufacturers Association, 1500 King
Street, Alexenderia , Virginia 22314
T71

Equation 45 yields a linear position error measured in inches along the pitch circle. If an angular transmission error, aET, is
desired it is necessary to divide by the pitch radius of the gear. Thus:
(46)
aET = Etc sin q (radians) = 3440 Etc sin (arc minutes)
2R
D
The above defines the error of a single gear. In practice, one is interested in the total error of a mesh arising from errors of both
gears. Concerning only the maximum error (in order to avoid the complexity of phase angles*), the peak total mesh error is:
maximum peak error = (aET)mesh = (Etc)1+(Etc)2 3440 (arc minutes)
R1,2

(47)

where: subscripts 1 and 2 represent each of the meshing gears; and

R1 and R2 are the respective pitch radii. These yield the angular error for the respective
gear center of the particular pitch radius being used, as shown in equation 47.

Center Distance
( Inches )
Up to 5
Over 5 to 10 .
Over 10 to 20
Over 20 to 30
Over 30 to 40
Over 40 to 50
Over 50 to 80
Over 80 to 100
Over 100 to 120

Backlash
Designation

B
C
D
E

**TABLE 1.10 AGMA BACKLASH ALLOWANCE AND TOLERANCE

COARSE- PITCH GEARS
Normal Dlametral Pitches
0.5 - 1.99
2 - 3.49
3.5 - 5.99
6 - 9.99

0.040 - .060
0.050-.070
0.060 - .080
0.070 - .095
0.080 - .110

Normal Diametral
Pitch Range
20 thru 45
46 thru 70
71 thru 90
91 thru 200
20 thru 60
61 thru 120
121 thru 200
20 thru 60
61 thru 120
121 thru 200
20 thru 60
61 thru 120
121 thru 200
20 thru 60
61 thru 120
121 thru 200

0.030-.040
0.035 - .045
0.040 - .055
0.045 - .065
0.050 - .080

0.020 -030
0.025 -.030
0.030 - .040
0.035-.O50
0.040 - .060

FINE - PITCH GEARS

Tooth Thinning to
Obtain Backlash
Allowance
Tolerance
( per gear)
( per gear )
.002
0 to .002
.0015
0 to .002
.001
0 to .00175
. 00075
0 to .00075
.001
0 to .001
.00075
0 to .00075
.0005
0 to .0005
.0005
0 to .0005
.00035
0 to .0004
. 0002
0 to .0003
.00025
0 to .00025
.0002
0 to .0002
. 0001
0 to .0001
0 to .00025
0 to .0002
Zero
0 to.0001

0.010 - .020
0.015 - .025
0.020 - .030
0.025- .040
0.030 - .040

Resulting Approximate
Backlash (par mesh)
Normal Plane
.004 to .008
.003 to .007
.002 to .0055
. 0015 to .003
.002 to .004
.0015 to .003
001 to .002
.001 to .002
.0007 to .00013
.0004 to .001
.0005 to .001
.0004 to .0008
. 0002 to .0004
0 to.0005
0 to .0004
0 to.0002

*See Reference 5 for the case of considering phase angles.

**Extracted from AGMA Gear Classification Manual AGMA 390.02, September 1964
T72

10 - 19.99
0.005 - .015
0.010 - 020
0.020 - .030

11.4 AGMA Quality Classes

Using criteria that are indicators and measures of gear quality, the AGMA has established a convenient standardization that forms
a continuous spectrum of quality classes ranging from the crudest to the most precise gears. For all gears, coarse and fine
pitches, them am 13 classes numbered 3 through 15.
AGMA Gear Classification and Inspection Handbook (ANSI/AGMA 2000-A88) specifically defines various gear quality
parameters for these 13 classes. This includes tolerance ranges for runout, pitch, profile, lead, total composite error, and
tooth-to-tooth composite error. These values are for spur and helical gearing. In addition, them are separate table values for rack
and pinions, bevel and hypoid gears, and fine pitch worm gearing. Also presented are class tolerances of key parameters for spur
and helical inspection master gears.
11.5 Comparison with previous AGMA and International Standards
It is assumed that the present AGMA Gear Classification and Inspection Handbook (ANSI/AGMA 2000- A88) is readily available to
all those who wish to obtain additional information and tables related to this subject. Many designers, however, may not have
access to the tables published in previous AGMA 390.02 and AGMA 236.04 standards. For this reason, Tables 1.10A and 1 .10B
are presented.
Furthermore, as a result of increased international trade and the influx of metric gears, it is useful to compare different
national gear standard values. Such a comparison giving approximate equivalence of values is given in Table 1.10 C.
T73

AGMA
Quality
No.
5

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

TABLE 1.10A FINE-PITCH GEAR TOLERANCES FOR AGMA QUALITY CLASSES

No. of Teeth
Diametral
Tooth-to-Teeth
And
Pitch
Composite
Pitch Diameter
Range
Tolerance
Up to 20 teeth inclusive
20 to 80
0.0037
Over 20 teeth, up to 1.999
20 to 32
0.0027
Over 20 teeth. 2 to 3.999
20 to 24
0.0027
Over 20 teeth, 4 & over
20 to 24
0.0027
Up to 20 teeth inclusive
20 to 200
0.0027
Over 20 teeth,up to 1.999
20 to48
0.0019
Over 20 teeth, 2 to 3.999
20 to 32
0.0019
Over 20 teeth, 4" & over
20 to 24
0.0019
Up to 20 teeth Inclusive
20 to 200
0.0019
Over 20 teeth, up to l.999"
20 to200
0.0014
Over 20 teeth, 2" to 3.999
20 to 48
0.0014
Over 20 teeth, 4 & over
20 to 40
0.0014
Up to 20 teeth inclusive
20 to 200
0.0014
Over 20 teeth, up to l.999
20 to200
0.0010
Over 20 teeth, 2 to 3.999
20 to 100
0.0010
Over 20 teeth,4 & over
20 to64
0.0010
Up to 20 teeth inclusive
20 to 200
0.0010
Over 20 teeth, up to 1.999
20 to 200
0.0007
Over 20 teeth, 2 to 3.999
20 to 200
0.0007
Over 20 teeth, 4 & over
20 to 120
0.0007
Up to 20 teeth inclusive
20 to 200
0.0007
Over 20 teeth, up to l.999
20 to200
0.0005
Over 20 teeth, 2 to 3.999
20 to 200
0.0005
Over 20 teeth,4 &over
20 to200
0.0005
Up to 20 teeth inclusive
20 to 200
0.0005
Over 20 teeth, up to 1.999
20 to 200
0.0004
Over 20 teeth, 2 to 3.999
20 to 200
0.0004
Over 20 teeth,4 & over
20 to200
0.0004
Up to 20 teeth inclusive
20 to 200
0.0004
Over 20 teeth, up to 1.999
20 to 200
0.0003
Over 20 teeth, 2 to 3.999
20 to 200
0.0003
Over 20 teeth, 4 &over
20 to 200
0.0003
Up to 20 teeth inclusive
20 to 200
0.0003
Over 20 teeth,upto 1.999
20 to200
0.0002
Over 20 teeth, 2 to 3.999
20 to 200
0.0002
Over 20 teeth, 4 & over
20 to 200
0.0002
Up to 20 teeth inclusive
20 to 200
0.00019
Over 20 teeth, up to 1.999
20 to 200
0.00014
Over 20 teeth, 2 to 3.999
20 to 200
0.00014
Over20 teeth,4 & over
20 to200
0.00014
Up to 20 teeth inclusive
20 to 200
0.00014
Over 20 teeth, up to1.999
20 to 200
0.00010
Over 20 teeth, 2 to 3.999
20 to 200
0.00010
Over 20 teeth, 4 & over
20 to 200
0.00010
Up to 20 teeth inclusive
20 to 200
0.00010
Over 20 teeth,upto 1.999
20 to200
0.00007
Over 20 teeth, 2 to 3.999
20 to 200
0.00007
Over 20 teeth, 4 & over
20 to 200
0.00007

*From AGMA Gear Classification Manual for Spur, Helical and Heningbone Gears. AGMA 390.02, Sept. 1964.
T74

Total
Composite
Tolerance
0.0052
0.0052
0.0061
0.0072
0.0037
0.0037
0.0044
0.0052
0.0027
0.0027
0.0032
0.0037
0.0019
0.0019
0.0023
0.0027
0.0014
0.0014
0.0016
0.0019
0.0010
0.0010
0.0012
0.0014
0.0007
0.0007
0.0009
0.0010
0.0005
0.0005
0.0006
0.0007
0.0004
0.0004
0.0004
0.0005
0.00027
0.00027
0.00032
0.00037
0.00019
0.00019
0.00023
0.00027
0.00014
0.00014
0.00016
0.00019

TABLE 1.10B COMPARISON OF NEW AND PREVIOUS FINE-PITCH

AGMA QUALITY CLASSES*
PREVIOUS FINE-PITCH SYSTEM , AGMA 236.04
FINE-PITCH SYSTEM, AGMA 390.02
AGMA
Tooth-to-Tooth
Total
AGMA
Tooth-to-Tooth
Total
Quality
Composite
Composite
Quality
Composite
Composite
No.
Error
Error
No.
(Error) Tolerance (Error) Tolerance
0.0027 or
0.0052 or
Commercial 1
0.0020
0.0060
5 or 6
0.0019
0.0037
0.0019 or
0.0037 or
Commercial 2
0.0015
0.0040
6 or 7
0.0014
0.0027
Commercial 3
0.0010
0.0020
8
0.0010
0.0019
Commercial 4
0.0007
0.0015
9
0.0007
0.0014
0.0005 or
0.0010 or
Precision 1
0.0004
0.0010
10 or 11
0.0004
0.0007
Precision 2
0.0003
0.0005
12
0.0003
0.0005
0.0002 or
0.0004 or
Precision 3
0.0002
0.00025
13 or 14
0.00014
0.00027
* Extracted from AGMA Gear Classification Manual AGMA 390.02, Sept. 1964.
For more current standard, consult ANSI/AGMA 2000-A88, March 1988.

International
ISO
4
5
6
7
8
9

TABLE 1.10C QUAUTY NUMBER COMPARISON OF

DIFFERENT NATIONAL GEAR STANDARDS
W. Germany
Japan
DIN
JIS
4
0
5
1
6
2
7
3
8
4
9
5
T75

U.S.A.
AGMA
13
12
11
10
9
8

12.0 CALCULATION OF GEAR PERFORMANCE CRITERIA

Essential to proper application of gears is the derivation of values of performance criteria Most important are: backlash,
transmission error and total position error. In evaluating a gear mesh, its performance depends not only on specific gear
parameters, but also on many installation and design features such as bearings, shafting, and housing.
12.1 Backlash In a Single Mesh
All sources of backlash must be identified and combined in order to obtain the total backlash for the mesh. Sources can be
grouped according to the following categories:
I.

II.

III.

IV.

V.

Design backlash allowance

1. Gear size allowance any reduction of tooth thickness (or testing radius)
below nominal value
2. Center distance any increase in center distance above nominal value
Major tolerances
1. Gear size tolerance (tooth thickness or testing radius)
2. Center distance tolerance
Gear center shift due to secondary sources
1. Fixed bearing eccentricities
a. Outer-race eccentricity of ball bearing
b. Inside-diameter and outside-diameter runout of sleeve bearing
2. Racial clearances due to tolerances and allowances
a. Racial play of ball bearing
b. Fit between shaft and bearing bore
c. Fit between outside diameter of beating and housing bore
Backlash sources which are functions of gear rotation
1. Total composite error
2. Clearance between gear bore and shaft
3. Runout at point of gear mounting
4. Eccentricity of rotating race of ball beating
Miscellaneous sources
1. Dimensional changes due to thermal expansion or contraction
2. Deflections: teeth, gear body, shaft, and housing

A more complete and detailed coverage of these backlash sources is given in Reference 5. From the above listing of backlash
sources, those which contribute significantly can be evaluated and summed. Thus, the total backlash for a mesh is expressed as:
Bmesh = B

(48)

When using equation 48, it should be noted that all sources of radial backlash, such as center- distance tolerance and racial shift
due to eccentricities, must be converted to backlash measured along the pitch circle in accordance with equation 22a prior to
addition of sources such as tooth- thickness tolerances, etc. Also, note that sources of backlash can be divided into two
categories: those of constant magnitude; and those the magnitude of which varies with gear rotation. The latter sources are
associated with runout. Thus, backlash can be expressed as follows:
T76

B = Bc + Bv

(49)

where:
Bc = constant backlash
Bv = variable backlash
12.2 Transmission Error
The sources of transmission error originate both from the gears and their installation. Some of these are also sources of backlash.
The list of usual sources is as follows:
I.

Position error in the individual gears

1. Total composite error
a. Single-cycle errors (pitch-line runout)
b. High-frequency tooth-to-tooth composite errors (TTCE)

II.

Installation errors
1. Runout sources
a. Clearance between gear bore and shaft
b. Runoutat point of gear mounting
c. Eccentricity of rotating race of ball bearing
d. Miscellaneous runouts:
component shaft
composite gear assembly
2. Miscellaneous error sources
a. Shaft couplings
b. Material creep of shaft and bearings

The above errors are converted to angular-position error in the same manner as TCE is converted by equation 46. Thus, the total
transmission error for each mesh is proportional to the sum of all eccentricity error sources:
a(ET)mesh = 3440 Ei (arc minutes)
R

(50)

where:
Ei = eccentricity (one half runout value) of error contributors
A more detailed explanation and analysis of transmission error can be obtained from Reference 5.
12.3 Integrated Position Error
Backlash and transmission error should be distinguished from functional considerations which are not necessarily related to gear
performance. For example, in a servomotor gear train, backlash may be very important, whereas position error may be
immaterial. Alternatively, in a unidirectional position sensor gear-train, backlash may be of little concern, while transmission error
might be critical. Often however, positional accuracy is most important in the overall accuracy of gear trains. In such cases,
backlash combines with transmission error to yield an integrated position error (IPE). In essence the
T77

errors. However, this combination is not necessarily simple since many of the transmission-error sources are identical to those
associated with variable backlash. In addition, transmission error varies between maximum lead and lag values. Details of the
integration are beyond the scope of this coverage, but can be found in Reference 5. The basic equation for the peak value is:
(peak) IPE = Ei = (ET + Bc )
2

(51)

where:
Bc = backlash constant with rotation
ET = transmission error ( peak value)
12.4 Control of Backlash
In the many cases in which it is necessary to minimize backlash, a proper control must be chosen. The direct approach of
narrowing all allowances and tolerances on sources is effective. Accordingly, precision gear qualities are specified, particularly
with regard to testing radius (tooth thickness) and TCE. However, there are practical limitations since cost increases exponentially
with precision. Some method of circumventing extremes of precision must be used. An alternate means of controlling backlash is
to use adjustable centers or to spring-load the gears by one of several different designs. In this regard, the spring-loaded scissor
gear has particular merit since all backlash is continually eliminated. However, it is limited to low torque applications. Consult
Reference 5 for an in-depth coverage of various types of backlash control and elimination schemes.
12.5 Control of Transmission Error
The methods available for controlling transmission error are much more limited than the means for controlling backlash. The
most effective is the direct control of errors by specification of close tolerances. This means precision categories for TCE, TTCE,
and for installation components such as shafting and ball bearings.
In special cases, such as when the gear ratio of the mesh is unity, it is possible to calibrate the gears to match pitchline
runouts to provide cancellation of error. However, besides being costly and not foolproof, this method is very limited since it
requires not only a 1:1 gear ratio, but also identical runout errors for both gears.
13.0 GEAR STRENGTH AND DURABILITY
Gear failure can occur due to tooth breakage or surface failure in the form of fatigue and wear. The first is referred to as tooth
strength and the latter as durability. Strength is determined in terms of tooth-beam stresses for both static and dynamic
conditions, following well established formulas and procedures. Durability ratings are evaluated in terms of surface stresses
including the influence not only of dynamics, but also of material combinations, lubrication and a considerable number of
empirically derived factors.
13.1 Bending Tooth Strength
Tooth loading produces stresses that can ultimately result in tooth breakage. This is not a prevalent
T78

type of failure because mechanical properties of gear materials are well known, and the design equations are sufficiently
accurate. The analysis of bending stresses is as follows:
In transmitting power, the driving, force acts along the line-of-action, and the tooth senses a moving force acting from the
tip to the base, as shown in Figure 1.49. The load can be resolved into a tangential force, W1, causing bending, and a normal
force, WN, causing compression. These are shown in Figure 1.50 along the corresponding net stresses.
Based upon the above static analysis, Wilfred Lewis, in 1892, presented his expression for tooth beam strength which is now
reknowned as the classic Lewis equatien:
Wt = SFY
Pd
As a static beam resisting a fixed load in position and magnitude, this equation is usually adequate. However, it does not take
into account the dynamics of meshing teeth. In that regard, later investigators have modified and improved the original Lewis
equation.
Beam Strength (Figure 1.51)
Improved results can be obtained by use of Barths modified Lewis formula, which takes velocity into consideration but not wear.
Impact and fatigue stresses become more pronounced as pitch-line velocity increases. The formula includes a velocity factor and
is satisfactory for commercial gears at pitch-line velocities up to 1,500 fpm:
Wt

= SFY
Pd

600 )
600+V

where: Wt = transmitted load

(52)
S = maximum bending tooth stress, at the root outer fibers.
F = face width of gear
Y = Lewis factor
Pd= diametral pitch
V = velocity of the pitch point in feet per minute.

For non-metallic gears, the velocity factor is changed from ( 600 ) to ( 150
+ 0.25 )
600+V
200+V
The Lewis factor is dimensionless and independent of tooth size, and a function only of shape. Lewis factors for standard
teeth are given in Table 1.11.
A safe stress level depends upon the material and the number of stress cycles to which the teeth are subjected. This can be
evaluated from an S-N curve, modified Goodman diagram, Soderberg line, or equivalent data. Reference 6 contains helpful
information on fatigue stress analysis.
Table 1.12 gives safe stresses for a number of engineering materials. An estimate for the maximum allowable bending stress, S
in equation 52, can then be obtained by multiplying the stress given in Table 1.12 by two factors: a service factor given in Table
1.13 and a lubrication factor given in Table 1.14.
Use of a proper limiting stress value, Se in equation 52, results in a calculated tooth load, W0, based on beam strength. For
acceptable designs, Wb>= Wt
The tangentially transmitted load is calculated from the transmitted horsepower as follows:
Wt = 126,000 Pt
DNr

where:

Pt = transmitted horsepower
Nr= gear speed in revolutions per minute
D = gear pitch diameter
T79

(53)

T80

D190 Catalog

TABLE 1.11 LEWIS Y FACTORS

No. of
Teeth
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34

Full Depth Involute

14o

20o

0.176
0.192
0.210
0.223
0.236
0.245
0.255
0.264
0.270
0.277
0.283
0.292
0.302
0.308
0.314
0.318
0.322
0.325

0.201
0.226
0.245
0.264
0.276
0.289
0.295
0.302
0.308
0.314
0.320
0.330
0.337
0.344
0.352
0.358
0.364
0.370

No. of
Teeth

Full Depth Involute

14o

20o

36
38
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
90
100
150
200
300

0.329
0.332
0.336
0.340
0.346
0.352
0.355
0.358
0.360
0.361
0.363
0.366
0.368
0.375
0.378
0.382

0.377
0.383
0.389
0.399
0.408
0.415
0.421
0.425
0.429
0.433
0.436
0.442
0.446
0.458
0.463
0.471

Rack

0390

0.484

TABLE 1.12 SAFE STRESSES**

Safe beam stress or static stress of materials for gears
(values of sw for use in the modified Lewis equations)
Safe Stress Ultimate Strength
sw
sw
8,000
24.000
10,000
30,000
12,000
36,000
20,000
65,000

Material*
Cast iron, ordinary
Cast iron, good grade
Semisteel
Cast steel
Forged carbon steel :
SAE 1020 casehardened
SAE
1030 not treated
1035 not treated
1040 nat treated
1045 not treated
1045 hardened
1050 hardened
Alloy steels:
Ni, SAE 2320, casehardened
Cr-Ni, SAE 3245, heat treated
Cr-Van. SAE 6145, heat treated
Manganese bronze, SAE 43
Gear bronze. SAE 62
Phosphor bronze, SAE 65
Aluminum bronze, SAE 68
Rawhide
Fabrnil
Bakelite
Micarta

Yield Stress
sw

18,000

55,000

30.000

20,000
23,000
25,000
30.000
30,000
35.000

60,000
70,000
80,000
90.000
95,000
100,000

33,000
38,000
45,000
50.000
60,000
60,000

50,000
65,000
67,500
20.000
10,000
12,000
15,000
6,000
6,000
6,000
6,000

100,000
120,000
130,000
60.000
30,000
36,000
65.000

80,000
100,000
110,000
30,000
15,000
20,000
25,000

18,000 bending
18,000 bending

* For materials not given in this table the safe stress can be taken as 1/3 of the ultimate
strength.
**Repinted with permission from: Doughtie, Valiance, Kreisle: Design of Machine Members,
McGraw Mill Co. 1964, p.268.

T81

36,000

D190 Catalog

TABLE 11.3 SERVICE FACTORS

Type of Load
Steady
Light shock
medium shock
Heavy shock

8-10 hr per
day
1.00
0.80
0.65
0.55

Type of Service
24 hr
Intermittent,
3 hr per day
per day
0.80
1.25
0.65
1.00
0.55
0.80
0.50
0.65

TABLE 1.14 LUBRICATION FACTORS

Type of
Lubrication
Submerged in oil
Oil drip
Grease
Intermittent
Lubrication

Lubrication Factor
1.00
0.80
0.65
0.50

The loading conditions assumed by the original Lewis equation are very conservative.
A modification that results in a more realistic situation was made by Dudley
(Reference 3), that takes into account multiple teeth sharing load. When the contact ratio factor
is added as well, the modified Lewis equation becomes:

Wt

mpSFY

600

for steel gears

(54)

Pd
600+V
where the contact ratio m takes into account the fact that when the load is at the tip of the tooth, it is
shared by a second pair of teeth.
The following tables are useful in determining gear load ratings:
Table 1.15
Tables 1.16 & 1.17
Table 1.18
Tables 1.19 & 1.20

: Ratings for steel spur gears

: Ratings for small-pitch spur gears
: Ratings for hardened steel helical gears
: Ratings of worms and worm gears.

13.2 Dynamic Strength

Equations 52 and 54 give adequate results for gear meshes that are in a static situation. When
gears are in action, however, tooth loading is greater than the static value due to dynamic
effects. In a gear system, dynamic forces arise from a combination of the masses involved, their
elasticity and the forcing function representing the prescribed motion. Inaccuracies in gear-tooth
profiles cause accelerations and decelerations during gear action which reflect as inertia forces,
and can greatly exceed static tooth loading. The severity of dynamic forces is a function of
pitch-line velocity and tooth errors.An accurate prediction of dynamic forces is very difficult.
Various factors and formulas have beer, devised to increase the static tooth force to a value that
safety represents the dynamic condition. A
T82

NOTE: All charts are based on 30,000 p.s.i. yield stress. For other yield stress values multiply gear by thickness matetial stress
ratio.
Example: 72 pitch 140 teeth brass gear torque is 200 in. oz. Table for 72 pitch yields 0.062 face width for these conditions.
Multiplied by 1.5 stress ratio, the final face width of 0.093 is obtained.

TABLE 1.17 STRESS RA11OS FOR VARIOUS GEAR MATERIALS**

Gear Material

Yield Stress, psi

*70,000-150,000
*50,000-115,000
40,000
30,000
20,000
20,000
20,000
8,000
6,000

3140 Steel
Stainless Steel 416
Aluminum Alloy 24 S-T4
Stainless Steel 303
Phosphor Bronze
SAE 1020
Brass
Phenolic
Nylon

Stress Ratio
*0.43-0.20
*0.60-0.26
0.75
1.00
1.50
1.50
1.50
3.75
5.00

* depends upon heat treatment.

**By permission, Product Engineering, October 1955
TABLE 1.18 RA11NGS FOR HARDENED STEEL HELICAL GEARS**

Number
of
Teeth 100
8
.03
10
.04
12
.04
15
.05
16
-

Horsepower at Various R.P.M.*

20 D.P. - 3/8" Face
24 D.P. - 1/4" Face
200 300 600 900 1200 1800
100 200 300 600 900 1200 1800
.05 .07 .14 .20 .26
.37
.05 .11 .16 .30 .43 .55
.76
.07 .10 .19 .27 .34
.47
.07 .14 .21 .40 .56 .71
.47
.08 .12 .23 .32 .41
.55
.09 .18 .26 .48 .68 .85
.55
.11 .16 .29 .41 .51
.68
.12 .23 .33 .61 .85 1.05
.68
-

18
20
24
25
30

.04
.05
.06
.08

.09
.10
.12
.14

32
36
40
48
50
60
72

.13
.14
.17
.21

.23
.26
.30
.36

.32
.35
.41
.48

.40
.44
.50
.58

.53
.57
.64
.73

.11 .21
.14 .26
.16 .31

.30 .54
.37 .65
.43 .75

.09 .17
.12 .22
-

.25 .42
.31 .52
-

.55
.66
-

.66
.77
-

.81
.92
-

.22 .40
.27 .49

.56 .93 1.19 1.38

.67 1.08 1.35 1.55

.15 .27
.17 .32

.37 .60
.43 .67

.75
.82

.86
.93

1.01
1.07

.32 .57
-

.77 1.20 1.48

-

*Above ratings are for gears used on PARALLEL SHAFTS. Perpendicular

shaft applications are not recommended for transmission of power.
**Reprinted by permission from Browning Manufacturing - Cat. No. 6.
T85

.73
.86
.98

.89
1.04
1.16

1.67
-

1.14
1.30
1.43
1.65
1.81
1.91
-

D190 Catalog

dynamic factor DF is used to modify static tooth strength equations 52 and 54, such that:
Wd=Wt * DF

(55)

and for acceptable designs:

wb >=wd
With the aid of empirical data. Buckingham established the dynamic increment of the transmitted
force as a function of: profile errors; acceleration forces; elasticity properties; forces required to deform the teeth an amount
equivalent to the tooth errors; and pitch line velocity. His simplified equation is:
For spur gears:

wd = wt + .05V(FC+Wt )

.05V +(FC+Wt)

(56)

and for helical gears:

wd = wt + .05V(FC Cos2+Wt)Cos
.05V +(FC Cos2+Wt)

(57)

where:
V = pitch line velocity in feet per minute
F = active face width in inches
C = deformation factor
Values of the factor C for common material combinations and a range of tooth error
(action errors) is presented in Table 1.21. These errors can be equated to total composite and tooth-to-tooth composite errors.
TABLE 1.21 VALUES OF DEFORMA11ON FACTOR C

Tooth
Form

Materials, Pinion and Gear

Cast Iron & Cast Iron

Steel & Cast Iron
Steel & Steel

14o
20o

Cast Iron & Cast Iron

Steel & Cast Iron
Steel & Steel

full
depth

Cast Iron & Cast Iron

Steel & Cast Iron
Steel & Steel

20o
stub
tooth
T87

Error in Action, Inches

0.0005 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004
400
800 1,600 2,400 3,200
550 1,100 2,200 3,300 4,400
800 1,600 3,200 4,800 6,400
415
830 1,660 2,490 3,320
570 1,140 2,280 3,420 4,560
830 1,660 3,320 4,980 6,640
430
860 1,720 2,580 3,440
590 1,180 2,360 3,540 4,720
860 1,720 3,440 5,160 6,880

0.005
4,000
5,500
8,000
4,150
5,700
8,300
4,300
5,900
8,600

13.3 Surface Durability

The Lewis formula and its modification to Incorporate dynamic conditions is limited to beam-stress analysis. In addition, there are
stresses generated in the surface layers of the teeth by the direct crushing action of the forces. These stresses can exceed the
material limits and can result in pitting, scoring, scuffing, seizing and plastic deformation.
Pitting This is the removal of small bits of metal from the surface, due to fatigue, thereby leaving small holes or pits. This is
caused by high tooth loads leading to excessive surface stress, a high local temperature due to high rubbing speeds, or
inadequate lubrication. Minute cracking of the surface develops, spreads and ultimately results in small bits breaking out of the
tooth surface.
Scoring This is a heavy scratch pattern extending from tooth root to tip. It appears as if a heavily-loaded tooth pair has
dragged foreign matter between sliding teeth. It can be caused by lubricant failure, incompatible materials and overload.
Scuffing This is a surface destruction composed of plastic material flow plus superimposed gouges and scratches caused by
loose metallic particles acting as an abrasive between teeth. Both scoring and scuffing are associated with welding (or seizing)
and plastic deformation. Frequently it is difficult to distinguish among the several types of failure as there is considerable
intermingling.
There have been many attempts to derive expressions for calculating safe surface stress. The Buckingham durability equations
based on Hertzian contact stresses and the work of others can be found in the references. All of the various design equations and
procedures are closely related to specific empirical data and experience. The AGMA equations are in wide use in the United
States.
13.4 AGMA Strength and Durability Ratings
The AGMA rating formulas again represent a combinations of analysis, approximations, and empirical data. A complete treatment
of AGMA practices is too extensive for this discussion and only an introductory survey is offered. More details are available from
AGMA literature and Chapter 11 of Reference 6.
The AGMA formulas pertain to strength and surface durability, with dynamic and other effects induded. The equations are:
Tooth Strength (bending stress):

St = WtKo
Kv

Pd .
F

KsKm
J

(58)

Surface Durability:

Sc = Cp WtCo . Cs .
Cv dF

CtCm
l

(59)

These equations relate stress to load, size and stress parameters.

The calculated stresses must be less than the allowable stress values of the material, which in turn depend on the nature of the
application. The allowable stresses are as follows:
Allowable surface durability stress:

St =< Sat KL
KrKr

(60)

T88

Allowable surface durability stress:

Sc =< Sac CLCH

CRCT

(61)

Definition of terms in the above equations is given in Table 1.22.

Tooth strength, equation 58, is essentially a modification of the Lewis formula. The extent of departure and tie improved accommodation to actual performance is dependent upon the coefficients associated with each term
The surface durability equation is related to the well established Hertzian contact-stress formula.
Again, coefficients in the above equations are intended to relate the theory more closely to actual gear-tooth behavior.
The meaning of the coefficients in the above equations are as follows:
Load distribution factors Cm&Km
These factors concern phenomena that cause non-uniform load distribution across the gear width:
profile errors, eccentricity of mounting, non-parallelism of shafts and defiections and distortions.
The effect of these errors is to cause a load concentration.
Overload factors

Km& Co

TABLE 1.22 DEFINITIONS OF SYMBOLS IN AGMA RATING FORMULAS

Term
Strength

Durability

LOAD:
Transmitted Load
Dynamic Factor
Overload Factor

Wt
Kv
Ko

Wt
Cv
Co

SIZE:

-F
Pd
Ko

d
F
-Co

Km

Cm
I
Cf

St
Sat

Sc
Sac
CP
CH
CL
CT
CR

Pinion Pitch Diameter

Net Face Width
Transverse Diameteral pitch
Size Factor
STRESS DISTRIBUTION:
Load Distribution Factor
Geometry factor
Surface Condition factor

J
--

STRESS:
Caiculated Stress
Allowable Stress
Elastic Coetficient
Hardness-Ratio Factor
Life Factor
Temperature Factor
Factor of Safety

---

KL
Kt
KR
T89

Dynamic factors

Kv & Cv

These relate to speed and gear errors which lead to dynamic loading. As pitch-line velocity increases, the dynamic load increment
increases linearly. However, the dynamic effects of tooth errors is much more complex. Tooth-to-tooth errors, which arise in a
variety of forms, have a different dynamic effect than runout errors. Also, elastic tooth deflections cause apparent errors.
Life factors

KL & CL

These factors are primarily intended to take into account performance of gears the life of which can
be finite.
Factors of safety

KR & CR

Although factors of safety are old in engineering practice, in this case they identify the degree of reliability sought in a clear
fashion.
Temperature factors

KT & CT

These factors modify the design in accordance with adverse temperature effects on lubricant performance. Usually this factor
does not become significant until temperature exceeds 200F.
Surface factorsCPCH& CP
The three durability factors, C,, C & C for surface condition, hardness ratio and elastic coefficient rates the resistance of the
gear-tooth surface to wear.
Size factors

KS& CS

These reflect the non-uniformity of material characteristics, such as hardness, and the dimensional parameters of the gear. The
latter include: diameter, face width, tooth size and ratio of case depth to tooth size.
Geometry factors

J&I

These relate to the tooth proportions, primarily concerning radii of curvature and parameters controlling load sharing. They are
somewhat akin the Lewis Y factors. For standard tooth
proportions, these have fixed values.
Allowable stress

Sat & Sac

This is the rated stress value of the material as specified by the manufacturer or standards, or obtained from material testing.
This value takes into account cyclic stressing and is the nominal endurance stress rating of the material.
Numerical values of factors Specific factor values are available from AGMA publications, or duplicated extracted information.
Procedures for determining these factors are given in the AGMA literature. When conditions are such that a given factor is
unimportant or insufficient information
exists for its adequate evaluation it is usually safe to equate the factor to unity. In most cases, this results in a conservative or
mid-value rating.
Evaluations of equations The above information constitutes an outline of the procedures offered by AGMA for determining
strength and durability ratings. As an outline it cannot include detail;and to apply the procedures the reader should refer to the
references.
Additional design equations The AGMA beam strength and durability equations have been custom modified and refined by a
number of gear designers and manufacturers, creating a variety of design techniques and equations. Often this may be
proprietary information, but will be available for specific use with customers needs. In addition, there are a host of varied design
equations used by
T90

lou near designers

foreign gear designers. This multiplicity of equations underlines that gear strength and durability is not
an exact engineering science, but rather is empirical and experience dependent. Also, the user should
be aware that most gear equations and empirical results pertain to coarse pitch gears. The literature
offers much less about tine pitch instrument gearing.
Computer programs The AGMA design equations involving various parameters are defined with
specific detail in the standard. Several of these equation terms are subject to design modification,
but are complexly derived. Examples are geometry factors (I & J) which are alterable by profile
modifications. Many computer programs have been generated which efficiently handle these complex
calculations.
In addition to strength and durabtity design, software exists for the entire gear and gear train
design including the selection of gear type, pitch, geometry and materials. Programs are purchasable
from a number of universities and software houses.
14.0 GEAR MATERIALS
In order for gears to achieve their intended performance, life and reliability, the selection of a suitable
gear material is very important. Often not all design requirements are compatible. High load capacity
requires a tough, hard material which is difficult to machine; whereas high precision favors materials
that are easy to machine and, therefore, have lower strength and hardness ratings. Light weight and
small size favors light non-ferrous materials, while high capacity requires the opposite. Thus, tradeoffs and compromise are
required to achieve an optimum design.
Gear materials vary widely, ranging from ferrous metals, through the many non-ferrous and light-weight metals, to the various
plastics. The gear designer and user faces a myriad of choices. The
final slection should be based upon an understanding of material properties and application requirements.
14.1 Ferrous Metals
Despite the introduction of many new exotic metals and plastics with impressive characteristics, ferrous metals are still the most
widely used far gears, because they offer high strength, response
to heat treatment and low cost. Cast iron and steel, carbon steels and alloy steels are in common use.
14.1.1 Cast Iron is widely used for large gears where it is advantageous to save machining costs
by molding the gear blank. Cast steels also offer this advantage together with higher tensile and yield
strengths, but cast iron is superior under dynamic conditions, providing excellent internal damping
properties.
14.1.2 Steels are divided into two main divisions: plain carbon and alloy. The carbon steels offer
low cost reasonably easy machining and ability to be hardened. A major disadvantage is the lack of
resistance to corrosion.
When elements other than carbon are added to the iron, the steel is termed "alloy steel". These
cover a wide range from low-grade types to special high alloys offering exceptionally high strengths.
Stainless steels are contained within this large category. Alloy steels offer a wide range of heat
treatment properties that makes the category of alloy steels the most versatile.
Stainless Steels are divided into two types: the so called 300 series true stainless steels, which
resist nearly all corrosive conditions; and the 400 series, which although not truly stainless, offer less
corrosion resistance only in certain environments (such as certain acids and salt water) and are
otherwise considered stainless. The further significant distinction between the two series is that the
300 series generally are much more difficult to machine, non-magnetic and non-heat-treatable,
although somewhat responsive to cold working. The 400 series are magnetic, almost every alloy is
T91

file:///C|/A3/D190/HTML/D190T91.htm [9/27/2000 6:49:31 PM]

heat treatable and have a much better index of machinability corresponding to some of the carbon steels. Table 1.23 lists
mechanical properties of typical gear steels. Table 1.24 presents relative machinability of various steels.
14.2 Non-Ferrous Metals
The commonly used non-ferrous materials are the aluminum alloys and bronzes. Zinc diecast alloys are used also. Non-ferrous
metals generally or selectively offer good machinability, light weight, corrosion resistance and are non-magnetic.
14.2.1 Aluminum as a gear material has the special feature of light weight, and moderately good strength for the low weight It
is also corrosion resistant and easy to machine. A major disadvantage is the large coefficient of thermal expansion compared to
steels. Many aluminum alloys differ in ease of forming, machining and casting. Aluminum alloys respond to cold working and heat
treatment Mechanical properties for several alloys are given in Table 1.25.
14.2.2 Bronzes have long been used for gear materials. They possess favorable frictional and wear properties when mating with
steel gears. They are particularly advantageous in worm meshes and crossed-helical meshes because of the large amount of
sliding. Bronzes are extremely stable and offer excellent machinability. The material can be cast, but bar stock and forgings are
superior. Chief disadvantages are the high specific weight (highest of the gear materials) and relatively high cost.
There are many bronze alloys, but only a few are extensively used for gears. These are the four alloys listed in Table 1.25. This
table also lists brasses that are used for low load fine pitch gears.
14.3 Die Cast Alloys
Many high-volume low-cost gears are produced by the die-cast process. Most are produced in alloys of aluminum and zinc, and a
few in bronze and brass. Properties of alloys suitable fOr gears are given In Table 1.26.
14.4 Sintered Powder Metal
This is a process of molding fine metal powder and alloying ingredients under high pressure and then firing to fuse the mass. It is
a high-production means of producing relatively high-strength gears at low cost. Metals used for gears are iron-based mixtures,
bronzes and brasses. Powder metals are expensive, but offsetting this the scrap losses are very small. Properties of sintered
powder alloys suitable for gears is presented in Table 127.
14.5 Plastics
Plastics gears offer quiet operation, wear resistance, damping, lightweight, non-corrosiveness, minimum or no lubrication and low
cost. On the debit side, they are difficult to machine to high precision and are subject to large temperature-induced dimensional
changes and instability. Gears can be directly finish molded with teeth, entirely machined from bar and plate stock, or cut from
molded blanks.
Phenolic laminates have bases of either paper, linen, or cotton cloth with relative strengths in that order. They offer relatively
good strength and in cotton-canvas base are suitable for large gears and high loads. Properties for gear phenolics are given in
Table 1.28.
T92

TABLE 1.25 COMPARATIVE PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Tensile
Yield
108 Cycles
Elongation
Strength
Strength
Material (ASTM No.)
Endurance
(%in 2")
(psi)
(psi)
Limit(psi)
Aluminum Alloys:
Wrought:
2011-T8
59000
45000
18,000
12
68.000
47,000
19,000
18
2024-T4
83,000
73,000
23,000
11
7075-T6
38,000
31,000
18,000
13
5025-H34
45,000
40,000
14,000
12
6061-T6
Cast:
195-T6
356-T6

Bronzes:
Aluminum Bronze-B150-2 (annealed)
Phosphor Bronze- B139C
Silicon Bronze - B98B (Hard)
Manganese Bronze - B138-A
Brasses:
Free Cutting -B16
Yellow B-36-8
Naval - B124-3 (H)
Cartridge - B134-6

36,000
40,000

24,000
27,000

8,000
13,000

5
5

100,000
80,000
65,000
80,000

60,000
45,000
35,000
65,000

28,000
31,000
25,000
17,000

25
33
10
25

55,000
61,000
70,000
72,000

44,000
50,000
48,000
52,000

20,000
16,0001
22,0002

32
23
25
30

Hardness
Brirtell 100
Brinell 120
Brinell 150
Brinell 68
Brinell 95
Brinell 75
Brinell 90

Rockwell B90
Rockwell B80
Rockwell B80
Brinell 80

Rockwell
Rockwell
Rockwell
Rockwell

B75
B70
B80
B80

Data for brasses end bronzes is for 1/2 hard temper condition unless noted otherwise.
1 Endurance limit at 3x108 cycles
2 Endurance limit at 5x107 cycles

Material

TABLE 1.26 PROPERTIES OF DIE-CASTING ALLOYS SUITABLE FOR GEARS

Comp108 Cycles
Tensile
Yield
Shear
Elongaressive
Nominal
Endurance
Strength
Strength
Strength
tion (%
Strength
Composition (%)
Limit
(psi)
(psi)
(psi)
in 2")
(psi)
(psi)

Aluminum
Alloys:
13
85
380

12 Si
5 Si , 4 Cu
8.5 Si, 3.5 Cu

Magnesium
Alloys
ASTM-AZ91

9 AI,0.2 Zn 0.13 Mn

Zinc:
ASTM-xxiii
(Zamak 3)
ASTM-xxv
(Zamak 5)

3.5 to 4.3Al,0.1 Cu
(max), .03 to .08Mg
3.5 to 4.3Al,0.75 Cu
, .03 to .08Mg

Hardness
(Brinell)

37,000
40,000
31,000

18,000
24,000
31,000

28,000
23,000
31,000

21,000

19,000

25,000

21,000

80
75
80

33,000

22,000

20,000

22,000

10,000 14,000

60

41,000

31,000

60,000

6,900

10

82

47,000

38,000

87,000

8,200

91

Taken from: Michalec, G.W., iredsion Gearing, Wiley 1968

T95

TABLE 1.27 TYPICAL SINTERED POWDER GEAR ALLOYS

Name

Specification
Designation

Composition(%)

Copper 7-11
Iron-Copper Alloy
Iron-remainder

SAE Type 3
ASTM B222-58

Ultimate
Apparent
Tensile
Hardness
Strength
(Rockwell)
(psi)
40,000

Iron 94,0 min.

ASTM
Copper-Steel Alloy Copper 1.0 - 4.0
60,000
B310-58T
Other 2.0 max.
Class A Type II
Iron 95.5 min.
SAE Type 6
Silicon 0.3 max.
Class C
Carbon-Steel Alloy
50,000
Aluminum 0.2 min ASTM B310-58T
Other 3.0
Carbon 0.30
Manganese 0.50
Alloy Steel
Silicon 0.25
Z2*
160,000
AISI 4630
Nitrogen 1.7
Molybdenum 2.5
Iron balance
Iron 97.90
Copper 0.15
Iron High Density Silicon 0.20
Aluminum 0.15

ASTM
B309-58T
Class A

52,000

H-95

B-56

* Designation of Keystone Carbon Co.

t Designation of The Brush Beryllium Co.
Taken from: Michalec. G.W., "Precisjon Gearing". Wiley 1966
T96

Offers a controlled
amount of porosity
suitable for lubricant
Impregnation
Good for Gear
applications subject to
high impact

A-40

Excellent wear
resistance

C-35

The highest strength

sintered powder
material

A-60

Good gear material for

impact, strength and
hardness. High density
allows it to be case
hardened by
carburizing or nitriding

H-75

One of the strongest

sintered bronzes

B-85

A maximum strength
beryllium alloy

Other 1.60

SAE Type 1
Class A
Copper 87.0 Min.
ASTM
Tin 9.5 - 10.5
Phosphor Bronze
30,000
B202-58T
Phosphor 0.3 - 0.5
Type 1 Class A
Other 1.5 max.
Mil B 5687A
Type 1 Comp.A
Beryllium 1.5
75,000 to
Beryllium Copper Cobalt 0.25
150Pt
100,000
Copper balance

Comments

Catalog D190
TABLE 1.28 PROPERTIES OF PLASTIC MATERIALS
Property
Tensile Strength
Yield Strength
Compressive Strength. psi
Water Absorption % (24 hrs.)
Saturation %
Density- lbs/in3
Modules of Elasticity. psi (Flexural)
Coefficient of Linear Thermal Expansion oF

NYLON
ASTM Type 66
ASTM Type 6
0.2%
2.5 %
0.2%
2.8%
Moisture
Moisture
Moisture
Moisture
11.800 13.800
11.200
9,000 7.400
8.700
13.000
8.000
5.900
8.500
1.5
1.6 to 2.0
7,200
8
9.5
.041
.041
5
4.1 x 105
2
.5
x
10
-5
1.1
x
105
4.6 to
5 x 10
1.75 x 105
-5
5.4x10

Data at 70o F
DELRIN*

Property

100
10.000
9.500
5,200
.25
.9
0.514
4.1 x 105
5.5 x 10-5

Yield Strength - psi

Shear Strength - psi
Compressive Stress - 1% deformation - psi
Water Absorption %(24 hrs)
Saturation %
Density- lbs/in3
Modules of Elasticity. psi (Flexural)
Coefficient of Linear Thermal Expansion oF
Data at 70o - 75o F
Registered trade name of E.I. DuPont de Nemours & Co.
Properties
Base
Tensile Strength - psi
Lengthwise
Crosswise
Flexural Strength - psi
Lengthwise
Crosswise
Compressive Strength - psi
Flatwise
Modules of Elasticity. psi (Flexural)
Lengthwise
Crosswise
Water Absorption %(24 hrs)
Coefficient of Linear Thermal Expansion oF
Lengthwise
Crosswise

PHENOLIC LAMINATES
NEMA Grade
XXX
C

Kraft Paper

Paper

Cotton Canvas
Fabric

21,000
17,000

16,000
13,000

11,500
9,500

26,000
24,000

14,000
12,000

22,000
18,000

36,000

32,000

37,000

1.8 x 108
1.3 x 108
0.9

1.3 x 108
1.0 x 108
0.3

1.0 x 108
0.9 x 108

1.1 x 10-5
1.4 x 10-5

0.94 10-5
1.4 x 10-5

1.04 x 10-5
1.22 x 10-5

T97

500
10.000
9.500
5,200
.25
.9
0.514
4.1 x 105
4.5 x 10-5

L
Fine Weave
Cotton Linen
Fabric
14,500
11,000
23,000
18,000
35,000
1.1 x 108
0.8 x 108
0.77 x 105
1.04 x 10-5

Catalog D190

Material
Ferrous:
Cast Irons
Cast Steels
Plain-Carbon Steels
Alloy Steels
Stainless Steels:
300 Series

400 Series
Nonferrous:
Aluminum Alloys
Brass Alloys
Bronze Alloys

Magnesium Alloys
Nickel Alloys

Titanium Alloys
Die-Cast Alloys
Sintered Powder Alloys
Nonmetalic:
Delrin
Phenolic Laminates
Nylons
Teflon (Fluorocarbon)

TABLE 1.29 SUMMARY OF MATERIAL FEATURES AND APPLICATIONS

Obtainable Precision
Outstanding Features
Applications
Rating
Low cost, good machining,high
Internal damping
Low cast, high strength
Good machining, heat
- treatable
Heat treatable, highest
strength durability
High corrosion resistance, non
magnetic. nonhardenable
Hardenable, magnetic.
moderate stainless steel
properties

Large-size, moderate power

rating, commercial gears
Power gears, medium
ratings
Power gears, medium
ratings
Severest power
requirements
Extreme corrosion, low
power ratings

Commercial quality
Commercial to medium
precision
Precision and high and
precision
Precision

Low to medium power

ratings, moderate corrosion High precision
Extremely light-duty
instrument gears
Low-cost commercial
equipment

Light weight. noncorrosive,

excellent machinability
Low cost, noncorrosive,
excellent machinability

Commercial quality

High precision
Medium precision

Mates for steel power gears High prectsion

Excellent machinability, low

friction, and good compatibility with steel mates

Special lightweight,
low-load uses

Extreme light weight,poor

corrosion resistance

Special thermal cases

Low coefficient of thermal

expansion, poor machinability

Special lightweight strength

High strength for moderate

weight, corrosion resistant

High production, low

quality,commercial

Medium precision

Commercial grade
Medium precision
applications

Low-grade commercial
High production, low quality
commercial
Commercial

Low cost, no precision, low

strength
Low cost, low quality, moderate
strength

Wear resistant, long life, low water Long life, low noise, low
absorption
loads

Commercial

Quiet operation, highest

strength plastic

Commercial

Medium loads, low noise

Long life, low noise, low
loads

Low friction, no lubricant,

high water absorption

Special low friction

Low friction, no lubricant

Taken from: Michalec, GW., "Precision Gearing", Wiley 1966

T98

Commercial
Commercial

Nylon has good wear resistance, even when operating without lubricant. A major disadvantage is instability in the presence of
moisture and humidity. Delrin* is similar to nylon in many respects, but is super or with regard to rigidity, dimensional stability,
and resistance to moisture. Properties are listed in Table 1.28.
These comments and data apply in particular to gears machined from plastic stock. Alternately, a greater volume of plastic gears
are produced by molding. This subject is covered in detail in Par. 20.2.
14.6 Application, and General Comments
For large gears and power applications, the ferrous materials are used. The greater the load and durability requirements, the
more essential are the high-alloy steels. Plain carbon steels are in common use for low-quality commercial gears.
An exception in the ferrous group are the stainless steels. These are predominantly used in the small-gear, fine-pitch instrument
fields because of their corrosion resistance. For fine-pitch precision applications, stainless steels are excellent. Although the 400
series is easier to machine and can have superior properties as a result of heat treatment, the 303 type of stainless steel has
reasonable machinability and offers superior corrosion resistance. In addition, when used in conjunction with aluminum housings,
its coefficient of thermal expansion matches that of aluminum much better than the 400 series.
The aluminum alloys, particularly 2024-T4, are excellent instrument gear materials when used within their strength ratings.
Aluminums have no value as a power gear material and should not be used beyond low-load instrument-type applications.
Bronze is excellent for worm gears through the full range from light loads to power applications. It is also appropriate far use in
spur and helical meshes that have high velocity and/or significant loading.
Plastic materials are best suited for small gears of the instrument and light commercial product variety. Their poorer machining
characteristics and greater instability make them undesirable for precision applications. Their quiet operation and minimal
lubrication requirements render them particularly attractive far consumer products.
A summary of material features is presented in Table 1.29.
15.0 FINISH COATINGS
Thin finish coatings are often applied to metal gears for protection against the environment or for decorative purposes. The type
of finish chosen is related to the material, corrosive conditions, and level of gear quality and precision.
Finish coatings on the active surfaces of gear teeth must accomplish their objectives without altering dimensions, profile, or
surface finish. This limits coatings to thin coverings of oxides or a substance that permanently adheres to the base, and not all
are suited to extend over the active tooth surfaces.
15.1 Anodize
An excellent finish for aluminum gears is anodize. This is an artificially induced thin, but even and
hard coating of oxide. The thickness of the coating can be varied by process control, and can be
troublesome in the maintenance of close tolerances. Consequently, anodizing of precision aluminum
gears is usually limited to the gear blank prior to tooth cutting.
* Registered trade name of E.I. duPont de Nemours and Co.
T99

Catalog D190
Because the oxide film is somewhat porous. it can be impregnated with dyes of various colors. Anodized gears possess not only
improved appearance, but also other significant protection against many corrosive atmospheres and salt sprays.
15.2 Chromate Coatings
Applicable to aluminum, bronze, zinc and magnesium, these are low-temperature dip-bath processes that produce a chemical film
of chromate which is extremely thin and does not alter dimensions. However, the thin film has little wear resistance and offers
corrosion protection only against non-abrasive environments. Coating color varies with the particular metal and alloy. Most often
there is an iridescent color, which generated the common trade name Iridite, Dyes can be added to produce a wide assortment of
colors. Because there is no dimensional change, chromating can be applied to all gears, including precision, after tooth cutting.
15.3 Passlvatlon
This is not a coating, in the strict sense, but a conditioning of the surface. It is particularly applicable to stainless steels. The
process is essentially a low strength nitric acid dip. It results in an invisible oxide film that develops the "stainless" property,
removes "tramp iron" and reduces the metals anodic potential in the galvanic series. Passivation causes no dimensional changes
and does not discolor or otherwise alter the natural surface. If anything, it prevents random staining due to "free iron" particles
left from machining. All quality stainless steel gears can be passivated after complete machining since dimensions and stability
are unaffected.
15.4 Plating.
The common electroplating materials, such as cadmium, chromium, nickel and copper, are not suitable for gear surfaces since
they alter dimensions. Also, susceptibility to localized buildup precludes their use on any precision part. Use of these platings
should be limited to the application of coatingt prior to cutting of the teeth and of any other gear dimensions requiring close
tolerances.
15.5 Special Coatings
In recent years, special extra thin precision coatings have been developed and are available under different commercial names,
Some claim surface hardness, wear resistance, low coefficient of friction, anti-corrosive qualities, etc. There are many successful
applications on record. Each case however should be investigated and tested.
15.6 Application of Coating.
It is advisable to finish coat all gears which operate in a corrosive environment or must meet the requirements of military
equipment applications. In addition, appearance considerations may
compel a protective finish.
Aluminum gears are best protected when anodized in a natural color but not on the tooth surfaces.
A chromate coating is adequate for many applications and is acceptable in many military
equipment specifications.
T100

Catalog D190
Passivation of stainless steels is a necessity for good practice and military equipment standards.
Even for non-military applications, this is advisable to preclude discolorations from free iron particles and minimization of galvanic
interaction with other parts.
Bronze gears could be chromate coated after cutting or cadium plated in the blank state, followed by chromating after tooth
generation. Table 1.30 summarizes features of the various coatings.
16.0 LUBRICATION
Lubrication serves several purposes, but its basic and most important function is to protect the sliding and rolling tooth surfaces
from seizing, wear, and other phenomena associated with surface failure by film separation. This is particularly pertinent to power
gearing. In addition, lubrication aids all gearing in that it reduces friction and protects against corrosion.
16.1 Lubrication of Power Gear.
Power gear trains require sealed housings with a lubricant bath. Depending on the magnitude of the transmitted power and
speed, it may be necessary to use a circulating system with lubricant cooling. Lubricant can be supplied as a liquid bath or fine
spray. Lubrication of small, low-power gear trains can be accomplished with a grease pack in some cases. Many consumer home
products are so lubricated.
16.2 Lubrication of instrument Gear.
Because of their much smaller size and capacity, generally lower speeds, and small or negligible power transmission, instrument
gear lubrication is very different from that of power gears. Often, the lubricants main purpose is to reduce friction.
Instrument gears that are relatively highly loaded and working near full capacity require equally good lubrication systems as
power gears. The difference is that, in these extremely low powers, the heat dissipation is not a problem, therefore the unit can
be packed and sealed without concern for lubricant circulation, filtering, etc.
The lightly loaded gear trains can be of the open variety, in which a thin lubricant film is brushed on the teeth during assembly
and reapplied only as maintenance and usage dictate. In such applications, it is important that gear speeds are not so great that
the lubricant is flung away by centrifugal force. Also, the lubricant should have a minimum "Spreading" rating. For this reason,
greases are often favored.
Open housing gear trains are subject to contamination and it is advisable to guard against excessive exposure. Instruments, the
outer enclosures of which must often be removed far maintenance of other items, should be.worked on in clean and controlled
environments. Where prolonged or uncontrollable exposure occurs, temporary or permanent inner dust covers for the gear train
are recommended. This is particularly advisable in hybrid electronic instrument boxes in which the danger of solder splatter and
other debris is high.
16.3 Oil Lubricants
Oils are the most common lubricants and come in various-types. The compounding of oils provides combinations and generation
of various properties. The most basic lubricant is petroleum to which animal, vegitable and synthetic oils and additives are
combined to yield specific properties.
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Oils offer a wider range of operating speeds than greases. Also, they are easier to handle and are
more effective because of their liquid nature.
16.4 Grease
Grease is a combination of liquid and solids, in which the latter serve as a reservoir for the liquid lubricant as well as imparting
certain of their own properties. Grease has the advantage of remaining in place and not spreading as oils, and has a much lower
evaporation rate. Also, it can provide a lubricant film at heavy loads and at low speeds.
16.5 Solid Lubricants
In recent years a number of "dry fllm" lubricants have been developed. These have the advantages of wide temperature range,
no dispersion, and no evaporation. Hence, they are well suited for space and other vacuum applications; and they are easier to
use in open gearing since they do not contaminate as rapidly as oils and grease. However, most solid films alter dimensions
significantly - and some
drastically. The latter cannot be tolerated in quality gearing. Dry-film lubricants represent a one-shot application of lubricant that
must last the life of the gears, despite a continual eroding and wearing away of the film from the start of its use.
16.6 Typical Lubricants
The choice of lubricants is very wide. Military specifications govern most types and classes of lubricants, to which many
manufacturers products qualify. Table 1.31 is a list of typical gear oils and grease lubricants and their applications.
17.0 GEAR FABRICATION
The fabrication of a complete gear normally includes most or all of the following operations:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Blank fabrication
Tooth generation
Refining of tooth shape (shaving, grinding, honing)
Heat treatment
Deburring and cleaning
Finish Coating

Although it is not necessary to apply all six operations to every gear, the basic operations 1, 2, and determine the quality level of
a gear.
Blank fabrication involves all the general and special features of the gear body. Tooth generation involves only machine-cut or
around gears, as in other fabrication methods, the teeth and body are formed simultaneously. The refining operation (shaving,
grinding, or honing) is a special means of improving quality, particularly in high-volume production. Heat treatment is limited to
gears requiring surface hardness and/or strength. Deburring and cleaning is essential for all gears irrespective of method of
manufacture or quality. Finish coats are limited to certain materials and environments requiring corrosion protection or improved
appearance.
Modern methods of producing gear teeth cover a wide variety:
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Table 1.31 Typical Gear Lubricants
Lubricant
Type

Military
Specification

Useful Temp.
Range (o F)

Oils:
Petroleum oil

MIL-L-644B

-10 to 250

Diester oil

MIL-L-6085A

-67 to 350

Diester oil

MIL-L-7808C

-67 to 400

Remarks

Applications

Good general purpose lubricant. All quality gears having a narrow

range of operating temperature.
General purpose, low starting
Precision instrument gears and
torque, stable over a wide
small machinery gears.
temperature range.
Suitable for oil spray or mist
system, at high temperature.

High speed gears.

Best load carrier of silicone oils, Power gears requiring wide

widest temperature range.
temperature ranges.
Silicone oil
Greases
Diester Oil- lithium
soap

MIL-L-7808C

-100 to 600

MIL-G-7421A

-100 to 200

Particularly suited for low

starting torques, low
temperatures.

Moderately loaded gears.

Diester Oil- lithium

soap

MIL-G-3278A

-67 to 250

General purpose light grease.

Precision instrument gears, and

generally lightly loaded gears.

High temperature only.

High speed and high loads.

Petroleum oil- sodium MIL-L-3545

soap
Silicone oil- non-soap MIL-G-2501 3B
Silicone oil- lithium
soap
Solid Lubricants
Molybdenum
disulfide(MoS2)
powder
Graphite in resin
binder

MIL-G-1 5719 -A

-20 to 300
-65 to 400
0 to 350
-350 to 750;>
20O0 in vacuum

MIL-M7866A

-100 to 450

-100 to 450
MoS2 in resin binder

T104

Good high temperature features. High temperature, moderately

loaded gear trains.
High temperature use only.
Light to moderately loaded gears,
low speeds.
Highly stable, radiation
resistant, useable in vacuum
over wide temp. range.
Application by spray and baking
up to 3500 F. Film thickness
.0003 to .001 in.
Application by spray and baking
up to 350oF. Film thickness
.0003 to .001 in. Stable in
vacuum.

Light duty precision gears.

Low precision and commercial

quality gears. Light loads.
Space gear trains and vacuum.

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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Machine cut
Grinding
Casting
Molding
Forming (drawing, extruding, rolling)
Stamping

Each method offers special characteristics relating to quality, production quantity, cost, material
and application.
17.1 Generation of Gear Teeth
Machining constitutes the most important method of generating gear teeth. It is suitable for high precision gears in both small
and large quantities.
17.1.1 Rack generation This is the basic method of producing involute teeth. The rack cutter forms conjugate tooth profiles
on the blank as the rack and blank are given proper relative motion by the drive mechanism of the generating machine. As the
rack traverses the gear blank, it is reciprocated across the blank face. Cutting edges on the rack teeth generate mating conjugate
teeth on the blank. The chief disadvantage of this method is that the rack has a limited length which necessitates periodic
indexing. This limits both operating speed and accuracy.
17.1.2 Hob generation This is the most widely used method of cutting gear teeth. It is similar to rack generation except that
the rack is in the form of a worm. Referring to Figure 1.39, the central section of the hob is identical to that of the worm and
gear. The differences are that the thread of the hob is axially gashed or fluted in several places so as to form cutting edges, while
the sides and top of these teeth are relieved behind the gash surface to permit proper cutting action. This arrangement, in eftect,
gives an infinitely long rack so that cutting is both steady and continuous. To generate the full Width of the gear, the hob slowly
traverses the face of the gear as it rotates. Thus, the hob has a basic rotary motion and a unidirectional traverse at right angles.
Both movements are relatively simple to effect, resulting in a very accurate process.
A further advantage of hobbing is that the hob can be swiveled relative to the blank axis. This permits cutting helical gears of all
angles with the same tooling.
With regard to accuracy, hobbing is superior to the other cutting processes. Gears can be directly hobbed to ultra-precision
tolerances without resorting to any secondary refining processes.
17.1.3 Gear shaper generation This process, unlike the other two, employs a gear-shaped cutter instead of a rack or the
equivalent. Uke a rack cutter, a given gear-shaped cutter is conjugate to all tooth numbers of that pitch. Thus, a gear made as a
cutting tool can generate the teeth of a blank when the two are rotated at proper speeds. The cutting tool can be imagined as a
gear that axially traverses the blank with a reciprocating axial motion as it rotates. The teeth on the gear cutter are appropriately
relieved to form cutting edges on one face.
Although the shaping process is not suitable for the direct cutting of ultra-precision gears and generally is not as highly rated as
hobbing, it can produce precision quality gears. Usually it is a more rapid process than hobbing.
Two outstanding features of shaping involve shouldered and internal gears. Compound gears and shaft gears frequently are
designed so compactly that a hob cutter interferes with adjacent material.
In such cases, shaping can be used since the stroke of the gear-shaped cutter requires very little round space on one side of the
gear. For internal gears, the shaping process is the only basic method
of tooth generation.
The shaping process can be used for the generation of helical gears. However, each helix angle requires special tooling.
Therefore, with regard to helical gears, shaping is not as convenient and is
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more expensive than hobbing.
17.1.4 Top generating This is a fabrication option utilizing cutters that finisb-.cut the outside diameter of the teeth
simultaneously with the cutting of the tooth profiles.
It can be used in both the hobbing and shaping processes, although more prevalent in hobbing and among the fine pitches. The
main advantages of topping are:
1. Liberal tolerances can be applied to the outside diameter of the blank.
2. The deburring problem is reduced.
3. The gear can be nested on its outside diameter for machining modifications of the
body should such a speaal need arise.
17.2 Gear Grinding
Although grinding is often associated with quantity fabrication of high quality gears as a secondary refining operation, it is also a
basic process for producing hardened gears. In addition, many high-precision fine-pitch gears have their teeth entirely ground
from the blank state.
Gear-tooth grinding can involve either form grinding or the generating process. The latter is basically more accurate because the
dressing of the grinding wheel involves a straight-sided tooth.
There are a number of distinct advantages to ground gears. These are listed as follows:
1. Achievement of high precision is possible because the process can remove very little
material in the final pass.
2. Grinding results in a much finer surface finish than any machining process.
3. Hardened steel alloys can be ground.
4. Residual surface stresses are minimal.
Being able to use heat-treatable hard steel alloys raises the bending stress and surface endurance
stress levels by very significant amounts. See Table 1.23. Often it is the difference between a reliable and unreliable gear. In
particular, case hardened, carburized or nitrided gears offer outstanding strengths and performance. They are typically used for
the most demanding tasks, such as aircraft drives.
Ground gears superior load carrying capacity is not only due to the hardened alloys higher mechanical properties, but also
because of the finer surface finish. A fine finish enables maintenance of a good continuous oil film versus boundary lubrication
and breakthrough. The result is higher load capactry along with reduced wear and longer useful life.
Although there are distinct advantages for ground gears, there are some limitations and disadvantages. These are:
1. Grinding is limited to ferrous materials.
2. Hard metals grind better than soft ones.
3. Grinding of helicals and worms has limitations that possibly involve profile deviations
and removal.
4. Pro-grind hobbing requires special protruberance hobs to provide grind wheel
clearance at the root
5. Gear grinding machinery is scarcer than hobbing machines.
6. Grinding is a secondary operation which increases total gear cost
Despite involving higher cost and other limitations, ground gears are always superior in precision
and strength.
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17.3 Plastic Gears
These can be produced by the normal hobbing and shaping processes. In addition, they can be produced by various molding
techniques. The latter methods are not accurate as cut gears due to shrinkage, mold variations, and flow inconsistencies.
Regardless of method, the fabrication of plastic gears suffers in comparison with metal gears due
to temperature instability, material flow, and generally poorer cutting qualities. Attainable quality is less than for metals and
varies with the particular plastic.
See Section 20.10, which deals with plastic gears in greater detail.
18.0 GEAR INSPECTION
The performance of a gear can be assured only by confirmation of its critical dimensions and parameters. With increasing gear
precision, adequate and proper inspection has become a paramount requirement.
There are many aspects of gear inspection and the subject is too large for complete coverage in this discussion. However, two of
the most basic and important inspection criteria, which will be discussed in the following paragraph, are total composite error
(TCE) and tooth thickness.
18.1 Varlable-Center-Distance Testers
Both TCE and tooth thickness can be measured by means of roll testing with a variable-center-distance fixture. There are many
varieties, but essentially all consist of a fixture having two parallel shafts (or precision centers), one fixed arid the other floating
on smooth, low-friction ways. The test gear is mounted on one shaft while an accurate known quality master gear is mounted on
the other shaft. The pair is held in intimate contact by spring loading or the equivalent. As the test gear is rotated, tooth-to-tooth
errors and runout are revealed as a variation in the center distance of the pair. This variation can be sensed, amplified and
displayed as a dial reading or recorded on a chart. See Figure 1.48. Sensitivity of the measurement is on the order of 50 to 100
millionths of an inch.
The unique feature of gear roll testing is that the inspection parallels the gear in its actual usage.
Thus, roll testing is a functional inspection.
18.1.1 Total Composite Error The TCE is dearly revealed in roll testing and its components can be identified. Referring to
Figure 1.48, it is evident that the magnitude of runout and TTCE can be extracted. From this, the gear quality can be judged.
Also, when parameters are out of tolerance, the fabricator can identify the source of the difficulty and take appropriate corrective
action.
18.1.2 Gear Size If the center distance setting of the roll tester is carefully established, the absolute readings are an
indication of tooth thickness. Thus, in Figure 1.48, the mean line of the trace is a measure of tooth thickness. The high and low
readings indicate the extreme variation of tooth thickness at the nominal pitch radius. Changes in center-distance are an indirect
measure of tooth thickness and must be converted with the aid of equation 22.
18.1.3 Advantages and Limitations of Variable-Center-DIstance Testers The functional test of a gear is desirable as it
reveals characteristics that occur in the real application. Also, the method is rapid and, therefore, suitable for production gear
inspection. Ability to obtain a hard copy record is also a distinct advantage.
Rolling of the gears is not usually relied upon for the determination of. pitch radius. For the measurement of TCE and TTCE,
however, roil testing gives excellent results. Repeatability arid absolute measure are usually good, being in the order of .0001
inch. On the other hand, size measurement is not as reliable as an absolute measure. This is due to the nature of the fixture and
the integration of several error sources in the calibration process. A repeatability of .0002 inch is considered good, and often it is
even better.
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18.2 Over-Pin. Gaging
The equations relating tooth thickness and a measurement over cylindrical pins or rolls inserted between the teeth were given in
Paragraph 4.6. This is a widely used method for gaging gears during fabrication (while they are still in the gear generating
machine) and during final inspection. Accuracy of the over-pins measurement is on the order of .0001 inch.
A major disadvantage of over-pins gaging is the inability to correlate precisely with variable-center-distance measurements. This
is because over-pins gaging is insensitive to pitch-line runout. On the other hand, rolling a gear necessarily involves the TCE and
its runout component. The best correlation is obtained by equating the over-pins measurement to the average value of center
distance found in the roll test.
Apart from the correlation problem, over-pins measurements by themselves are inadequate because the undetected runout can
be out-of-control causing interference with its mate. It is necessary, therefore, to control and to inspect runout.
18.3 Other Inspection Equipment
In addition to the basic inspection methods and equipments described in Paragraphs 18.1 and 18.2, other special-purpose
equipment is available. This includes involute-profile form checkers, tooth-spacing gages and runout checkers. Also, for high
precision gears, equipment is available for inspecting the position error of individual gears and the transmission error of a gear
train.
18.4 Inspection of Fine-Pitch Gear.
Because of their small dimensions, fine-pitch gears do not easily lend themselves to the kind of detailed tooth measurements
suitable for large, coarse-pitch gears. Hence, fine-pitch gears are almost exclusively inspected by functional testing on a
variable-center-distance fixture.
Over-pins measurements are also used, but generally are restricted to a reference measurement, This is primarily used in the
fabrication process as a set-up dimension, and in inspection departments which are not equipped to roll test gears.
18.5 Significance of Inspection and its Implementation
The inspection operation is essential to obtaining a quality product. In effect, it is a policing operation that ensures conformance
to dimensional tolerances and other drawing specifications.
The effort, care and cost of inspection are related to the quality level. Precision-gear inspection demands a much greater effort
than that for low quality gears. Equipment must be of the best grade, calibrated periodically and restricted to use by qualified
personnel. Control of temperature environment is essential for measurements on the order of .0001 inches. The cleanliness of
equipment, gears and working area are also very important.
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GEAR DESIGN - METRIC

19.0 GEARS, METRIC
19.1 Basic Definition.
Metric gearing is distinguished not only by different units of length, but also by its own unique design standard. Historically,
metric gears arose as a result of a different approach to the standardization of tooth proportions and this constitutes a major
obstacle to the adoption of the metric system by the American gear industry.
In the inch system diametral pitch was created as a convenient means far relating pitch diameters to center distance. Thus,
diametral pitch is defined as:

Pd = N = number of teeth per inch of pitch diameter

D

(62)

where: N = number of teeth

D = pitch diameter
Pd = diametral pitch
From this relationship there are particular integer - values of diametral pitch that yield integer values for center distance in
inches. Thus 8, 16, 32 and 64 diametral pitches, to mention only some, can be associated with tooth numbers which can result
in center distances equal to an integral multiple of one inch and/or convenient fractions of an inch.
In the metric system the module is analogous to pitch, and is defined as:

m = D = amount of pitch diameter per tooth, in millimeters.

(63)

N
This defines the module as analogous to the reciprocal of diametral pitch. However, the module is a dimension (length of pitch
diameter per tooth); whereas diametral pitch is the number of teeth to a unit length of pitch diameter. Again convenient center
distances in metric measure are obtained by choosing integer module values and/or selected fractional values.
One consequence is that each system (inch diametral pitch and metric module) has adopted preferred standard values which are
non - interchangeable.
It should be noted that the term diametral pitch is associated with the inch system. In the metric system the nearest analogue to
pitch is termed "module", and the word pitch is reserved for tooth spacing along the pitch circle. In the inch system, the tooth
spacing measure is more accurately called "circular" pitch.
If the equations for diametral pitch and module are solved for pitch diameter and these values equated by introducing the
conversion factor 25.4, we obtain:

Pd * m=25.4

(64)

This shows that inch diametral pitch and the metric module are related by the decimal factor 25.4. It is obvious that conversion
results in decimal values, often awkward numbers, for one or the other measure. It follows that convenient values in one system
will not be convenient values in the other. For this reason each system (inch diametral pitch and metric module) has adopted
preferred standard values which are non-interchangeable. Table 1.32 lists the commonly used pitches/modules of both systems,
with preferred values in bold-face type. Corresponding equivalent values are given, but these are of no help since odd valued
pitches and modules are usually not tooled for.
It becomes obvious, therefore, that direct replacement of conventional inch gearing with metric gearing is impossible. The best
that can be done is to shift to the nearest standard module when converting from the inch system. One should keep in mind,
however, the preferred module sizes which exist in different countries. The degree of non-correspondence between pitch and
module is best measured by the circular pitch and the circular tooth thickness. These values are given in inches and millimeters in
Table 1.32.
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As a consequence, metrification of gearing requires a completely new design with regard to gear dimensions and center
distances. This in turn involves new gear cutting tools.
Preferred module sizes in the United States are established only for the coarser gears by means of IS( recommendation R54 (see
Table 1.33). Judging by their acceptance by the industrialized metric countries, the following modules are expected to be
preferred for the finer gears:
0.3,0.4,0.5, 0.8, 1.0
To facilitate work with these modules we have computerized the basic relationship:
D=m*N
and created Table 1.34 for number of teeth, N ranging from 5 through 205.
The pitch diameters are calculated in Table 1.34 both in millimeters and inches. We expect this tab to be of great help to
designers in developing a feel for metric gear sizes and for determining center distances.
The subject of measurement over pins was dealt with in section 4.6. For inch-size gears Table 1.8 listed the over-wire
measurements. Similarly for module-type gears, computerized Table 1.34 was produced. This lists both pitch diameters as well as
over-wire measurements in both millimeters and inches.
TABLE 1.33 Modules and Diametral Pitches of Cylindrical Gears for
General and Heavy Engineering*
(ISO Recommendation R54 1977)
Modules m

I
1

II
1.125

1.25
1.375
1.5
1.75
2
2.25
2.5
2.75
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
5.5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

Diametral Pitches P
III
I
II
20
18
16
14
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
(3.25)
5.5
(3.75)
5
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.75
(6.5)
2.5
2.25
2
1.75
1.5

14
16

1.25
18

20

1
22

25

0.875
0.75

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19.2 Metric Design Equations
Some of the gear design equations are dimensionless and are derived from geometric proportions and relationships. These
equations will not be affected by the use of metric units as opposed to inch units since the units cancel. lt is important, however,
that the same units are used consistently throughout. When this is not the case the problem of metriflcation can be approached
in two steps. The first step is to express the present inch-base units in metrics and to modify the constants and coefficients
accordingly. This procedure will yield results expressed in the form presently used in engineering practice in industrialized metric
countries.
The second step is to express these results in Si units which differ slightly from the conventional metric units. Thls is true for
stress calculations but does not affect gear dimensioning.
Metrification in the U.S. is taking place at a time when the SI (International System of Units) has been adopted in most metric
countties, but its use has not spread to the practical design engineering profession. For. these countries, transition to the SI
system represents a change which is accompanied by a degree of reluctance. The standardization related to transition to metrics
in the U.S. is expected to introduce the SI units as well, in a single step.
lf we concentrate on the large number of equations which are independent of the system of measuring units, there will be no
problem with metrification. Most of the kinematic design equations that appear American gear texts. and are associated with
inch-system gears, are suitable for use with metric gear dimensions, provided that a proper substitution of module (in) is made
for-pitch.
For equations involving diametral pitch:

Pd

is replaced by 25.4

(65)

m
Recalling that:

Pd * Pc

=
25.4

we find that for equations involving circular pitch:

Pc

is replaced by

(66)

25.4
Note: When converting between metric module and the inch diametral pitch, the conversion factor and relationship can be
remembered from the simple product of the two pitch measures:
m*

Pd

= 25.4

By this means, all geometric and all kinematic equations involving pitch parameters can be used. However, by the above,
conversion results are still given in inch measurements. Thus, this is a way to adapt the metric module to kinematic design
equations given in inch units.
Basic kinematic and geometric design equations for spur gears in both metric module and inch diametral-pitch forms are given in
table 1.35. These equations show the essence of using the modules versus inch diametral pitch.
Some equations which are identical in both systems are:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Over-pins measurements.
Relationship between tooth thicknesses at different radii from gear center.
Long and short addendum equations.
Profile-shifted gear-design equations: i.e., enlarged gear teeth, non-standard center distance
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19.3 MetrIc Tooth Standmrds*
The metric module was developed in a number of versions that differ in minor ways. The German module, defined by the DIN
standard, is widely used throughout Europe. However, the Japanese have their own version, defined in JIS standards. The
deviations among these and other national metric standards are fortunately minor: the various metric standards, differ only with
regard to dedendum size and root radii.
Even these minor deviations are resolved by a new unified module standard sponsored and promoted by the International
Standards Organization (ISO). This unified version, shown in fIgure 1.52, conforms to the new SI system in all respects.
Currently, Germany, Japan, Great Britain and other major industrial countries on the metric system, are shifting to this ISO
standard, which has been advocated as the basis for American metric gearing.

ISO standard metric gear tooth is defined by a rack of module m = 1. ISO gears share many features with inch-size American
gears: 200 pressure angle, plus similar addendum and dedendum ratios.
Tooth proportions for the standard, which applies to cylindrical gears of the spur and helical varieties, are given in terms of the
basic rack, as shown in the illustration. Dimensions, in millimeters, are normalized for module m = 1. Corresponding values for
other modules are obtained by multiplying each dimension by the value of the specific module, m. Major tooth parameters are
described by the standard:
Tooth form is straight-sided and full-depth, forming the basis of a family of full-depth interchangeable gears.
Pressure angle is 200, conforming to world-wide acceptance of 200 as the most versatile pressure angle.
Addendum is equal to the module, m, which conforms to the American practice of addendum equaling 1/P.
Dedendum is equal to 1.250 m, which corresponds to American practice for coarse pitch gears (see Table 1.1).
Root radius is slightly greater than current American standards specify.
Tip radius has a maximum tip-rounding specified. This rounding is a deviation from American standards, which do not specify
rounding. However, as a maximum or limit value, American gear makers are not prevented from specifying a tip radius as near
zero as possible.
Note that the basic racks for metric gears and for American inch gears are essentially identical. For metric gears, specific size
dimensions are obtained from multiplying by m (the module). Gears conforming to diametral pitch American standards are sized
by dividing the basic rack dimensions by the specific diametral pitch (P).
___________________________
Apart from minor changes in wording. this paragraph, including figure 1.52, is quoted or reproduced wilh the permissior of
Machine Design magazine from the following article: "Shifting to Metric", by G.W. Mchalec and F. Buchsbaum Machire Design,
Vol. 45, August 9,1973, pp. 94-97.
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19.5 Metric Gear Standards
With recent increasing presence of metric geanng in the USA it is important that designers and gear users have knowledge of and
ready reference to various metric gear standards used throughout the world.
19.5.1 USA Metric Gear Standards Metric gears designed and produced in the USA should conform to the ISO standard.
This is the latest metric standard based upon SI units which have been
decreed as the most precise metric measurement for standardized international use.
The latest (1989) ISO gear standards are listed in Table 1.36. They can be procured from ANSI. 1430 Broadway, New York, N.Y.
10018
19.5.2 ForeIgn Metric Gear Standards Several of the major industrialized countries that have been dedicated for a long
time to metric measurement countries have developed their own standards for metric gearing. In general they have similar
standards, and since the establishment of ISO and SI units have adopted these standards as theirs.
With increasing international trade and worldwide manufacture of common products, availability and familiarity with appropriate
foreign standards have become important. To serve that need Table 1.37 offered as a listing of key gear standards in use in
several major countries and geographic areas.
ISO 53:1974
ISO 54:1977
ISO 677:1976
ISO 678:1978
ISO 701:1979
ISO 1122-1:1983
ISO 1328:1975
ISO 1340:1976
ISO 1341:1976
ISO 2490:1976
ISO/TR 4407:1902
ISO 4468:1982

TABLE 1.36 ISO METRIC GEARING STANDARDS

Cylindrical gears for general and heavy engineering Basic rack
Cylindrical gears for general and heavy engineering Modules and diametral
pitches
Straight bevel gears for general and heavy engineering Basic rack
Straight bevel gears for general and heavy engineering-. Modules and diarmetral
pitches
International gear notation Symbols for geometrical data
Glossary of gear terms Part 1: Geometrical definitions
Parallel involute gears -. ISO system of accuracy
Cylindrical gears.- Information to be given to the manufacturer by the purchaser
In order to obtain the gear required
Straight bevel gears - Information to be given to the manufacturer by the
purchaser in order to obtain the gear required
Single-start solid (monobloc) gear hobs with axial keyway, 1 to 20 module and 1
to 20 diametral pitch - Nominal dimensions
Addendum modification of the teeth of cylindrical gears for speed-reducing and
speed-increasing gear pairs
Gear hobs - Single start- Accuracy requirements
T-126

Catalog D190

ASB62 1965
AS B 66 1969
AS B 214 1966
ASB2I7 1966
AS 1637

NF
NF
NF
NF
NF

E
E
E
E
E

23-001
23-002
23-005
23-006
23-011

1972
1972
1965
1967
1972

NF E 23-012 1972
NF L 32-611 1955

DIN 37 12.61
DIN 780 Pt 1 05.77
DIN 780 P12 05.77
DIN 867 02.88
DIN 868 12.76
DIN 3961 08.78
DIN 3962 Pt 1 08.78
DIN 3962 Pt 2 08.78
DIN 3962 Pt 3 08.78
DIN 3963 08.78
DIN 3964 11 .80
DIN 3965 Pt 1 08.86
DIN 3965 Pt 2 08.86
DIN 3965 Pt 3 08.86
DIN 3965 Pt 4 08.86
DIN 3966 Pt 1 08.78
DIN 3966 Pt 2 08.78
DIN 3967 08.78
DIN 3970 Pt 1 11.74
DIN 3910 Pt 2 1114

TABLE 1.37 FOREIGN METRIC GEAR STANDARDS

AUSTRALIA
Bevel gears
Worm gears (inch series)
Geometrical dimensions for worm gears Units
Glossary for gearing
International gear notation symbols for geometric data
(similar to ISO 701)

FRANCE
Glossary of gears (similar to ISO 1122)
Glossary of worm gears
Gearing Symbols (similar to ISO 701)
Tolerances for spur gears with Involute teeth (similar to ISO 1328)
Cylindrical gears for general and heavy engineering Basic
rack and modules (similar to ISO 467 and ISO 53)
Cylindrical gears Information to be given to the manufacturer by the producer
Calculating spur gears to NFL 32-610

GERMANY - DIN (Deutsches Institut fr Normung)

Conventional and simplified representation of gears and gear pairs [4]
Series of modules for gears Modules for spur gears [4]
Series of modules for gears Modules for cylindrical worm gear
transmissions [4]
Basic rack tooth profiles for involute teeth of cylindrical gears for
general and heavy engineering [5]
General definitions and specification factors for gears, gear pairs and
gear trains [11]
Tolerances for cylindrical gear teeth Bases [8]
Tolerances for cylindrical gear teeth Tolerances for deviations of
individual parameters [11]
Tolerances for cylindrical gear teeth Tolerances for tooth trace
deviations (4]
Tolerances for cylindrical gear teeth Tolerances for pitch-span
deviations [4]
Tolerances for cylindrical gear teeth Tolerances far working deviations
[11]
Deviations of shaft center distances and shaft position tolerances of
casings for cylindrical gears [4]
Tolerancing of bevel gears Basic concepts (5]
Tolerancing of bevel gears Tolerances for individual parameters [11]
Tolerancing of bevel gears Tolerances for tangential composite errors
[11]
Tolerancing of bevel gears Tolerances for shaft angle errors and axes
intersection point deviations [5]
Information on gear teeth in drawings Information on involute teeth
for cylindrical gears [7]
Information on gear teeth in drawings Information on straight bevel
gear teeth [6]
System of gear fits - Backlash, tooth thickness allowances, tooth
thickness tolerances - Principles [12]
Master gears for checking spur gears - Gear blank and tooth
system [8]
Master gears for ducking spur gears - Receiving arbors [4]
T127

Catalog D190
TABLE 1.37 CONT. FOREIGN METRIC GEAR STANDARDS
DIN 3971 07.80
DIN 3972 02.52
DIN 3975 10.76
DIN 3976 11.80
DIN 3977 02.81
DIN 3978 08.76
DIN 3979 07.79
DIN 3993 Pt 1 08.81
D1N3993 P12 08.81
D1N3993 Pt3 08.81
DIN 3993 P14 08.81
DIN 3998 09.76
Suppl 1
DIN 3998 Ptl 09.76
DIN 3998 Pt2 09.76
DIN 3998 P13 09.76
DIN 3998 P14 09.76
DIN 58405 Pt1 05.72

GERMANY CONT. - DIN (Deutsches Institut fr Normung)

Definitions and parameters for bevel gears and bevel gear pair [12]
Reference profiles of gear-cutting tools for involute tooth systems
according to DIN 887[4]
Terms and definitions for cylindrical worm gears with shaft angle 90o[9]
Cylindrical worms Dimensions, correlation of shaft center distances and gear ratios of
worm gear drives [6]
Measuring element diameters for the radial or diametral dimension for testing tooth
thickness of cylindrical gears [8]
Helix angles for cylindrical gear teeth [5]
Tooth damage on gear trains Designation, characteristics, causes [11]
Geometrical design of cylindrical Internal involute gear pairs Basic r ules [17]
Geometrical design of cylindrical internal involute gear pairs Diagrams for geometrical
limits of internal gear-pinion matings [15]
Geometrical design of cylindrical internal involute gear pairs Diagrams for the
determination of addendum modification coefficients [15]
Geometrical design of cylindrical internal involute gear pairs -. Diagrams for limits of internal
gear-pinion type cutter matings [10]
Denominations on gear and gear pairs Alphabetical index of equivalent terms [10]
Denominations on gears and gear pairs General definitions [11]
Denominations on gears and gear pairs Cylindrical gears and gear pairs [11]
Denominations on gears and gear pairs Bevel and hypoid gears and gear pairs [9]
Denominations on gears and gear pairs Worm gear pairs [8]
Spur gear drives for fine mechanics Scope, definitions, principal design data, classification
[7]
Spur gear drives for fine mechanics Gear fit selection, tolerances, allowances [9]
Spur gear drives for fine mechanics Indication in drawings, examples for calculation [12]
spur gear drives for fine mechanics Tables [15]
Technical drawings Conventional representation of gears

DIN 58405 P12 05.72

DIN 68405 P13 05.72
DIN 68405 Pt 4 05.72
DIN ISO 2203 06.76

NOTE: Standards available in English from: ANSI, 1430 Broadway, New York, NY 10018: or Beuth
Verlag GmbH, Burggrafenstrasse 6. D-1000 Berlin 30, West Germany: or Global Engineering
Documents, 2806 McGaw Avenue, P.O. Box 19539, Irvine, CA 92714, Telex 692 373.
Easylink 380 124; or I.S.L.I., 160 Old Derby Street, Hingham, MA 02018, Telex 948 658.

UNI
UNI
UNI
UNI
UNI

3521
3522
4430
4760
6586

1954
1954
1960
1961
1969

UNI 6587 1969

UNI 6588 1969

ITALY
Gearing - Module series
Gearing - Basic rack
Spur gears Order Information for straight and bevel gears
Gearing - Glossary and geometrical definitions
Modules and diametral pitches of cylindrical and straight bevel gears
for general and heavy engineering (corresponds to ISO54 and 678)
Basic rack of cylindrical gears for general engineering (corresponding to ISO 53)
Basic rack of straight bevel gears for general and heavy engineering (corresponds to ISO677)
International gear notation -. Symbols for geometrical data (Corresponding to ISO 701)

UNI 6773 1970

T128

Catalog D190

B
B
B
8
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B

0003
0102
1701
1702
1703
1704
1705
1721
1722
1723
1741
1751
1752
1753
4350
4351
4354
4355
4356
4357
4358

1989
1988
1973
1976
1976
1978
1973
1973
1974
1977
1977
1976
1989
1976
1987
1986
1988
1988
1985
1988
1976

TABLE 1.37 CONT. - FOREIGN METRIC GEAR STANDARDS

JAPAN - JIS (Japanese Industrial Standards)
Drawing office practice for gears.
Glossary of gear terms
Involute gear tooth profile and dimensions
Accuracy for spur and helical gears
Backlash for spur and helical gears
Accuracy for bevel gears
Backlash for bevel gears
Shapes arid dimensions of spur gears for general engineering
Shapes and dimensions of helical gears for general use
Dimensions of cylindrical worm gears
Tooth contact marking of gears
Master cylindrical gears
Methods of measurement of spur and helical gears
Measuring method of noise of gears
Gear cutter tooth profile and dimensions
Straight bevel gear generating cutters
Single thread hobs
Single thread fine pitch hobs
Pinion type cutters
Rotary gear shaving cutters
Rack type cutters

NOTE: Standards available in English from: ANSI, 1430 Broadway, New York, NY 10018; or
International Standardization Cooperation Centre, Japanese Standards Association, 4-1-24 Akasaka, Minato-ku, Tokyo 107.
UNITED KINGDOM - BSI (BrItish Standards Institute)
BS 235 1972
Specification of gears for electric traction
BS 438 Pt1 1987
Spur and helical gears Basic rack form, pitches and accuracy
(diametral pitch series)
BS 436 Pt 2 1984
Spur and helical gears Basic rack form, modules and accuracy
(1 to 50 metric module) (Parts I & 2 related but not equivalent
with ISO 53.54, 1328,1340 & 1341)
BS436 Pt3 1986
Spur gear and helical gears-Method for calculation of contact and
root bending stresses, limitations for metallic involute gears
(Related but not equivalent with ISO/ DIS 633611, 2 & 3)
BS721 Pt 1 1984
Specification for worm gearing Imperial units
BS721 Pt2 1983
Specification for worm gearing Metric units
BS978 Pt1 1984
Specification for fine pitch gears Involute spur and helical gears
BS978 Pt2 1984
Specification for fine pitch gears Cydoidal type gears
BS978 Pt3 1984
Specification for fine pitch gears - Bevel gears
BS978 Pt4 1965
Specification for fine pitch gears - Hobs and cutters
BS1807 1981
SpecifIcation for marine propulsion gears and similar drives:
metric module
BS2007 1983
Specification for circular gear shaving cutters, 1 to 8 metric
module,accuracy requirements
BS2062 Pt 1 1985
Specification for gear hobs Hobs for general purpose: 1 to 2O
dp., inclusive
BS2082 Pt2 1986
Specification for gear hobs Hobs for gears for turbone reduction
and similar drives
BS2518 Pt 1 1983
Specification for rotary form relieved gear cutters - Diametral
pitch
BS2518 Pt2 1983
Specification for rotary relieved gear cutters - Metric modules
T129

Catalog D190

BS 2519 Pt 1 1976
BS 2519 Pt 2 1976
BS 2697 1976
BS 3027 1968
BS 3696 Pt 1 1984
BS
BS
BS
BS
BS

4517
4582
4582
5221
5246

1984
Pt 1 1984
Pt 2 1986
1987
1984

BS 6168 1987

TABLE 1.37 CONTD. FOREIGN METRIC GEAR STANDARDS

UNITED KINGDOM CONT. BSI (British Standards Institute)
Glossary for gears Geometrical definitions
Glossary for gears Notation (symbols for geometrical data for
use in gear notation)
Specification for rack type gear cutters
Specification for dimensions of worm gear units
Specification for master gears Spur and helical gears (metric
module)
Dimensions of spur and helical geared motor units (metric series)
Fine pitch gears (metric module) Involute spur and helical gears
Fine pitch gears (metric module) Hobs and cutters
Specification for general purpose, metric module gear hobs
Specification for pinion type cutters for spur gears 1 to 8 metric
module
Specification for non-metallic spur gears

NOTE: Standards available from: ANSI. 1430 Broadway, New York, NY 10018; or BSI, Linford Wood, Milton
Keynes MK146LE, United Kingdom.

ADDITIONAL GEAR DESIGN

LITERATURE AND SOFTWARE
From noted authorities
In the field of GEAR DESIGN.
such as:

Earl Buckingham
J W. Dudley
JE Shigley
Clifford E. Adams
and others is made available......
See complete listing with detailed description
and ordering information
on pages T159 and T160
T130

Catalog D190

GEAR DESIGN - PLASTIC

20.0 DESIGN OF PLASTIC MOLDED GEARS
Plastic gears are continuing to displace metal gears in a widening arena of applications. Their unique characteristics are also
being enhanced with new developments, both in materials and processing. In this regard plastics contrast somewhat dramatically
from metals, in that the latter materials and processes are essentially fully developed and, therefore, are in a relatively static
state of development.
Among the various methods of producing plastic gears, molding is unique in many respects. For that reason, it is singled out for
in-depth treatment in this separate section.
20.1 General Characteristics of Plastic Gears
Among the characteristics responsible for the large increase in plastic gear usage the following are probably the most significant:
1. Cost effectiveness of the injection-molding process.
2. Elimination of machining operations; capability of fabrication with inserts and integral
designs.
3. Low density: light weight, low inertia.
4. Uniformity of parts.
5. Capability to absorb shock and vibration as a result of elastic compliance.
6. Ability to operate with minimum or no lubrication, due to inherent lubricity.
7. Relatively low coefficient of friction.
8. Corrosion resistance; elimination of plating, or protective coatings.
9. Quietness of operation.
10. Tolerances often less critical than for metal gears, due in part to their greater
resilience.
11. Consistency with trend to greater use of plastic housings and other components.
12. One step production; no preliminary or secondary operations.
At the same time the design engineer should be familiar with the limitations of plastic gears relative to metal gears. The most
significant of these are as follows:
1. Less load-carrying capacity due to lower maximum allowable stress; the greater
compliance of plastic gears may also produce stress concentrations.
2. Plastic gears cannot generally be molded to the same accuracy as high-precision
machined metal gears.
3. Plastic gears are subject to greater dimensional instabilities due to their greater
coefficient of thermal expansion and moisture absorption.
4. Reduced ability to operate at elevated temperatures; as an approximate figure,
operation is limited to less than 250 degreeso F. Also limited cold temperature
operations.
5. Initial high mold cost in developing correct tooth form and dimensions.
6. Can be negatively affected by certain chemicals and even some lubricants.
7. Improper molding tools and process can produce residual internal stresses at the
tooth roots resulting in over stressing and/or distortion with aging.
8. Cost of plastics track petrochemical pricing and thus are more volatile and increasing
in comparison to metals
T131

Catalog D190
20.2 Properties of Plastic Gear Materials
Popular materials for Plastic Gears are acetal resins such as DELRIN*, nylon resins such as ZYTEL*
and NYLATRON** and acetal copolymers such as CELCON***. The physical and mechanical properties of a these materials vary
with regard to strength, rigidly, dimensional resistance, fabrication requirements, moisture absorption etc. Standardized tabular
data is available from various manufacturers catalogs. In general, the information and data is less simplified and fixed than for the
metals. This is because plastics are subject to wider formulation variations and are often regarded as proprietary compounds and
mixtures. Tables 1.38 through 1.43A are representative listings of physical and mechanical properties of gear plastics taken from a
variety of sources.
It is common practice to use plastics in combination with different metals and materials other than plastics. Such is the case when
gears have metal hubs, inserts, rims, spokes, etc. In these cases one must be cognizant of the fact that plastics have an order of
magnitude different Coefficients of Thermal Expansion as well as Density and Modulus of Elasticity. For this reason TABLE 1 .43A is
presented.
Other properties and features that enter into considerations for gearing are given in Table 1.44 (Wear) and Table 1.45 (Poissons
Ratio).
Moisture has a significant impact on plastic properties as can be seen in Tables 1.38 thru 1.43. Ranking of plastics is given in Table
1.46. In this table, rate refers to expansion from dry to full moist condition. Thus, a 0.20% rating means a dimensional increase of
0.002 inch per inch. Note that this is only a rough guide as exact values depend upon factors of composition and processing, both
the raw material and gear molding. For example, it can be seen that the various types and grades of nylon can range from 0.07%
to 2.0%.
Table 1.47 lists safe stress values for a few basic plastics and the effect of glass fiber reinforcement
TABLE 1.38 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF PLASTICS USED IN GEARS

Material

Acetal
ABS
Nylon 6/6
Nylon6/1O
Polycarbonate
High Impact
Polystyrene
Polyurethane
Polyvinyl
Chloride
Polysulflon
MoS2
Filled Nylon

Tensile
Strength Flexural Compressive
Strength Modulus
(psi x
(psi x 103) (psi x 103)
103)
8.8-1.0
13-14
410
4.5-8.5
5-13.5
11.2-13.1
7-8.5
8-9.5

14.6
10.5
11-13

1.9-4

5.5-12.5

4.5-8
6-9

7.1
8-15

10.2
10.2

16.4
10

120-200
400
400
350

300-580
85
300-400
370
330

Heat
Water
Mold
Distortion
Rockwell
Absorption
Shrinkage
Temperature
Hardness
(% 24 hr)
(in./in.)
(oF @ 264 psi)
230-255
180-245
200
145
285-290

0.25
0.2-0.5
1.3
.4
0.15

M94 R120
R80-120
R115-123
R111 M70
R112

0.022/0.003
0.007/ 0.007
0.015
0.015/0.005
0.007/ 0.003

160-205

.05-.10

M25-69

0.005

180-205
140-175

.60-.80
07-.40

M29 R90
R100-120

0.009/0.002
0.004

345
140

0.22
0.4

M69-R120
D785

0.0076
0.012

Reprinted with the permission of Plastic Design and Processing Magazine; see Raf. 11.
________________
*Registered trademark. E.I. du Pont de Nemours and Co., Wilmington, Delaware 19898.
**Registered trademark, The Polymer Corporation, P.O. Box 422, Reading Pennsylvania, 19603 ***Registered trademark, Celanese
Corporation, 26 Msin St., Chaitham, N.J. 07928
T132

Catalog D190
TABLE 1.39 PROPERTY CHART FOR BASIC POLYMERS FOR GEARING
Water
Mold
Tensile
Flexural
Izod
deflect.
Absorption
Shrinkage
Strength
Modulus
Impact
Temp.
24 hr
*Yield
Strength
@264 psi
#Break
Notched

Units
ASTM
1.Nylon 6/6
2.Nylon6
3.Acetal
4.Polycarbonate
30% G.F
15% PTFE
5.Polyester
(thermoplastic)
6.Polyphenylene
Sulfide
30% Sulfide
15% PTFE
7.Polyester
elastomer
8.Phenolic
(molded)

%
D570
1.5
1.6
0.2
0.06

In./In.
D955
.015/.030
.013/.025
.016/.030
.0035

psi
D638
*11,200
*11,800
*10,000
*17,500

psi
D790
175,000
395,000
410,000
1,200,000

ft-lb/in.
D256
2.1
1.1
1.4/2.3
2

oF

D648
220
150
255
290

Coeff.
Linear
Thermal
Expan.

Specific
Gravity

10-5 oF
D696
4.5
varies
4.6
5.8
1.50

1.13/1.15
1.13
1.42
1.55

D792

1.3
1.69

0.08

.020

0.03

.002

*8,000
#12,000
*19,000

340,000

1.2

130

1,300,000

1.10

500

5.3

1.25
1.42

1.50

0.3

.012

0.45

.007

*3,780
#5,500
#7,000

--

--

122

340,000

.29

270

10.00
3.75

These are average values for comparison purposes only.

Source: Clifford E. Adams, "Plastic Gearng", Marcel Dekker Inc. N.Y.1986. Ref.13
TABLE 1.40 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF OELRIN ACETAL RESIN AND ZYTEL NYLON RESIN

"DELRIN"
Properties - Units

ASTM

Yield Strength, psi

Shear Strength, psi
Impact Strength, (Izod)
Elongation at Yield,%
Modulus of Elasticity, psi
Hardness, Rockwell
Coefficient of Linear Thermal
Expansion, in/in. oF
Water Absorption
24hrs.%
Saturation, %

500

100

D638
10,000
D732
9,510
D256 1.4
D638 15 410,000
D790
M94 R120
4.5 x 10-5
D785
D696

Specific Gravity

D570

2.3
75

0.25
0.9
1.425

"ZYTEL" 100
.2% Moisture

2.5% Moisture

11,800
9,600
0.9
5
410,000
M79 R118

8,500
2.0
25
175,000
M59 R108

4.5 x 10-5

1.5
8.0
1.14
1.14

D792
Test conducted at 73o F
Reprinted with the permission of E.l. DuPont de nemours and Co.; see Ref. 8
T133

Catalog D190

Catalog D190

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Catalog D190
TABLE 1.46 MATERIAL RANKING BY WATER ABSORPTION RATE
Material

Rate of change %

Polytetrafluoroethylene
Poly ethylene: medium density
high density
high molecular weight
low density

0.0
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.015
0.01

Polyphenylene sulfldes (40% glass filled)

Polyester: thermosetting and alkyds
low shrink
glass-preformed chopping roving
Polyester: linear aromatic
Polyphenylene sulfide: unfilled
Polyester: thermoplastic(18% glass)
Polyurethane: cast liquid methane
Polyester synthetic: fiber filled - alkyd
glass filled - alkyd
mineral filled - alkyd
glass-woven cloth
glass premixed, chopped
Nylon 12 (30% glass)
Polycarbonate (10-40% glass)
Styrene acrylonitrite copolymer(20-33% glass filled)
Polyester thermoplastic:
thermoplastic PTMT (20% asbestos)
glass sheet molding
Polycarbonate < 10% glass
Phenolic cast - mineral filled
Polyester alkyd - asbestos filled
Polycarbonate - unfilled
Polyester cast - rigid
Acetal: TFE
Nylon 6/12 (30-35% glass)
6/10 (30-35% glass)
Polyester alkyd vinyl ester thermoset
Styrene acrylonitrite copolymer: unfilled
Polycarbonate ABS alloy
Phenolic cast : unfilled
Acetal copolymer
homopolymer

0.0 1-0.25
0.01-1.0
0.02
0.02
0.02-0.07
0.02-1.5
0.05-0.20
0.05-0.25
0.05-0.50
0.05-0.50
0.06-0.28
0.07
0.07-0.20
0.08-0.22
0.09
0.10
0.10-0.15
0.12
0.12-0.36
0.14
0.15-0.18
0.15-0.60
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.20-0.30
0.20-0.35
0.20-0.40
0.22
0.25
0.25
0.25-0.29
028
0.29
030

Nylon 12 (unmodified)
Acetal (20% glass)
Poly(ancide-imide)
Acetal (25% glass)
Nylon 11 (unmodified)
Source: Clifford E. Adams, "Plastic Gearing", Marcel Oekker, Inc. New York, 1986. Ref 13
T138

Catalog D190
TABLE 1.46 (CONTINUED)
Material

Rate of change %

Polyester elastomer
Poly imide
Nylon 6/12 (unmodified)
6/10 (unmodified)
Polyester-thermosetting and alkyds (cast flexible)
Nylon 6 (cast)
Poly urethane elastomer thermoplastic

0.30-0.60
0.32
0.40
0.40
0.50-2.5
0.60-1.2
0.70-0.90
0.80-1.1
0.90
1.1-1.5
1.1-1.5

Nylon 6/6: MOS2

30 - 35% glass
unmodified
nucleated

1.3
1.3-1.9
1.3-1.9

Nylon 6 (30-35% glass)

unmodified

1.5-2.0

nucleated
Nylon 6/6-6(copolymer)

Source: Clifford E. Adams, "Plastic Gearing", Marcel Dekker, Inc. New York, 1986. Ref. 13
20.3 Pressure Angles
Pressure angles of 14o, 20o and 25o are used in plastic gears. The 20o pressure angle is usually preferred due to its stronger
tooth shape and reduced undercutting compared to the 14o pressure-angle system. The 25o pressure angle has the highest
load-carring ability, but is more sensitive to center-distance variation and hence runs less quietly. The choice is dependent on the
application.
20.4 Diametral Pitch
The determination of the appropriate diametral pitch is a compromise between a number of different design requirements. A
smaller pitch number is associated with larger and stronger teeth. For a given pitch diameter, however, this also means a smaller
number of teeth with a correspondingly greater likelihood of undercut at very low tooth numbers. Larger teeth are generally
associated with more sliding than smaller teeth.
On the other side of the coin, larger pitch numbers, which are associated with smaller teeth, tend to provide greater load sharing
due to the compliance of plastic gears. However, a limiting condition would eventually be reached when mechanical interference
occurs as a result of too much compliance. Smaller teeth are also more sensitive to tooth errors and may be more highly
stressed.
A good procedure is probably to size the pinion first, since it is the more highly loaded member. It should be proportioned to
support the required loads, but should not be overdesigned.
20.5 Design Equations For Plastic Spur, Bevel, Helical and Worm Gears
20.5.1 General ConsiderationsThe load-carrying capacity of a plastic spur gear is reached under a limiting load, which is
determined either by bending fatigue strength or wear(surface durability). The latter is measured by contact stress. The character
of the limiting load depends on the presence or absence of lubrication and its nature, as shown in Table 1.48
T139

Catalog D190
TABLE 1.4 LOAD-CARRYING UNIT VS. LUBRICATION OF SPUR GEARS FOR ACETAL COPOLYMER (CELCON), ACEIAL
RESIN (DELRIN) AND NYLON RESIN (NYLON ETC.).
Natureof Lubricant
Limiting Load Determined by:
Continuous lubrication
Bending fatigue strength
Initial lubrication only

Celcon and Zytel: Bending fatigue strength

Delrin: Wear (contact strength)

No lubrication

Wear (contact stress)

Like metal gearing, plastic spur gears are the most prevalent type and also the easiest to design in
regard to stress level. The design procedure for helical and bevel gears is analagous to those for spur, differing mainly in the
values of the various equation modification parameters. We first consider the design for bending fatigue strength and follow this
with a discussion of design for surface durability (contact stress), For a given spur gear Table 1.48 determines which of these
should be used.
In regard to standards it should be noted that the AGMA standards have been generated around metal gears. An exception is
AGMA 141.01 which is devoted to plastic gearing.
20.5.2 Bending Stress -Spur GearsThe basic Lewis Formula, the use of which for metal gears has been described in Section 13,
is used also for plastic gears with suitable modifying factors. It can be expressed in the form:

Wt = SFY KLKvKt
Pd

(70)

where

KL = lubrication factor
Kv = velocity-dependent dynamic factor
Kt = temperature factor
As already explained in Section 13.1, the remaining notation is as follows:

Wt

= tangentially transmitted Load lbs

S = maximum tooth bending stress , lbs/in2
F = face width of gears, in.

Y = Lewis form factor f (Table 1.49)

ln the event torque or horsepower (H.P.) are specified, these are related to the tangent.ially transmitted load as follows:
Torque (in.-lbs.) = (1/2)WtD
and H.P. = WtDn
126050
where
D = pitch diameter of gear, inches
n = gear speed in revolutions per minute
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TABLE 1.49 LEWIS FORM FACTOR, Y

TOOTH FORM FACTOR LOAD NEAR THE PITCH POINT

Number of Teeth
20o Stub
14o
20o Full Depth

14
15
16
17
18
19
20
22
24
26
28
30
34
38
43
50
60
75
100
150
300
Rack

0.509
0.522
0.535
0.540
0.553
0.566
0.575
0.588
0.604
0.613
0.622
0.635
0.650
0.660

0.512
0.521
0.534
0.544
0.559
0.572
0.588
0.597
0.606
0.628
0.651
0.672
0.694
0.713
0.735
0.757
0.779
0.801
0.823

0.540
0.566
0.578
0.587
0.603
0.616
0.628
0.648
0.664
0.678
0.688
0.698
0.714
0.729
0.739
0.758
0.774
0.792
0.808
0.830
0.855
0.881

Reprinted with the permission of E. I. DuPont de Nemours and Co.; see Ref. 8.
20.5.3 Surface Durability for Spur and Helical Gears Excessive contact stresses can cause wear of the tooth surface and
can be a limiting factor in the performance of a plastic gear. For spur gears which are not lubricated or (in some cases) only
initially lubricated, both contact stress and bending stress should be checked, the smaller load being the limiting load.
For spur gears the Hertzian contact stress, 5,, in the elastic range is given by:

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For helical gears, the contact stress is given by the equation:

The other symbols have the same meaning as in the case of spur gears.
The allowable contact stress is a function of lubrication, gear and pinion material, speed of operation, ambient temperature and
cycles of operation during the life of the gear. The most reliable information on -this point is likely to be that obtainable from the
plastics manufacturer.
In applying eqs. (73) and (74) it is not always easy to predict the values of the elastic moduli. The values given in the literature
such as figures 1.53 and 1.54 are functions of temperature. If the temperature does not vary too much, the ambient temperature
can be used for a first estimate.
For bevel gears the determination of contact stresses is beyond the scope of this treatment and the cited references at the end of
this section can be consulted for further information.

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2. ln determining the Lewis form factor from Table 1.49 the number of teeth should be the formative Numberr of teeth, Nt
where
Nt = N
(77)
cos
and = pitch angle
3. Both bending stress and contact stress should be checked for all bevel gears regardless of lubrication, as either type of stress
may be limiting. The subject of contact stresses in bevel gears is an Involved subject for which the reader is referred to the
references.
20.5.7 Design Procedure- Worm GearsThe design of worm-gear drives involves consideration of a rumber of factors, which
do not arise in the design of spur and helical gears. These include the stresses associated with the theoretical line contact
between the teeth of the worm and gear - and the wear associated with the relatively high sliding velocities at the tooth
interface. Plastic worm gears meshing with either with a plastic worm or a metal worm have been used. In either case the
load-carrying capacity of the combination is substantially less than that of metal gears and worms. For design calculations, which
are the scope of this discussion, the reader is referred to the references.
3.6 Operating Temperature
As a general guideline plastic gears should be used only for temperatures below 250oF, as their load carrying capacity decreases
with temperature. The actual recommended maximum temperature can be considerably below 2500o F, depending upon the
application. Limiting factors include the nature of the lubrication, loads, speeds, thermal expansion, nature of operation
(continuous or intermittent) and the material properties of the plastics involved.
The combination of a plastic and a metal gear improves heat dissipation. If space permits, the plastic
can be proportioned so as to maximize the rate of heat transferred to its surroundings.
In order to estimate the operating temperature limit it is recommended that the bending stress and
contact stress can be calculated, taking into account the reduction in tensile strength and elastic moduli with temperature
(Figures 1.53, 1.54).
20.7 Effect of Part Shrinkage on Gear Design
The nature of the part and the molding operation have a significant effect on the molded gear. From the design point of view the
most important effect is the shrinkage of the gear relative to the size of the mold cavity.
Gear shrinkage depends upon mold proportions, gear geometry, material, ambient temperature and
is usually expressed in inches per inch. For example, if a plastic gear with a shrinkage rate of 0.022 in./in. has a pitch diameter
of 2 inches while in the mold, the pitch diameter after molding will be reduced by (2)(0.22)" or 0.44" and becomes 1.956" after
it leaves the mold. Depending upon the
material and the molding process shrinkage rates ranging from about 0.OO1in./in. to 0.030 in/in, occur in (see Tablet 1.38 and
Fig.1.61). Sometimes shrinkage rates are expressed as a percentage.
For example a shrinkage rate of 0.0025 in/in, can be stated as a 0.25% shrinkage rate.
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20.8 Design Specifications
Basic gear formals have been discussed in Section 11.1, which also included a typical data block for spur gears (Figure 1.47). The
information required for plastic injection-molded gears is very similar. Additional information, which would be useful, would
include fillet radius and whole depth. Other data, which is pertinent to the function of the gear and which the design engineer
may wish to add to the data block, includes the following: material and pitch diameter of mating gear, operating temperature,
lubrication, moisture/humidity data, and annealing, if required.
20.9 Backlash
Due to the thermal expansion of plastic gears, which is significantly greater than that of metal gears (see Tables 1 .40 thru
1.43A) and the effects of tolerances, one should make sure that meshing gears do not bind in the course of service. Several
means are available for introducing backlash into the system. Perhaps the simplest is to enlarge center distance. This procedure
is described in Section 4.10. Care must be taken, however, to ensure that the contact ratio remains adequate.
It is possible also to thin out the tooth profile during manufacturing, but this adds to the manufacturing cost and requires careful
consideration of the tooth geometry.
To some extent the flexibility of the bearings and clearances can compensate for thermal expansion. It a small change in center
distance is necessary and feasible, it probably represents the best and least expensive compromise.
20.10 Environment and Tolerances
In any discussion of tolerances for plastic gears it is necessary to distinguish between manufacturing
tolerances and dimensional changes due to environmental conditions.
As far an manufacturing is concerned, plastic gears can be made to high accuracy, if desired. For injection-molded gears TCE can
readily be held within a range of roughly 0.003" - 0.005", with a corresponding TTCE of about 0.OO1 - 0.002". Higher accuracies
can be obtained if the more expensive filled materials, mold design, tooling and quality control are warranted.
In addition to thermal expansion changes there are permanent dimensional changes as the result of moisture absorption. In
addition, there are dimensional changes due to compliance under load. The coefficient of thermal expansion of plastics is on the
order of four to ten times those of metals (see Tables 1.40, 1.43A). In addition, most plastics are hygroscopic (i.e., absorb
moisture) and dimensional changes on the order of 0.1% or more can develop in the course of time, if the humidity is sufficient
As a result, one should attempt to make sure that a tolerance which is specified is not smaller than the inevitable dimensional
changes which arise as a result of environmental conditions. At the same time, the greater compliance of plastic gears as
compared to metal gears suggests that the necessity for close tolerances need not always be as high as those required for metal
gears.
20.11 Avoiding Stress Concentration
In order to minimize stress concentration and maximize the life of a plastic gear the root fillet radius should be as large as
possible, consistent with conjugate gear actiotn. Sudden changes in section and sharp corners should be avoided, especially in
view of the possibility of additional residual stresses, which may have occurred in the course of the molding operation.
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20.12 Metal Inserts
Injection-molded metal inserts are used in plastic gears for a variety of reasons:
(a) To avoid an extra finishing operation
(b) To achieve greater dimensional stability, because the metal will shrink less and is not sensitive
to moisture, is also, a better heat sink.
(c) To provide greater load-carting capacity
(d) To provide increased rigidity
(e) To permit repeated assembly and disassembly
(f) To provide a more precise bore to shaft fit
Inserts can be molded into the part or subsequently assembled. By subsequent insertion of inserts stress concentrations may be
present which can result in cracking of the parts. The interference limits for press fits must be obeyed depending on the material
used, also proper minimum wall thicknesses around the inserts must be left. The insertion of inserts can be accomplished by
ultrasonically driving in the insert. In this case the material actually melts into the knurling at the insert periphery.
Inserts are usually produced by screw-machines and made of aluminum or brass, It is advantageous to attempt to match the
coefficient of thermal expansion of the plastic to the materials used for inserts. This will reduce the residual stresses in the plastic
part of the gear during contraction while cooling after molding.
When metal inserts are used generous radii and fillets in the plastic gear are recommended to avoid stress concentration, It is
also possible to use other types of metal inserts, such as self-threading, self-tapping screws, press fits and knurled inserts. One
advantage of the first two of these is that they permit repeated assembly and disassembly without part failure of fatigue.
20.13 Attachment of Plastic Gears To Shafts
Several methods of attaching gears to shafts are in common use. These include splines, keys, integral shafts, set screws, and
plain and knurled press fits. Table 1.53 lists some of the basic characteristics of each of these fastening methods:
TABLE 1.53 CHARACTERISTICS OF VARIOUS SHAFT-ATTACHMENT METHODS
Nature of
Torque
Gear Shaft
Cost
Disassembly
Comments
Capacity
Connection

Set Screw

Limited

Low

Press fit

Limited

Low

Fair

Knurled Shaft
Connection
Spindle

Good
Good

Low

Not good unless Questionable reliability,

threaded metal
particularly under
insert is used
vibration or reversing
drive
Not Possible Residual stresses need to
be considered
Not Possible A permanent assembly

High

Good

Reasonably
Low
Low

Good

Good

Key
Integral Shaft

T151

Not Possible

Suited for close

tolerances
Requires good fits
Bending load on shaft
needs to be watched

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20.14 Lubrication
Depending on the application, plaslic gears can operate with continuous lubrication, initial lubrication or no lubrication. According
to LD. Martin lnjection Molded Plastic Gears, Plastics Design and Processing, 1968; Pert 1, August,pp 38-45; Part 2.
September,pp.33-35);
(a) all gears function more effectively with lubrication and will have a longer service life;
(b) a light spindle oil (SAE 10) is generally recommended as are the usual lubricants; these include silicone and hydrocarbon oils,
and in some cases cold water is acceptable as well ; and
(c) under certain conditions dry lubricants, such as molybdenum disulfide, can be used to reduce tooth friction.
Ample experience and evidence exists that substantiates plastic gears can operate with a metal mate without the need of a
lubricant so long as the stress levels are not exceeded. It is also true that in the case of a moderate stress level, relative to the
materials rating plastic gears can be meshed together without a lubricant However, as the stress level is increased there is a
tendency for localized plastic to plastic welding which increases friction and wear. The level of this problem varies with the
particular plastic type.
A key advantage of plastic gearing is that for many applications running dry is adequate. When a
situation of stress and shock level is uncertain, using the proper lubricant will provide a safety margin and certainly will cause no
harm. The chief consideration in choosing a lubricants chemical compatability with the particular plastic. Least likely to encounter
problems with typical gear oils and greases are: nylons, delrins, phenolics, polyethylene and polypropylene. Materials requiring
caution are: polystyrene, polycarbonates, polyvinyl chloride and ABS resins.
An alternate to external lubrication is to use plastics fortified with a solid state lubricant. Molybdenum disulfide in nylon and Delrin
are commonly used. Also, graphite, coloidal carbon and silicone are used as fillers.
In no event should there be need of an elaborate sophisticated lubrication system such as for metal gearing. If such a system is
contemplated then the choice of plastic gearing is in question. Simplicity is the plastic gears inherent feature.
20.15 Inspection
In view of the compliance of injection-molded gears, the dimensional accuracy of such gears is determined by a
variable-center-distance fixture (see Section 18.1). This type of gear testing is both functional and utilizes a much more
consistent measuring contact force than an over-wires measurement. In view of the hygroscopic nature of plastic gears, care
should be taken to minimize dimensional changes between inspection and use of the gear.
20.15 Molded vs. Cut Plastic Gears
Although not nearly as common as the injection-molding process, both thermosetting and thermoplastic plastic gears can be
readily machined. The machining of plastic gears can be considered for high-precision parts with close tolerances and for the
development of prototypes for which the investment in a mold may not be justified.
Standard stock gears of reasonable precision are produced by molding blanks with brass inserts, which are subsequently hobbed
to close tolerances.
When to use molded gears vs. cut plastic gears is usually determined on the basis at production quantity, body features that may
favor molding, quality level and unit cost Often the initial prototype quantity will be machine cut, and investment in molding tools
is deferred until the product and market is assured. However, with some plastics this approach can encounter problems.
The performance of molded vs. cut plastic gears is not always identical. Differences occur due to subtle causes. Bar stock and
molding stock may not be precisely the same. Molding temperature can have an effect. Also, surface finishes will be different for
cut vs. molded gears. And finally there is the impact of shrinkage with molding which may not have been adequately
compensated.
An example is Dupont's. Vespel SP3, a good high temperature polyamide plastic available in rod form. However Vespel for
molding is not available in SP3 formulation another similar Vespel resin must be substituted.
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20.17 Elimination of Gear Noise
In complete conjugate action and/or excessive backlash are the source of noise. Plastic-molded gears are generally less accurate
than their metal counterparts. Furthermore, due to the presence of a larger TCE there is more backlash built into the gear train.
To avoid noise, more resilient material, such as Urethane can be used. Figure 1.63 shows several gears made of Urethane which
in mesh with Delrin gears produce a practically noiseless gear train. The face width of the Urethane gears must be increased
correspondingly to compensate for lower load carrying ability of this material.

20.18 Mold Construction

Depending on the quantity of gears to be produced a decision has to be made to make one single cavity or a multiplicity of
identical cavities. If more than one cavity is involved these are used as "family molds" inserted in mold bases which can
accommodate a number of cavities for identical or different parts. Since special terminology will be used we shall first describe
the elements shown in Figure 1.64.
1 LOCATING RING is the element which assures the proper location of the mold on the platen with respect to the nozzle
which injects the molten plastic.
2 SPRUE BUSHING is the element which mates with the nozzle. It has a spherical or flat receptacle which accurately mates
with the surface of the nozzle.
3 SPRUE is the channel in the sprue bushing through which the molten plastic is injected.
4 RUNNER is the channel which distributes material to different cavities within the same mold base.
5-CORE PIN is the element which by its presence restricts the flow of plastic; hence, a hole or void will be created in the molded
part.
6-EJECTOR PINS are pins-operated by the molding machine. These have a relative motion with respect to the cavity in the
direction which will cause ejection of the part from the mold.
7-FRONT SIDE is considered the side on which the sprue bushing and the Nozzle are located.
8- GATE is the orifice through which the molten plastic enters the cavity.
* - VENT is a miniscule opening through which the air can be evacuated from the cavity as the molten plastic fills it. The Vent is
configured to let air escape, but does not fill up with plastic.
____________
*Not visible due to its small size.
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Furthermore, the shrinkage of the material in the direction of the flow will be different from that perpendicular to the flow As a
result, a slide-gated gear or rotating part will be somewhat elliptical rather than round.
In order to eliminate this problem, "diaphragm gating" can be used which will cause the injection of material in all directions at
the same time (see Figure 1.66). The disadvantage of this method is the presence of a burr at the hub and no means of support
of the core pin because of the presence of the sprue.
The best, but most elaborate way is "multiple-pin-gating" (Figure 1.67). In this case the plastic injected at several places
symmetrically located. This will assure reasonable viscosity of plastic when the material welds, as well as create uniform
shrinkage in all directions. The problem is the elaborate nature of the mold arrangement- so called 3-plate molds (Figure 1.68)
accompanied by high costs. If precision is a requirement, this way of molding is a must, particularly it the gears are of a larger
diameter.
To compare the complexity of a 3-plate mold with a 2plate mold which is used for edge gating, Figure 1.69 can serve as an
illustration.
20.19 Conclusion
In this section we have attempted to highlight the procedure for proper design of plastic gears as well as illustrate the difficulties
and complexities involved in the production of molded plastic gears for technical applications.
It is a fact that many gears are produced by molders for whom a gear is not any different from a
"fancy door-knob". In many instances taking this position is justified - such as toys etc. However, if technical applications and
stringent requirements are involved, it is imperative that a thorough knowledge of disciplines such as: gear design, mold design,
tool-making, molding and machining (for secondary operation) is used in order to produce a superior or even an acceptable
product.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT OF REPRINTS
References:
1. Earle Buckingham, Manual of Gear Design",3 Vols., Industrial Press, New York, 1935
2. Chironis, N.P.(Editor): "Gear Design and Application", McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc. New York, NY., 1967
3. D.W. Dudley, "Gear Handbook", McGraw-Hill, NewYork,1962
4. Knut 0. Kverneland (Editor), "World Metric Standards for Engineering", Industrial Press, New York, NY. 1978
5. G.W. Michalec,"Precision Gearing: Theory and Practice", John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1966
6. J.E. Shigley,"Mechanical Engineering Design", McGraw-Hill, New York, 1963
7. W. Steeds,"Involute Gears, Longmans, Green and Co., London, 1948
8. El. DuPont de Nemeurs and Co., "Gears of DELRIN and ZYTEL", Wilmington, Delaware.
9. Celanese Plastics and Specialties Co., "Design and Production of Gears in CELCON Acetal Copolymer", Chatham, New Jersey,
1979
10. The Polymer Corp, "Nylatron Nylon Gear Design Manual, Reading, Pa.
11. L.D. Martin, "Injection Molded Plastic Gears",
Plastic Design and Processing Magazine , Pt.1 ,pp. 38-45. August 1968.
12. E.l. DuPont de Nemours and Co.. DELRIN Design Handbook", Willinggton. Delaware, 1967
13. Clifford E. Adams, "Plastie Gearing" Marcel Dekker, Inc. New YorK 1986 Literature of general interest:
R.W.Woodbury: "History of Gear Cutting Machines" M.I.T. Technology Press
Cambridge, Mass, 1958
D.W.Dudley: "The Evolution of the Gear Art" AGMA Paper No. 990.14
(Published in book form by AGMA Jan. 1969)
T-158