Electrical Systems

(6E5Z1001_9Z6)
Dr. Mahera Musallam
Email: m.musallam@mmu.ac.uk
Office: E334

Office Hours
Monday 12:00 2:00
Tuesday 1:00 2:00

Power Electronics - Electrical Systems (6E5Z1001_9Z6 ) Term 1

Contents:
Lecture _1 &2
Power Electronics devices
-Diodes
-MOSFETS
-BJT
-IGBT
Example

Lecture _3 & 4
Inductors
Capacitors
Commutation circuits
Examples
Lecture _5 &6
Forward Converters
Lecture _7 & 8
Examples, Tutorials and class exercises.

Power Electronics - Electrical Systems (6E5Z1001_9Z6 ) Term 2

Contents:
Lab Assignment details will follow during term 1

Lecture _1 &2
Power Electronics devices
Semiconductor Switches
Diodes
MOSFETS
BJT
IGBT
Switching characteristics
Devices Protection
Why switching

Recommended Texts:
1. Power Electronics
N.
Mohan,
T.M.
Undeland and W.P.
Robbins
C.W. Lander
B.W. Williams
Kassakian, Schlect and
Verghese

Power Electronics converters applications

and design
Power Electronics
Power Electronics
Principles of Power
Electronics

Wiley

McGraw-Hill
MacMillan
Addison Wesley

2. Semiconductor power devices

B.J. Baliga
S.K. Ghandhi

Modern Power Devices Wiley

Semiconductor Power Wiley
Devices

Power Electronics is all about:

Controlling the flow of electrical energy from a source to a load.
Common sources include:
- single phase or three phase ac e.g. from ac generators
- dc power source e.g. batteries, solar panel.
Loads include:
electrical/electronic circuits (as a power supply)
electric motors (ac or dc to form a motor drive)
industrial processes (electroheat, electroplating etc.)
other power distribution systems (power factor correction, high voltage dc transmission)
Functions can include:
changing the voltage level (or current level)
changing the frequency (e.g. from ac to dc)
controlling voltage, current or power.
Range of Equipment:
from fractions of a watt (e.g. small switched mode power supply)
to hundreds of MW (high voltage dc transmission)
Covers a wide range of disciplines:
semiconductor devices
electromagnetics
heat transfer
mechanical design

Semiconductor Switches *

Devices similar to the ones you will already have heard of (MOSFET, BJT,
Diodes etc) are used but they are often much bigger called Power
Devices

In power electronics, devices are either OFF (no base or gate drive - Mosfet,
BJT, IGBT) or ON (sufficient base or gate drive to saturate the device )

There are three basic classes of switching device:

Controlled devices (transistors of various kinds) ON/OFF can be
controlled by a gate or base terminal
Uncontrolled devices (Diodes) ON/OFF is determined by external circuit
conditions
Latching Devices (Thyristors and Triacs) special devices with ON control
via a gate, but OFF determined by external circuit conditions

*Power Electronics; Converters, Applications and Design, Mohan N, Undeland T. and Robbins W., John
Wiley and sons,inc.,2nd edition, Canada,1995

Major Categories of Power Devices

Power semiconductor devices may be categorised in many different ways:
Voltage rating
Current rating
Controllability i.e. turn-on, turn-off
Switch VA product
Switching speed
thyristor
10
Power

The features of the most

common types of
semiconductor power device
are described in Figure 1 and
Figure 2. Note that to qualify
as a "power device" a device
must have a switch VA rating
(defined as the product of
rated current and rated
voltage) of at least 10VA.

(kVA)
GTO

10

10

10

BJT/IGBT

IGBT
MOSFET

10

0
-1

10

10

10

10

10

10

Frequency (kHz)

Figure 1 Typical area of application for some power switching devices

parameter
typ. min.
voltage rating
max. voltage
rating
typ. min.
current rating
max. current
rating
max. frequency
on-state loss
switching loss
drive
requirements
ease of parallel
connection
ease of series
connection
cost/VA

diode

MOSFET

BJT

IGBT

thyristor

GTO

30V

20V

60V

600V

100V

1000V

50kV

1500V

1800V

6000V

9kV

8kV

1A

0.5A

1A

10A

10A

300A

6000A

1000A

1000A

400A

4000A

3000A

>1MHz
low
moderate
none

>1MHz
high
low
v. low

100kHz
moderate
moderate
high

50kHz
moderate
moderate
v. low

10kHz
v. low
high
low

1kHz
low
high
moderate

moderate

easy

moderate

moderate

hard

hard

moderate

moderate

hard

moderate

hard

v. hard

v. low

moderate

low

low

v. low

moderate

Figure 2. Comparison of some common semiconductor power devices.

Diode
"Simplest" power device but many of the principles of operation of more complex devices can be
obtained by studying the diode.
The amount of current that a semiconductor can carry is not enough to make a useful device.
Most commercial semiconductors are made by introducing small amounts of impurities to an
intrinsic semiconductor (a process called doping) i.e. silicon is doped with arsenic to form the
an n-type semiconductor or gallium (Ga) p-type semiconductor.
Diodes are formed by producing a piece of semiconductor that is p-type at one end and n-type
at the other (p is the +ve region of electrons and n is the ve side.)
As soon as a p-type region with an n-type region is connected, carriers will begin diffusing
from regions of high concentration to regions of lower concentration. That is, holes from the
p region will diffuse to the n region, and electrons from the n region will diffuse to the p
region.

Diode
When voltage is applied across a diode in such a way that the diode prohibits current, the
diode is said to be reverse-biased.

Cathode

Anode

DIODE Symbol
When voltage is applied across a diode in such a way that the diode allows current, the diode
is said to be forward-biased.
The voltage dropped across a conducting, forward-biased diode is called the forward voltage.
Silicon diodes have a forward voltage of approximately 0.7 volts.
Germanium diodes have a forward voltage of approximately 0.3 volts

Types of Diode

Schottky

Voltage/C
urrent
Range
V < 100V
I < 40A

Converter
rectifier

V < 9kV

Fast/ultra-fast
recovery
(often
p-i-n type)

V < 4.5kV

I < 6000A

I < 4kA

Principal Features

Relative
Cost

Typical
application

Low forward
voltage at
moderate current,
very fast switching
performance
Low forward
voltage, high surge
current capability,
poor switching
performance
moderate on-state
voltage, high surge
current capability,
good switching
performance

High

Output
rectifier in
low voltage
SMPS

Low

Line
frequency
rectification
/
conversion
High
frequency
power
electronic
switching

Moderate

Ideal Steady-State Diode I-V Characteristics

MOSFET
The metal-oxide semiconductor (MOS) field-effect unipolar transistor (FET)

MOSFET Symbol

n-channel depletion MOSFET

The n-channel depletion type MOSFET is
formed of a p-type silicon substrate with
two n+ silicon areas .
(n-type in channel and p-type is substrate, +ve voltage
source connected with drain terminal, -ve side with
source, gate must be controlled with Vgs)

p-channel depletion MOSFET

The p-channel depletion type MOSFET
is formed of a n-type silicon substrate with
two p+ silicon areas.
(p-type in channel and n-type is substrate,-ve voltage
source connected with drain terminal, +ve side with
source, gate must be controlled with Vgs)

MOSFET as a switch

Open Switch: i = 0, V = ?
Power Dissipation = Vi = 0

i
R

On/off signal from

control electronics

iD

Gate drive
circuit

vGS

vDS
Q

Closed Switch: i = ?, V = 0
Power Dissipation = Vi = 0

OFF state
vGS = 0, iD = 0, vDS = E Q behaves like an open switch
Linear region
vGS > vT , iD gm(vGS vT), vDS = E - IDR Q has high power
dissipation, VT is threshold voltage, gm a constant related to the internal
impedance of the MOSFET.
ON state
increase vGS until iD approaches E/R and hence vDS approaches 0. Further
increase in vGS beyond this value results in no further increase in iD - this
is the ON state Q behaves like a closed switch (vDS 0)
Only ON and OFF states are used in Power Electronics

Linear versus Switched Mode Operation

In power electronic systems it is common to operate semiconductor devices in switched mode
operation. In this mode of operation the device is either fully on or fully off and the power
dissipation (product of I and V). It is this feature that makes switched mode operation the key to
achieving high efficiency.
iLoad
Vdc

vLoad
d

g
s

id

ON
OFF
vDS
Ideal characteristics

Linear versus Switched Mode Operation

MOSFET i-v characteristics

Bipolar Junction Transistor BJT

A bipolar junction transistor is formed by joining three sections of semiconductors
with alternatively dierent dopings. Two variants of BJT are possible: NPN and PNP.
C
B
E
C
B
E
three terminals are known and labelled as the Emitter ( E ), the
Base ( B ) and the Collector ( C ) respectively.
Typical Bipolar Transistors

Regions of operation
bipolar transistors have the ability to operate within different regions:
Active Region - the transistor operates as an amplifier ,Ic >>Ib

Ic = .Ib, >1

Saturation - the transistor is "Fully-ON" operating as a switch and

Ic = I(saturation)
COLLECTOR

Cut-off - the transistor is "Fully-OFF" operating

as a switch and Ic = 0

IC
BASE

IB

VCE

VBE

IE
EMITTER

Applied voltages

B-E Junction
Bias (NPN)

B-C Junction
Bias (NPN)

Mode (NPN)

E<B<C

Forward

Reverse

Forward-active

E<B>C

Forward

Forward

Saturation

E>B<C

Reverse

Reverse

Cut-off

E>B>C

Reverse

Forward

Reverse-active

IC VCE Characteristics

COLLECTOR
IC
Active Region

BASE

VCE

IB
VBE

IE
EMITTER

The base and collector current are positive if a positive current goes into the base or
collector contact. The emitter current is positive for a current coming out of the
emitter contact. This also implies that the emitter current, IE, equals the sum of the
base current, IB, and the collector current, IC:
COLLECTOR
IC
BASE
The transport factor, a, is defined as the ratio
of the collector and emitter current:

VCE

IB
VBE

IE
EMITTER

The current gain, b, is defined as the ratio of the collector and base current and
equals:

Example
A power BJT switch with equals 10 is characterised in the on-state by
VBESAT =12V and VCESAT =22 V and load resistance RC=10 ohm. If the DC supply
voltage VCC is 40V and the input voltage to the base circuit VBB is 14V, find the
following:
1. Sketch the circuit arrangement.
2. Calculate RB for the given conditions.
3. Calculate the total power dissipation in the transistor.

The saturating load current is:

Icsat= (VCC-VCESAT)/Rc=(40-22)/10=1.8A
Therefore, the base current is:
IBsat= Icsat/=(1.8)/10=0.18A
hence, the base resistance is
RB= (VBB-VBESAT)/IBSAT=(14-12)/0.18=11.11ohm
[3] The total Power Loss within the transistor is:
Plosstotal=VCESAT*Icsat+VBESAT*IBSAT=
=22*1.8+12*0.18=39.6+2.16=41.76 W

IGBT as a switch

IGBT Symbol
gate-drive characteristics of the
MOSFETs (fast switching
capability)
high-current and low-saturationvoltage capability of bipolar
transistors

Id

IGBT characteristics

Vds

Switching characteristics
The operation of switching goes through a transition, from the on-state
to the off-state during which both the drain current and voltage can be
high enough to create substantial power dissipated in the device.
VGS
15V

Switching-off Power losses

Switching-on Power losses

IDS
and
VDS

VDS

IDS

Conduction
losses

Devices Protection
Over-voltages
Over-voltages affect the device when it is off since the device acts as an open
circuit. This situation could be avoided by making sure that the supply voltage is
less than the device breakdown voltage.

Over-currents
An over-current will cause the junction temperature to exceed its maximum limit.
This overheating will eventually cause destruction of the device .
For protection; it is important to ensure that the current flow doesnt exceed 75%
of its maximum rated value. Usually manufacturers data sheets show the
operational limits or safe operating area (SOA) for the maximum allowable
current and the voltage limit.

Why Switching?
Open Switch: i = 0, V = ?

Power Dissipation = Vi = 0
V
Closed Switch: i = ?, V = 0

i
V

Power Dissipation = Vi = 0

Switching means that power electronic converters are theoretically 100%

efficient
Switching on and off gives pulsed energy flow thats why we need energy
storage elements as well to give smooth control of power flow
Energy storage elements smooth power flow:
Inductors smooth current they dont like you trying to change their
current since Energy=Li2
Capacitors smooth voltage - they dont like you trying to change their
voltage since Energy=Cv2

Lecture _3
Inductors
Capacitors
Commutation
Freewheeling
Steady state analysis
Example

Inductors
di(t )
VL t L
dt
Often this is more usefully stated in the integral
form

t2

1
i (t2 ) i(t1 ) VL (t )dt
L t1
This leads to the Voltagetime area rule
Change in current = (area under voltage vs time curve)/Inductance

VTA
I
L

Shorthand for Voltage-Time-Area

We will use this rule extensively in analysing power electronic circuits

Capacitors
dv(t )
iC t C
dt
Often this is more usefully stated in the integral
form

t2

1
v(t2 ) v(t1 ) iC (t )dt
C t1
This leads to the Currenttime area rule
Change in voltage = (area under current vs time curve)/capacitance

ITA
V
C

Shorthand for current-Time-Area

We will use this rule extensively in analysing power electronic circuits

Commutation(1)
Consider a simple circuit
Note: The base drive circuit is not
shown, but we assume that such a
circuit is there to turn the transistor ON
and OFF upon command from a control
circuit of some kind (also not shown).

Gate
Driver
Q is operated as follows:

ON

OFF

dT

(1-d)T
T

ON

OFF

T Switching period, 1/T Switching frequency

d Duty cycle (0 d 1) often quoted as a %
Normally T is kept constant and d is varied by the controller to control the
current in R and L (representing a load of some sort)

Commutation(2)
CIRCUIT OPERATION

Assume initially i = 0

When Q is first turned ON, V = E and i increases exponentially (with time constant
L/R)

When Q is turned OFF i tries to decay

The voltage across the inductor reverses polarity (remember V=Ldi/dt and di/dt is
now negative)

If there was no diode in the circuit, the voltage across the inductor would reach a
very large value and so would the voltage at point X

then either Q blows up, or L blows up

With the diode in the circuit, the voltage at point X rises to E then D turns ON

Current now flows through R, L and D

We say the current has commutated from Q to D

Commutation(3)

Current flows through R, L and D driven by the ENERGY STORED IN L

This is called freewheeling (analogy between inductors and flywheels) - D is

called a freewheel diode

Current amplitude decays exponentially as the energy in the inductor is used up

(dissipated in R)

Assume Q is turned back ON before the current decays completely to zero

When Q is turned ON again, the current transfers back to Q (commutates) and the

process repeats

Commutation takes place very quickly (typically 10ns for low power devices to
10s for very large devices)

We will assume commutation is instantaneous for analysing circuits.

Freewheeling

Q ON, D OFF

Equivalent circuit

Power Electronic Circuit

Assume ideal Q and D

Equation

Freewheeling

Q OFF, D ON

Equivalent circuit

Equation

Freewheeling: Mechanical Analogy

Bicycle Wheel

Apply force increases

Energy is stored in the wheels rotation = 1/2J 2 , J = Inertia

Remove force wheel freewheels

Wheel continues to rotate because of stored kinetic energy

Speed reduces due energy loss due to friction

If no further force is applied eventually it will stop

Our Power Electronic Circuit

Turn ON Q apply voltage to load current increases

Energy is stored in the magnetic field in the inductor = 1/2Li2

Turn Q OFF D turns ON zero voltage across load

Current continues to flow because of stored energy in L

Current reduces due to the energy being lost in the resistor

If Q is not turned ON again, eventually the current will fall to zero

Force F

Steady state operation (1)

In this circuit the voltage across the load (R and L) will look like (if E is DC source):

Control Signal at Gate

ON

OFF

dT

(1-d)T

ON

OFF
T

VLoad
+E
ON

OFF

ON

OFF

dT

(1-d)T

T
T
Its just a bigger (assuming E is big) version of the base drive waveform

Steady state operation (1)

In the previous circuit the voltage across the load (R and L) will look like:
VLoad
+E
ON
OFF
ON
OFF
0
dT
(1-d)T
T
T

The current will look something like:

Eventually, the current will look like ................

Steady state operation (2)

Eventually, the current falls into a regular pattern where the energy stored in the
inductor when Q is ON exactly matches the energy lost when D is ON

This is what we call STEADY STATE OPERATION for this type of circuit

Note that the inductor current returns to the same value at the start of each switching
period therefore the AVERAGE VALUE OF THE INDUCTOR VOLTAGE IS ZERO

Steady state operation (3)

Can we calculate the average value of the load current in the previous circuit in the
steady state?
Hard way find equations defining the current trajectories + lots of pages of
algebra!!
Easy way use the fact that the average voltage across the inductor is zero:

V (t ) VL (t ) VR (t ) V VL VR VR V
i VR / R V / R

We know the waveform of V(t) and can find its average easily:

+E

ON

OFF

ON

OFF

0
dT

1T
1
E dT
V
E
dT

T 0
T

V dET / T dE i dE / R
With this simple circuit we can control the current in an inductive load by varying the
duty cycle and there is no power loss (except in the load!)

Exactly the same idea is used, for example, in many electric railway locomotives, disc
drive motor controllers etc .

Steady state operation (4)

Definition of steady state operation for any circuit with a
periodic switching action

For any inductor in the circuit, the value of the current in that inductor will be the
same at the start of each and every switching cycle

For any capacitor in the circuit, the value of the voltage across that capacitor will
be the same at the start of each and every switching cycle

HENCE IN THE STEADY STATE

The average voltage across every inductor in the circuit is zero

The average current through every capacitor in the circuit is zero

Four Rules
From the previous discussion, we will apply the following 4
rules to circuits that we analyse:

I = voltage time area/inductance

V = current time area/capacitance

(VTA/L)
(ITA/C)

and for a circuit with a periodic switching action (most circuits

we look at)

Average voltage across all inductors (taken over a period) = zero

Average current through all capacitors (taken over a period) = zero

EXAMPLE
A power transistor energises an inductive-resistive load of 40H and 15 from a 300V
DC source. The load has a freewheeling path consisting of one diode D. The base drive
to the transistor is arranged so that it is on for 50s and off for 50s repetitively.
Consider steady state operation conditions.
1. Draw the circuit arrangement
2. What does the voltage across the load look like during switching
3. Sketch the current waveform when all the energy stored in the inductor
exactly matches the energy lost when the diode D is ON.
4. Calculate the average load voltage and the average load current
respectively.
E = 300V

1.

VL

L=40H

VLoad
VR

R=15

d (duty cycle) =50%

0V

300V

2.

0V

QON

DON
50%

50%
100%

3.

QON

iL

DON
QOFF

DOFF

dT
4. Vload
average=((1/T)* E*dT)= 300*50/100 =150V

Vloadaverage=VLaverage+VRaverage =150V
VLaverage=0
VRaverage = 150V
iLaverage = 150/15 =10A

(1-d)T

Lecture _4
Forward converter Analysis
Equivalent Circuits
Inductor Voltage and current waveforms
Transistor and Diode waveforms
Continues inductance current.
Example

Forward converter (1)

The forward converter is extensively used in power supplies above a few hundred Watts
many PC PSUs for example
look at non-isolated version easier to understand

iQ

iL
iD

VS

CS

Gate D
Driver

VL
iO

CO

VO

LOAD

iC

Non-isolated Forward Converter Circuit

Circuit is only capable of step-down operation (VO < VS) hence name buck converter
Q is operated with constant switching frequency and variable duty cycle

IGBT Q

iQ

VL

iL
iD

VS

CS

Gate
Driver

iO

CO

VO
iC

Non-isolated Forward Converter Circuit

Switching
signal

Q OFF, D ON

Q ON, D OFF

(1-d)T
dT

LOAD

Forward converter (2)

ignore CS for analysis

Circuit operation:
When Q is ON, D is reverse biased and is OFF
Equivalent circuit is:

Vs

iL
D

VL

iO
ico
Load

Co

Vo

iL
VL

iO
ico
Load

Vs

Vo

Circuit operation (cont Q ON, D OFF):

VL = (VS VO) iL increases at a CONSTANT rate

VL = L diL/dt

diL/dt = (VS VO)/L

Energy is taken from the supply

Some goes into L [ W = (1/2)LiL2 ]

Some goes directly to the load

Forward converter (3)

Now turn Q OFF, iL COMMUTATES (see earlier handout) to D and D

turns ON equivalent circuit becomes:

Vs

iL
VL

iO
ico
Load

Co

Vo

Circuit operation (cont Q OFF, D ON):

iL continues to flow (D remains ON)

driven by the energy stored in L

VL is now negative (VL = -VO)

iL reduces at a constant rate since we

iL
VL

iO
ico

Loa

Co

Vo

assume VO changes by very little

diL/dt = -VO/L

Energy is extracted from L [ W = (1/2)LiL2 ] to supply the load

When Q is turned ON again at the start of the next cycle, D turns OFF

and the process is repeated

Forward converter (4)

Switching
signal

Q OFF, D ON

Q ON, D OFF

Waveforms

(1-d)T
dT

T
Q ON, D OFF

VL

Q OFF, D ON

(VS VO)

(1-d)T

A
dT

B (V = -V )
L
O

T
Slope = (VS VO)/L

iL

i1

i2

Slope = ( VO)/L

Io

Forward converter (4)

Q ON, D OFF

VL

Waveforms

Q OFF, D ON

(VS VO)

(1-d)T

A
dT

B (V = -V )
L
O

T
Slope = (VS VO)/L

iL

iCo

i2

Slope = ( VO)/L

Io

i1
Energy taken from Co

C
Energy supplied in Co

T/2

Switching
signal

Q OFF, D ON

Q ON, D OFF

(1-d)T
dT

ico
0

T/2

Note:
mean inductor current = load current
CO just has to absorb the instantaneous difference between iL and iO
it never has to supply all of iO
Some energy goes direct from supply to load when Q is ON L does
not have to store it all.

Analysis

Forward converter (5)

Note that if the waveforms are drawn accurately then:

area A = area B since the AVERAGE VOLTAGE across L

must be zero (steady state)

area C = area D since the AVERAGE CURRENT through

CO must be zero (steady state)

Hence:
Area A+Area B =0

(Vs-Vo) dT + (-Vo)(1-d)T=0
(VsdT)-(VodT) -VoT +VodT =0
(VsdT) -VoT =0
(Vsd) -Vo =0
Vo = d Vs
d = Vo/Vs

QON DOFF

iL
VL

iO

switch
control

ico

OFF

Load

Vs

Vo

ON
(1-d)T

dT

iL

IL
T

QOFF DON

iL

VL
Co

iO

iQ

ico
Vo

Load

IQ

iD
ID

Continues inductance current.

Q ON, D OFF
Q OFF, D ON

iL
Threshold condition

iL touches zero
Discontinues inductance current

dT
(1-d)T

Calculate the inductance ripple.

Q ON, D OFF

VL

Q OFF, D ON

(VS VO)

Waveforms

(1-d)T

A
dT

B (V = -V )
L
O

T
Slope = (VS VO)/L
iL

i2

i1

inductance ripple= i2 i1
Maximum inductance ripple= i2

Slope = ( VO)/L

Io

Example
The forward converter shown below has a switch Q which is operating at 100KHz,
the input voltage Vs is 100V while the output voltage Vo is 50V, use Smoothing
inductor value L=60 h Find the following:
1.Draw the equivalent circuit when the switch Q is ON and the equivalent circuit
when the switch Q is OFF.
2.Draw a sketch of the inductor voltage and current during the whole full ON and
OFF cycle.
3.Draw a sketch of the transistor current
4.Draw a sketch of the diode current
5. Show that the output voltage is given by Vo = dVs where d is the duty cycle of
the converter.
6. Calculate the maximum inductance ripple.
Q
L

Load

Vs

Vo

Q
L

Load

Vs

Vo

1.
Q ON,D OFF

Q OFF,D ON
iO

VL
Vs

iL

iO
Load

Vo

VL

iL

Load

Vo

VL

2.

Q on, D off
Q off, D on

Vs -VO

(1-d)T

ton

toff

dT

0.01 ms

-VO

ILmax
Io

3.

Q on, D off
Q off, D on
I transistor

4.

I diode

5.

For steady state

Area A =Area B
(Vs-Vo) ton = Vo(toff)
(Vs-Vo) ton = Vo(T-ton)
Vs * ton = Vo*T
(Vs * ton)/ T = Vo , ton/ T = d duty ratio
Vo = d Vs

6.

iLmax Vs Vo dT
L
T =1/fz = 1/100KHz= 0.01ms,
d =Vo/Vs =50/100 =0.5