Discipline course -1

Semester -1
Paper Geomorphology
Lesson- Geomorphic Processes/Weathering
Lesson Developer:
Dr.Prabuddh Kr. Mishra
College /Department: Bhim Rao Ambedkar College
University of Delhi

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

The above lesson has been checked for plagiarism by the s/w used by the ILLL technical
team

Table of Contents
3. Geomorphic Process- Weathering
3.1 Introduction
Definitions (Weathering)
3.2 Controlling factors of weathering
3.3 Types of weathering processes
3.4 Conclusion

Summery
Exercise
References

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

The above lesson has been checked for plagiarism by the s/w used by the ILLL technical
team

Weathering
3.1 Introduction

Weathering

Everybody knows that a new edifice gradually

deteriorates, the paint chips and peels, wood dries and
splits, and even bricks, stones, and cement eventually
decay and crumble. Left alone, most edifices (buildings)

Weathering is a general term

describing all of the changes
that result from the exposure
of rock materials to the
atmosphere.

decompose into a pile of rubble within a few hundred

years. This process of natural decay and decomposition
is called weathering. Weathering is the disintegration and decomposition of rocks in situ.
Changing temperature, rainfall and rock type have an important inuence on the type of
weathering.
Rocks disintegrate and decompose and move to lower elevations under gravity and are
carried away by running water, glaciers, wind, wave and tides. All these processes through
which there is rock wastage and land destruction or land sculpture are collectively described
by the term denudation (Latin denudare, to sprips bare). Denudation consists of two kinds
of processes static and mobile. The disintegration and decomposition of rocks in a static
process and is called weathering.
Definitions
According to C.D. Ollier (1969) "Weathering is the
breakdown and alteration of minerals near the
earths' surface to products that are more in
equilibrium with newly imposed physio-chemical
conditions.

KEY WORDS
In situ remaining at the same place
Disintegration breaking of rocks
into smaller pieces/parts
Decomposition changing the
chemcals composition of the rocks

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

The above lesson has been checked for plagiarism by the s/w used by the ILLL technical
team

According to P. Reiche (1950) Weathering is the response of minerals which were in

equilibrium within the lithosphere to conditions at or near its contact with the atmosphere,
the hydrosphere and perhaps still more importantly biosphere"
According to Sparks weathering may be defined as the mechanical fracturing or chemical
decomposition of rocks by natural agents at the surface of the earth.
James Hutton
What happens when bed rocks are exposed to atmosphere. He saw an universal system of
decay and degradation. That is he saw weathering and erosion in modern term.
Thus, weathering is physical and chemical changes within the crock materials that take place
as a result of its exposure to the subaerial environment. Geologist use the term weathering
for the total of all the processes acting at or near the earth surface whereby rocks
undergoes physical disintegration and chemical decomposition (Strahler).
Weathering is important because it is a visible proof that geological cycle is operating. It also
shows how geological material and certain kind of the energy react to bring the material
into adjustment with conditions prevailing environments, atmosphere, moisture,
temperature fluctuations, organism etc. Weathering converts bed rocks into raw materials
as regolith, soil, sediments, minerals etc.
The process of wearing away the earth causes a general lowering and leveling out of the
surface. It is known as denudation and carried out in four phases.

Weathering: the gradual disintegration of rocks by atmosphere or weather forces;

Erosion: the active wearing away of the earths surface by moving agents like
running water, wind, ice and waves;

Transportation: the removal of eroded materials/ debris to new positions;

Deposition: the dumping of the debris in certain parts of the earth, where it may
accumulate to form new rocks.

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

The above lesson has been checked for plagiarism by the s/w used by the ILLL technical
team

All four phases of the denudation processes are taking place simultaneously in different
parts of the world at different rates, much depending on the nature of relief, structure of
rocks. Local climate and interface by man.
3. 2. Controlling factors of weathering
The nature and magnitude of weathering differs from place to place and region to region.
Weathering of rocks is affected and controlled by the agents of weathering, lithological and
structural characteristics of rocks, height and slope factors. Besides, climatic conditions,
topography and relief, reliefs, flora and micro fauna also affected direct processes of
weathering to greater extent.
1) Composition and Structure of Rocks
The environment of weathering extends beyond the open surface of the earth. It also
includes pore spaces of bed rock and regolith. Since weathering involves disintegration and
decomposition of rocks and hence mineral composition, joint patterns, layering system,
faulting, folding etc.The hardness of rock materials from 1 (very soft) to 10 (extremely hard)
according to Mohs scale of Hardness. It is misconception that hardness is an extremely
important factor determining the resistance of rocks to weathering, but these rocks break
easily especially in the ease of chemical weathering.
The chemical composition of rock is also an important factor. They also influence
mechanical weathering of rocks to some extent. Light coloured rocks like limestone, chalk
reflect more sun's rays and heat less rapidly than dark coloured rocks like basalt or gabbro,
resulting in more marked blocked and granular disintegration of the latter in the hot
deserts.
Rock Jointing is also an important factor. Joints make available a much larger surface area of
rocks for attack by chemical processes. They allow the entry of water and O2 into the rock
and provide line of weakness for use by mechanical agents of disintegration such as frost
and ice.
2) Elevation
Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi
The above lesson has been checked for plagiarism by the s/w used by the ILLL technical
team

On higher land there is a better chance for active water movement through the rocks while
in low lying areas the drainage may be poor. Moreover the water may become saturated
with dissolved matter and so become incapable of effecting further solution.
3) Nature and Ground Slope
Ground slope controls mechanical disintegration of rocks and mass movement of weathered
products down the slope. The rocks in the regions of steep hill slope are easily disintegrated
due to mechanical weathering and the weathered materials are instantaneously moved
down the hill slope in the form of rock fall, debris fall and slide, talus, creep etc. The
continuous removal of rocks to atmospheric conditions invites for further weathering. The
regions of gentle and moderate ground slope are less affected by mechanical disintegration.
4) Aspect
Slopes which are exposed to wind and rain are more prone to the action of weathering than
the slopes which are sheltered, i.e., the slopes which are not facing the sun.
5) Climatic Variations
Climate is considered to be very important factor of all types of weathering. Climatic
geomorphologists are of the view that each climatic type produces definite conditions for a
particular type of weathering. Chemical weathering is more dominant in humid tropical
area because of more available water and high temperature. Because of abundance of
moisture and high temperature. Leaching process and solution of rocks are more effective in
the humid tropics here mechanical weathering less effective. Limestone is very weak rocks
in humid climatic regions but they are relatively more resistance to weathering and erosion
in hot desert climate.
On the other hand, mechanical disintegration of rocks is more dominant in the tropical and
semi-arid regions. Rocks gets weaken due to alternate expansion or heating during daytime
nights because of diurnal change of temperature.

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

The above lesson has been checked for plagiarism by the s/w used by the ILLL technical
team

The rocks in dry-temperature climates are more susceptible mechanical weathering than
chemical weathering because alternate expansion and contractions of crack, fractures and
joints of rocks due to alternate freeze and thaw of water accumulated in these cracks and
fractures weaken the rocks. Rocks are least affected by mechanical disintegration in cold
climate but chemical decomposition of rocks may be effective provided that the ground
surface is not covered by ice cover for longer duration in a year. Both mechanical and
chemical weathering cease when the ground surface is covered by permanent ice sheets.
Not only have these seasonal variations in climate of a region generated different conditions
for weathering but it has to be seen in integrated manner.
For example, solution, carbonation, hydration and hydrolysis, even oxidation, occurs mainly
because oxygen is dissolved in water.
6) Floral Effects or Organisms
The nature of weathering is largely determined by the presence or absence of vegetation in
a particular region. It may be pointed out that vegetation is partly a factor of weathering
and partly a protector of rocks. In fact, vegetations bind the rocks through their network of
roots and thus protect them from weathering and erosion but at the same time the
penetration of roots weakens the rocks by breaking them into several blocks. Dense
vegetation protects the grounds surface from the direct impact of sun rays. The microorganisms associated with the roots of plants and trees encourage decomposition and
disintegration of rocks through physio-biochemical weathering. It also produces humus and
if rainfall comes to this humus the water becomes mild acidic. Topography also influence
the amount of rock exposure and even more importantly works through its influences on
precipitation, temperature, exposure to the sun and the kind and amount of natural
vegetation.
Because of the important roles of temperature and water and their consequent effect on
organisms it has been suggested that they can be related to climatic zones.
3. 3 Types of weathering processes

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

The above lesson has been checked for plagiarism by the s/w used by the ILLL technical
team

The weathering processes often are slow (hundreds to thousands of years). The amount of
time that rocks and minerals have been exposed at the earth's surface will influence the
degree to which they have weathered. The weathering agents are divided into three parts1)

Physical or mechanical weathering agents

i)
ii)
iii)
iv)

2)

Chemical weathering agent

i)
ii)
iii)

3)

Oxygen
Carbon dioxide
Hydrogen

Biological weathering agents

i)
ii)

1)

Moisture and water

Frost
Insolation (temperature)
Wind

Vegetation
Animals, mainly micro-organisms

Physical or mechanical weathering

The physical or mechanical weathering leads to fragmentation and breakdown of

rock masses into big blocks and boulders, cobbles and pebbles, sands and silts and feldspar
and mica minerals are chemically decomposed and clay is formed. Physical weathering may
be defined as the disintegration of rocks due to temperature variations, frost action, wind
action and unloading of confining superincumbent pressure. Though temperature variation
is a key factor in physical weathering but pressure release, freeze and thaw of water and
thaw of water and gravity also play major roles.
i) Block disintegration due to temperature change
Temperature changes have been reported to have great impact upon many rocks but there
are some rocks which are least affected by temperature changes such as clastic sedimentary
rocks (eg. shales and sandstones) because the particles are separated by thin cementing of
Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi
The above lesson has been checked for plagiarism by the s/w used by the ILLL technical
team

silica. On the other hand, crystalline rocks, like granites are more affected by temperature
changes as particles are closely associated with each other and these particles expand and
contract with increase or decrease of temperature respectively. It has been experimentally
demonstrated that if the temperature of granite rocks is increased by 65.50C, the rock
contracts by 2.54 cm per 30.48m of distance. Contrary to this Black Welder found no change
in the piece of granite rock when he dropped it into hot oil at the temperature of 2000C. It
may be pointed out that contrasting results have been reported about the impact of
temperature change in the rocks.
The products of weathering in hot desert areas are different from those of more humid was
as they are coarse and deficient in clay and organic matter. It is generally accepted that bare
rock surfaces are heated during the day time due to which their outer layer expand. During
night the rocks gets cooled due to relative decrease in temperature which leads to
contraction in the outer layer of the rocks. Thus, the repetition expansion in outer rocks
layer in the hot desert causes tension and stresses which introduces parallel joint in the rock
(Fig. 1).

Fig.1 Block disintegration

(Source: www.discoverfarmingtonmo.com )
The rocks then disintegrated along these joints and broken out in big blocks of rock comes
out from the main rock mass and fall down following the slope under the impact of gravity.
This process of physical weathering is known as block disintegration.
ii) Exfoliation (also called onion weathering due to temperature and wind)

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

The above lesson has been checked for plagiarism by the s/w used by the ILLL technical
team

Exfoliation weathering, also known as onion weathering, refers to peeling off concentric
shells of rocks due to combined actions of heat and wind in hot arid and semi-arid regions
and monsoon lands. Exfoliation is more common over crystalline rocks. The outer shells of
rocks become loose due to alternative expansion and contraction due to high temperature
during day time and comparatively low temperature during the night respectively and these
loosened shells are removed by strong winds. Differential of outer and lower shells of rocks
mass causes flaking. The solar radiation penetrates upto a few centimeters only in the rocks
having low thermal conductivity. Thus, the outer shells of such rocks expand more than the
shells lying just below. This differential expansion of rock shells causes flaking, wherein the
thin rock sheets are detached from the rock mass. These detached rock sheets are later on
removed by strong winds. Thus, sheets after sheets of rocks are peeled off and the rock
continue to be bare. Many of the granitic batholiths, which are exposed above the ground
surface, are being continuously affected by exfoliation weathering (Fig. 2 and 2a).

Fig. 2 Exfoliation (onion skin weathering)

(Source: http://www.tads.co.uk/files/test/page_20.htm)

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

The above lesson has been checked for plagiarism by the s/w used by the ILLL technical
team

Fig.2a Exfoliation (onion skin weathering)

(Source: http://blogs.yis.ac.jp/15ogidoy/)
iii)

Disintegration by Frost Action

Frost action weakens the rocks in two ways, firstly, due to freeze and thaw of water in the
pore/spaces between the particles or grains of the rock and mineral matters, secondly due
to freeze and thaw of water the in the crevice and pore spaces. Repeated freezing and
thawing is a dominant mechanical process of weathering. This exerts tremendous pressure
on rocks wall to tear apart even where the rocks are massive. Water present between the
particle, of porous rocks freezes during night due to fall of temperature below freezing point
and expands due to increase in volume by 10% and thaw during day time due to increase
temperature and the rock contracts in volume upto 10%. This exerts a bursting pressure and
rocks are ruptured and fragmented and wedge apart. This is known as granular
disintegration due to frost action. This process is also produces block disintegration wherein
rocks are broken down into larger blocks which are dislodged from the main rock mass
(Fig.3a and 3b).
Frost action by its tremendous force is believed to rupture even the hardest of rocks. The
more compact and highly consolidate rocks like granite are least affected by this whereas
less compact and loose consolidated rocks are more affected like sedimentary rocks. It is
most effective where there is repeated freeze and thaw and in rocks with fractures and
bedding planes.

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

The above lesson has been checked for plagiarism by the s/w used by the ILLL technical
team

This type of weathering is common in cold climates (tundra, climate of Arctic coastal fringe
and high mountains where it may give rise to several interesting landforms. But it produces
conspicuous effects in all climates with a cold winter.

Fig.3a Frost Action

( Source: http://regentsprep.org/regents/earthsci/units/weathering/weathering.cfm)

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

The above lesson has been checked for plagiarism by the s/w used by the ILLL technical
team

Fig.3b Frost Action

(Source: http://teach.albion.edu/jjn10/physical-weathering/)
iv) Granular disintegration due to temperature change
If the rocks are coarse grained (which we were affected by shattering process and are of
different colours and mineral, they absorbs insolation differently. Thus, the different parts
of the same rock mass receives and absorbs different amount of insolation, consequently
the different parts of the rock are affected by differential expansion and contraction which
causes stress within the rocks due to which they are disintegrated into smaller particles.
Such type of shattering of rocks is called granular disintegration, which is more active in hot
deserts area (Fig. 4).
Did you know
Prominent examples of products of physical weathering
in India include granite blocks near Jabalpur in Madhya
Pradesh, the granite domes of Mahabalipuram ,
especially krishnas butter ball, dolerite blocks in
Singhbhum district (East and west) of Jharkhand and
frosting action in Himalayan rocks.

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

The above lesson has been checked for plagiarism by the s/w used by the ILLL technical
team

Fig. 4 Granular disintegration

(Source: http://www.unis.no/35_staff/staff_webpages/geology/ole_humlum/Greenland19992001.htm)

v)

Shattering due to rain shower and heat

The outer shells of the rocks are shattered due to sudden light showers in hot climatic
regions in hot desert area. Griggs remarked after experiments that small cracks are
developed at the outer surface of the highly heated rocks when light drizzles suddenly strike
them this process works when there in sudden light showers in the hot desert areas. The
highly heated rocks when struck by sudden drizzles develop numerous cracks. The repletion
of this mechanism causes spilling and granular disintegration of rocks.
vi)

Disintegration and exfoliation due to unloading

The rocks, which are buried under thick covers of overlying rocks, are disintegrated when
they are exposed to surface due to removal of super incumbent load to consequent release
of confining pressure. The removal of superincumbent load, very precisely known as
unloading.
The evidences shows that the most massive rocks such as the Ollier mentioned that other
features which could well be due to physical weathering the stresses the reports of
shattered, chemically inert rocks, such as quartzite and cherts in desert regions. He also
mentions way in which boulders may split when forming a part of a conglomeration
Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi
The above lesson has been checked for plagiarism by the s/w used by the ILLL technical
team

material. A boulder half embedded in its conglomerate is free to expand in its upper half
much more than in its slower because of the constraint of the matrix there. Not only it is
free to expand, but it will also receive more heating in its exposed position.
2. Chemical Weathering
Decomposition and decay of rocks due to chemical reactions in called chemical weathering,
wherein the mineral of the rock weather away. Chemical weathering is more important than
physical weathering. This particularly so in the warm and humid climates of the equatorial,
tropical and sub tropical zones where heat and moisture are abundant. Water is the main
agent of chemical weathering, although water in its purest form is almost inactive but when
mixed with oxygen or CO2 it becomes active chemical agent O2, CO2 and as well as water
vapour is present in the atmosphere in abundant quantities near the earth's surface. In
general, chemical weathering progresses towards the formation and retention of those
minerals which are at equilibrium at the earth's surface. The chemical reaction may be
classified as follows.
a) Solution
Solution in considered to be the first step in the chemical decomposition and disintegration
of rocks. Solution refers to the dissolution of soluble particles and minerals from the rocks
with the help of water in motion but a thin film of water around a solid particle also leads to
chemical dissolution. Solution depends on nature of rocks, solubility of rocks or solids and
the ratio between the volume of solvent (water) and the solids. Common salts rocks are of
moderate solubility.
-Calcium carbonates Co CO3 is formed due to reaction of calcium hydroxide (Ca COH2) with
CO2 in the following
Ca (OH)2 + CO2 CaCO3 + H2O
-Carbonic acid (H2 CO3) is formed when
CO2 + H2O H2 CO3
Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi
The above lesson has been checked for plagiarism by the s/w used by the ILLL technical
team

Some minerals, such as rock salt and gypsum, are removed by the process of solution in
water.
b) Oxidation
The chemical process of oxidation simply means a reaction of atmospheric oxygen to form
oxides. The presence of O2 in water in contact with mineral surface leads to oxidation. In
other word, the atmospheric oxygen after reaching to the rocks produces several type of
oxides, iron oxide being the most important which weakens the rocks to disintegration.
When the water mixed with atmospheric O2 comes in contact with iron bearing rocks, the
iron oxide do form ferrous oxides (FeO). The further oxidation of ferrous oxide produces
ferric oxide (Fe, O3) or ferric hydroxides (Fe (OH2)).
Oxidation of iron bearing rocks reproduces rusts in the following manner:
Fe + H2O + O2 Fe2 O3. 3H2O
The rusting of rocks weakens them and ultimately the rocks are disintegrated. The ferric
oxide and ferric hydroxides give red and yellow colours to many rocks and soil.
c) Carbonation
Carbonation is the reaction of carbonate or bicarbonate ions with mineral. The process of
carbonation is also known as 'solution' wherein atmospheric CO2 after mixing with water
forms carbonic acid which after reacting with carbonate rocks, say limestone (CaCO3) forms
calcium bicarbonate (Ca(HCO3)2) which is easily dissolved in water.
Many kind of rocks are affected by this process because calcite is a common mineral in
many rocks. The effect of carbonation is seen in other minerals and rocks as well. Carbonic
acid disrupts the crystalline structure of feldspar and the most common by product of the
chemical breakdown of feldspar is clay minerals. The granite which consists mainly of quartz
and feldspar, changes into clay by decomposition of feldspar but quartz which is resistant to
chemical weathering remains substantially unaltered.
Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi
The above lesson has been checked for plagiarism by the s/w used by the ILLL technical
team

d) Hydrolysis and hydration

Hydration involves the action of water or mineral i.e. absorption of water by mineral.
Minerals expand when they absorb water and alternate wetting and drying causes cracks.
For eg. clays can expand by > 35% during hydration. Hydration alone fragments shale.
Hydrolysis involves the combined action of water and carbon dioxide on rocks. It is usually
found in conjunction with hydration.
Chemical weathering assists in the disintegration of rocks in three different ways:
a. by weakening the coherence between minerals, so that the rocks more easily
succumbs to the action of the physical agents;
b. by the formation of solutions which are washed down by rain and the rock becomes
porous and ready to crumble; and
c. by the formation of altered products which have greater volume than the original
material, so that the outer shall swells and pulls away from the unaffected rock
underneath.
The process whereby the increase in bulk of the outer layer exerts an outward forced strong
enough to cause concentric layers of rock to break loose and fall off is known as spheroidal
weathering. It is developed in rocks with regular joints systems, like basalt and dolerite,
which are readily, decompose. Water penetrates the intersecting joints and attacks each
separate block from all sides. As the decay is more at the corners and edges, they tend to
become rounded. As the upper shell breaks loose, a new surface is presented to the
weathering solutions and the process is repeated, helped by temperature changes. Each
successive warping surrounding the core becomes more speroidal than its outer shell and
the angular block is transformed into an onion Like structure of concentric shells of
residual material. Cores of more coherent rock may stand out like boulders when their outer
wrappings have been washed away.
3) Biological or Biotic Weathering
Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi
The above lesson has been checked for plagiarism by the s/w used by the ILLL technical
team

Plants and animals including man largely control the breakdown of rocks. It may be pointed
out that in all types of weathering in all climatic regions biotic communities play some roles
in one way or the other. It does not mean that biotic communities always indulge in
destructive work by disintegrating and decomposing the rocks, but the burrowing animals
definitely help in the transfer of soils from lower to upper and upper to lower horizons and
thus the mixing of geo-materials activates weathering.
Recently man has become the most powerful weathering agent because of the
development of modern technologies.
Biotic weathering can be divided into three types.
a) Faunal weathering
The burrowing animals, worms and other organisms help in gradual breakdown of
rocks or fragments thereof. Burrowing animals (rats, termites, jackals, rabbits etc.), which
dug out burrows and tunnels in the rocks and unconsolidated geo-materials as their living
places and by doing so they weather the rocks and geo-materials to a great extent. Small
organisms play more important roles in rocks and soil weathering. These organisms
repeatedly mix up the soil materials and thus act as the agents of weathering. They also help
in moving the organic matter downward into the soil profiles and thus extend the
weathering at greater depths which otherwise would have not been possible.
It is believed that there are about 1, 50,000 creatures, big and smalls, in one acre of land
and these organisms bring about 15 tonnes of soils at the surface from below every year.
b) Floral weathering
Vegetations protect the rocks and soils from weathering processes. But at the same
time these are the agents of weathering. Weathering of rocks by vegetations takes place in
two ways viz. (i) Physical weathering (ii) Chemical weathering which is called as bio-chemical
weathering. it may be pointed out that floral weathering does not take place independently
rather it helps the physical and chemical processes of weathering in a no. of ways (i) cracks
Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi
The above lesson has been checked for plagiarism by the s/w used by the ILLL technical
team

are widened by root penetration and consequent root pressure. (ii) Dense vegetation cover
generation distinct microclimate at the ground surface.
The soil atmosphere is largely affected by root respiration, humus content, increased
moisture due to low rate of evaporation, increased content of organic CO 2, low
temperature, all of which activate chemical weathering.
Bio-chemical weathering refers to decomposition and disintegration of rocks due to organic
materials of both flora and fauna. A complex set of different biochemical processes such as
cation root exchange, chelation, and solution by root exudates and production of different
kinds of organic acids such as humic acids, micro-faunal acids etc. produced by organic
materials help in the decomposition and disintegration of rocks and soils.
c) Anthropogenic weathering
Man being a biological agent accelerates and decelerates the natural rates of weathering by
many folds. The economic and technological man lashed with modern technologies has
become the most powerful weathering and erosion agent. Mining activities for extraction of
minerals, blasting of hills and ridges by dynamites for road and dam construction and
mineral extraction, quarrying for industrial and building material etc. result in such fast
weathering that this may be accomplished by natural weathering processes in thousands to
millions of years. Man by deforestation accelerates the rate of weathering on hill slopes
which reduce mechanical reinforcement and cohesion of unconsolidated geo-materials and
thus increase slope instability which cause slope failures and results in landslides, slumping
and debris fall and slides.

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

The above lesson has been checked for plagiarism by the s/w used by the ILLL technical
team

Fig. 5 Diagram illustrating plant and fungal controls on soil mineral weathering and element
cycling.
( Source: http://elements.geoscienceworld.org/cgi/content-nw/full/3/5/327/FIG3)
Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi
The above lesson has been checked for plagiarism by the s/w used by the ILLL technical
team

To watch video on Weathering click on following web link:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CLFfmeirwjg

Table.1 Weathering Environments

Weathering
Environments
Humid Tropical

Characteristics Processes

Seasonal tropics
with marked dry
season

Arid

Humid
temperature

Periglacial areas

Arctic

Chemical activity dominant in high temperature and high rainfall

Thick regolith and rapidly decaying vegetation, releasing acids
Even silica may be dissolved under these conditions, leaving
bauxite/Laterite.
Rivers carry more than ten times the solute load of temperature
reverse.
The wet season has a marked leaching of salts brought near the
surface in the dry seasons by high evaporation rates.
Laterite forms commonly, impeding drainage. Some insolation
weathering
Capillary action leads to the surface concentration of salts
forming desert varnish.
Water assists simple chemical processes, but little clay or solutes
are produced.
Water available for medium rates of chemical reactions. Low
evaporation rates produce little capillary action. Freeze-thaw
important in winter.
Freezing through long winter; freeze thaw in spring and autumn;
water available for chemical activity in summer.
Snow-ice mantle. Nunataks, frost driven, carbonation beneath
ice when it melts.

3. 4. Conclusion
Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi
The above lesson has been checked for plagiarism by the s/w used by the ILLL technical
team

Geomorphic Importance of weathering

1) Production of Rocks Waste
Rocks are disintegrated and decomposed and ultimately are broken down into smaller
pieces due to various kinds weathering processes (chemical, physical etc.) operating on it.
Thus, this produces immense kinds of rocks a waste or weathered materials. These
weathered materials lying over un-weathered fresh rocks. The depth of weathering zone
varies from place to place and region to region depending upon the depth of water table
and duration of weathering.
The weathered material are important economically as they help in the process of soil
formation, they expose minerals etc. Weathering also causes landslides which damages to
human settlements in the foothill zones, causes obstructive men the river and hence
become lakes.
2)

Weathering helps Economical Processes

Weathering loosens the rocks by disintegration and decomposing them and thus paved the
way for erosional processed to operate easily. Different agents of erosion, like running
water in humid regions, arid in hot and semi arid regions, glaciers in cold regions and sea
waves operating along coastal zones obtain these weathered materials and move them to
other places. The rapid rate of weathering has accelerated the rate of erosion of rocks of the
hill ranges with the result most of the rivers have become overloaded and sluggish because
millions tones of eroded sediments are reaching the major rivers every year. This in turns
provide us with rich fertile soil over which our agriculture is based on.
3) Lowering of surface
Continuous removal and transfer of weathered materials through different processes of
mass-translocation of rock wastes such as landslides, debrislides, rocks fall, creeps etc. and
by the agent of erosion causes gradual lowering of the height of the affected area.
4) Evaluation of landforms and their modification
Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi
The above lesson has been checked for plagiarism by the s/w used by the ILLL technical
team

Differential weathering helps in the evolution of different types of landforms. Weathering

plays important role in the development of stone lattice (in not deserts), tors, buttes, talus,
cones, talus fans etc.
Weathering and erosion goes hand in hand and thus and this it is not wise to separate the
inseparable, so it is difficult to ascertain the quantum of work done by weathering and
erosion in the development of a particular type of landform.
Internet Search

Summary

Try to find out the images, sketches and

diagrams on weathering and additional
information to enrich your knowledge base.

Weathering is a breakdown of rocks in situ.

Weathering is of three types, all inter dependent Mechanical, Chemical and

Biological.

Mechanical weathering is accomplished by physical forces that break rock into

smaller and smaller pieces without changing the rock's mineral composition.

Chemical weathering involves breaking down rock components and internal

structure and forming new compounds.

Carbonic acid is the prime agent of chemical weathering, heat and moisture speed
chemical reactions.

The effectiveness of weathering depends on such factors as rock type and structure,
surface slope, local climate, biological activity and the time over which weathering
process operate.

Whereas weathering breaks rocks apart, erosion removes rock debris by mobile
agents such as water, wind, or ice.

Exercises
1. What do you understand by weathering? List the types of weathering.
2. Discuss the processes which are involved in the physical weathering.
Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi
The above lesson has been checked for plagiarism by the s/w used by the ILLL technical
team

3. Differentiate mechanical weathering from chemical weathering and give the

examples of each?
4. Name the rock types which are most susceptible to chemical weathering processes?
5. Explain why fracture zones and joints are important in weathering processes.
6. When freeze-thaw weathering does happen?
7. Which rocks are weathered by carbonation?
8. Name the controlling factors of weathering.
9. Explain how rock types, topography, and time influence the types of soil produced by
weathering.
10. Explain spheroidal weathering?
11. Why chemical weathering is faster in tropics than other regions?

References
Birkeland P.W. 1984. Soils and Geomorphology. New York, Oxford University Press.
Nahon D.B., 1991. Introduction to the Petrology of Soils and Chemical Weathering. John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York.
Robinson D.A., and Williams R.B.G., 1994. Rock Weathering and Landform Evolution. John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York
Berner, E. B., and R. A. Berner. 1996. Global Environment: Water, Air, and Geochemical
Cycles. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
Bland, W., and D. Rolls. 1998. Weathering : An Introduction to the Scientific Principles . New
York: Arnold.
Colman, S. M., and D. P. Dethier. 1986. Rates of Chemical Weathering of Roc ks and
Minerals. New York: Academic Press.
Ollier, C.and Pain, C. 2000. The Origin of Mountains ,Routledge.
Singh, S. 1998. Geomorphology, Prayag Pustak Bhawan, Allahabad.
Dayal, P. 1976. A Text Book of Geomorphology, Shukla Book Dept, Patna.
Strahler, A.N. & A.R. Strahler 1978. Modern Physical Geography, John Wiley.
Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi
The above lesson has been checked for plagiarism by the s/w used by the ILLL technical
team

Steers, J.A , 1961. The Unstable Earth, Lyell Book Dept, Ludhiana.
Kale V. and Gupta, A. 2001. Elements of Geomorphology. Oxford University Press, Calcutta.
Bharatdwaj,K. 2006. Physical Geography: Introduction to Earth. Discovery Publishing
House,Delhi.
Leong G.C. 2006 Certificate Physical and Human Geography, Oxford India.
Bunnett, R.B. 1965. Physical Geography in Diagrams, Pearson Education, India.
Bloom, Arthur L., (2003) Geomorphology: A Systematic Analysis of Late Cenozoic Landforms.
First Indian Reprint. Delhi: Pearson Education (Singapore) Pvt. Ltd.
Chorley, Richard J., Schumm, Stanley A. and Sugden, David E., (1984) Geomorphology.
London: Methuen & Co. Ltd.
Engeln, O. D. von, Geomorphology. (1960) New York: The Macmillan Company.
Suggested Readings
Thornbury, W. D. (2004) Principles of Geomorphology, CBS Publishers, Delhi.
Strahler, A. and Strahler, A. (2002) Physical Geography: Science and Systems of the
Human Environment, John Wiley and sons, New York.

Web Links
1. http://www.earthds.info/pdfs/EDS_10.PDF
2. http://elements.geoscienceworld.org/cgi/content-nw/full/3/5/327/FIG3
3. http://regentsprep.org/regents/earthsci/units/weathering/weathering.cfm
4. http://www.unis.no/35_staff/staff_webpages/geology/ole_humlum/Greenland19992001.htm
5. http://blogs.yis.ac.jp/15ogidoy/
6. http://teach.albion.edu/jjn10/physical-weathering/

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

The above lesson has been checked for plagiarism by the s/w used by the ILLL technical
team