Alip, Francis

November 16, 2014

Period 2A

III. Cognitive Level of Analysis

Learning Outcomes:
I.

Historical and Cultural Development of Cognitive Level of Analysis

A. The cognitive level of analysis studies cognition: all the
mental structures and processes involved in the reception,
storage, and use of knowledge.
B. The cognitive level of analysis studies the mind, according
to this approach it is an information-processing system,
functions much like a computer
C. Cognitive psychology studies cognition, viewed in terms of
information-processing, by means of established scientific
methods
D. Behaviorism was a very influential 20th century movement,
based on the premise that mental processes could not be
studied scientifically, called behaviorists
E. Watson (1913), father of behaviorism
F. Pavlov (1928), influential in his studies of classical
conditioning, dogs and salivation
a. The researcher conducting this study was Ivan Pavlov
b. Aim: to observe the process of salivation in dogs,
which would lead to the discovery of classical
conditioning, in which an organism comes to
associate stimuli
c. Method: laboratory experiment
d. Procedure: They paired various neutral stimuli, such as
a tone, with food in the mouth to see if the dog would
begin salivating to the neutral stimuli alone. To
eliminate the possible influence of extraneous stimuli,
they isolated the dog in a small room, secured it in a
harness, and attached a device that diverted its saliva
to a measuring instrument. From an adjacent room
they could present food, at first by sliding in a food
bowl, later by blowing meat powder into the dogs
mouth at a precise moment. Just before placing food
in the dogs mouth to produce salivation, Pavlov
sounded a tone

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e. Results: After several pairings of tone and food, the

dog began salivating to the tone alone, in
anticipation of the meat powder. Using this procedure,
Pavlov conditioned dogs to salivate to other stimuli, a
buzzer, a light, a touch on the leg, even the sight of a
circle
f. Interpretation of Results: Pavlov repeatedly presented
a neutral stimulus (tone) just before an unconditioned
stimulus (UCS, food) that triggered an unconditioned
response (UCR, salivation). After several repetitions, the
tone alone (now the conditioned stimulus, CS) began
triggering a conditioned response (CR, salivation). The
dogs would associate the two stimuli.
g. Evaluation: advantages include that the experiment
was tightly controlled, to reduce extraneous variables,
it has many real-world applications, especially in
animal training, disadvantages include that it does not
account for unobservable or complex behaviors, and
its explanations are too limited and simplistic
h. Application to outcome: Pavlovs legacy includes that
he taught that principles of learning apply across
species, that significant psychological phenomena
can be studied objectively, and that conditioning
principles have important practical applications,
contributing to the formation of the cognitive level of
analysis
G. Skinner (1938), influential in his studies of operant
conditioning, rats, positive and negative reinforcement,
Skinner box
a. The researcher conducting this study was B. F. Skinner
b. Aim: to explore the precise conditions that foster
efficient and enduring learning
c. Method: laboratory experiment
d. Procedure: Skinner designed an operant chamber,
also known as the Skinner box. The box is typically
soundproof, with a bar or key that an animal presses or
pecks to release a reward of food or water, and a
device that records these responses
e. Results: Skinner was able to explore the principles of
reinforcement, that is any event that increases the

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November 16, 2014
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frequency of a preceding response, as well as

reinforcement schedules, including fixed-ratio,
variable-ratio, fixed-interval, and variable-interval
schedules, in which the desired response is reinforced
every time it occurs
f. Interpretation of Results: Skinner showed that when
placed in an operant chamber, rats or pigeons can
be shaped to display successively closer
approximations of a desired behavior. Researchers
have also studied the effects of primary and
secondary reinforces, and of immediate and delayed
reinforces. Partial reinforcement schedules (fixed-ratio,
variable-ratio, fixed-interval, variable-interval) produce
slower acquisition of the target behavior than does
continuous reinforcement, but they also create more
resistance to extinction. Punishment is most effective
when it is strong, immediate, and consistent, however
it can have undesirable side effects
g. Evaluation: Skinners theory of operant conditioning
can be used to explain a wide variety of behaviors, as
well as has a large number of applications in the realworld. The Skinner box also provides a controlled
environment, to reduce extraneous variables, however
it places too much emphasis on the external control of
behavior, and operant conditioning fails to taken into
account the role of inherited and cognitive factors in
learning
h. Application to outcome: Skinner stimulated vigorous
intellectual debate on the nature of human freedom
and the strategies and ethics of managing people.
Nevertheless, his operant principles are being applied
in schools, the workplace, and homes, contributing to
the formation of the cognitive level of analysis
H. Bandura (1977), influential in his studies of observational
learning, observing and imitating others
II.

Principles of the Cognitive Level of Analysis

A. Outline principles that define the cognitive level of analysis

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a. Mental processes can and should be studied

scientifically
Based on the following claims:
Viewing mental processes in terms of
informational-processing has made it possible
to formulate testable theories
Such models or theories can be tested by
conventional scientific methods (e.g.
laboratory experiments, brain-imaging studies)
without having to rely on introspection for data
collection
The study of mental processes has enabled
psychologists to address important
psychological phenomena which behaviorism
found difficult, or even impossible to address
The flourishing state of modern cognitive
psychology, cognitive neuroscience, and
other related fields, bear witness to the success
of addressing psychological phenomena at
the cognitive level of analysis
The study of phenomena at the cognitive level
of analysis can often be integrated with the
study of these same phenomena at the
biological and sociocultural levels thus leading
to more comprehensive explanations
1. Loftus and Palmer, 1974
i. The researchers conducting this study
were Loftus and Palmer
ii. Aim: to test their hypothesis that the
language used in eyewitness testimony
can alter memory. Thus, they aimed to
show that leading questions could distort
eyewitness testimony accounts and so
have a confabulating effect, as the
account would become distorted by cues
provided in the question
iii. Method: laboratory experiment
iv. Procedure: Participants in this study
watched seen film clips of different car
accidents. After each clip, participants

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described what they saw and answered a

number of questions about it. One of the
questions, the critical question, asked
about the speed of the cars in the
accident. The experiment involved five
experimental conditions which were
defined by the verb used to ask the
question about the cars speed. The
critical question in one of the conditions
was: About how fast were the cars going
when they hit each other. For the other
conditions the verb hit was replaced with
contacted, collided, bumped, and
smashed into.
v. Interpretation of Results: Loftus and Palmer
found that the speed estimates were
influenced by the wording used:
contacted 31.8 mph
hit 34 mph
bumped 38.1 mph
collided 39.3 mph
smashed into 40.8
They argue that the results could be due
to a distortion in the memory of the
participant. The memory of how fast the
cars were travelling could have been
distorted by the verbal label which had
been used to characterize the intensity of
the crash. Additionally, Loftus and Palmer
argue that the results could be due to
response-bias factors, in which case the
participant is not sure of the exact speed
and therefore adjusts his or her estimate to
fit in with the expectations of the
questioner. (This is also an example of a
demand characteristic)
vi. There was also another experiment
conducted similar to the first:
vii. Aim: to provide additional insights into the
origin of the different speed estimates. In

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viii.
ix.

x.

xi.

xii.

particular they wanted to find out if the

participants memories really had been
distorted by the verbal label
Method: laboratory experiment
Procedure: One group of participants was
asked how fast the cars were going when
they smashed into each other, and
another group was asked the same thing
but smashed was replaced with hit. The
third group wasnt asked for any speed
estimates. They were the control group.
One week later, participants were asked if
they had seen any broken glass in the film
clip. There wasnt any, but the dependent
variable measured how many participants
said they had in fact seen broken glass.
The independent variable was the verbs
changed in the question to each group of
participants
Results: participants who were asked how
fast the cars were going when they
smashed were more likely to report seeing
broken glass
Interpretation of results: This research
suggests that memory is easily distorted by
questioning technique and information
acquired after the event can merge with
original memory causing inaccurate recall
or reconstructive memory. The results from
experiment two suggest that this effect is
not just due to a response-bias because
leading questions actually altered the
memory a participant had for the event.
Evaluation: The experiment was rigorously
controlled so it was possible to establish a
cause-effect relationship between the
independent variable (the critical words)
and the dependent variable (estimation
of speed). Additionally, this allowed for
extraneous variables not affecting the

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November 16, 2014
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results. However, students were used only,

so the findings of the experiments may not
be necessarily generalizable to the
population as a whole until repeated on
other groups. Moreover, another limitation
of the research is that it lacked ecological
validity. Participants viewed video clips
rather than being present at a real life
accident. As the video clip does not have
the same emotional impact as witnessing
a real-life accident the participants would
be less likely to pay attention and less
motivated to be accurate in their
judgments
xiii. Application to outcome: this study directly
shows how it is possible for mental
processes to be studied scientifically
b. Mental representations guide behavior
Cognitive psychologists believe there are cognitive
mediators between what happens in the environment
(the input) and what is delivered as output. The
processing that intervenes is based to a very great
extent on the way the world is represented in our
memory. Examples of such mental representations are
the schemas (cognitive structures) which organize our
knowledge of objects, events, ourselves, and others.
1. Darley and Gross, 1983
i. The researchers conducting this study
were Darley and Gross
ii. Aim: to determine the role of schemas on
social cognition
iii. Method: laboratory experiment
iv. Procedure: participants saw videos of the
same girl. Group 1 saw a video with the
girl playing in a rich neighborhood. Group
2 saw her playing in a poor neighborhood.
Finally, participants saw a third video
where the girl seemed to take an
intelligence test. They then asked the

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participants how the girl would do in the

future
v. Results: participants who had watched
the girl in the poor environment said she
would not do so well; participants who
had watched the girl in a rich
environment first said she would do well in
the future.
vi. Interpretation of Results: the results
indicate that participants used pre-stored
schema about what it means to be poor
and rich to form an impression of the
future of the girl
vii. Evaluation: as an experiment, it allowed
for a cause-effect relationship, as well as it
demonstrates the effects on what
schemas have on our judgments,
however it only collects qualitative data
B. Explain how principles that define the cognitive level of
analysis may be demonstrated in research
a. For the principle of mental representations guide
behavior, this is demonstrated by the Bartlett, 1932
study
1. The researcher conducting this study was Bartlett
2. Aim: to prove that memory is reconstructive and
schemas influence recall as well as demonstrate
the role of culture in schema processing
3. Method: Bartlett used two techniques, serial
reproduction and repeated reproduction
4. Procedure: Bartlett performed a study where he
used serial reproduction, which is a technique
where participants hear a story or see a drawing
and are told to reproduce it after a short time and
then to do so again repeatedly over a period of
days, weeks, months or years. Bartlett told
participants a Native American legend called The
War of the Ghosts. The participants in the study
were British; for them the story was filled with
unknown names and concepts, and the manner
in which the story was developed was also foreign

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to them. The story was therefore ideal to study

how memory was reconstructed based on
schema processing.
5. Results: The participants remembered the main
idea of the story but they changed unfamiliar
elements to make sense of the story by using
terms more familiar to their own cultural
expectations. The story remained a coherent
whole although it was changed.
6. Interpretation of Results: Memory is reconstructive,
and people try to make memories fit in with
whatever personal schema they have. These
changes show the alteration of culturally
unfamiliar things into what the English participants
were culturally familiar with. This makes the story
more understandable according to the
participants experiences and cultural
background (schemas).
7. Evaluation: due to the experimental design, a
cause-and-effect relationship was established
(high control of the independent and
confounding variables). Because it was a
controlled laboratory experiment, there are issues
of artificiality, additionally participants did not
receive standardized instructions, so some of the
distortions could be due to participants guessing
or other demand characteristics. Also the study
was specific to European Americans so there is a
low potential generalizability
8. Application to Outcome: Bartlett's study supports
the principle that social and cultural factors affect
cognitive processes as the difference in
participants and the stimuli used in terms of
culture affected mental representations
(schemas)
b. For the principle of mental representations guide
behavior, this is demonstrated by the Atkinson and
Shiffrin study of 1968
1. The researchers conducting this study were
Atkinson and Shiffrin

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III.

2. Aim: to investigate the processes of memory that

there are different types of memory that are used
for different tasks.
3. Theory (derived from study)
The multi-store model consists of three parts,
the sensory memory, the short-term memory
(STM) and the long term memory (LTM).
Some information from the sensory store
moves to the STM (limited capacity).
Some information from the STM moves to
the LTM via constant rehearsal of that
information.
Once that piece of information is stored in
the LTM it is long lasting; perhaps even for a
lifetime if that certain piece of information is
that strong.
The difference in forgetting between STM
and LTM is that: memory forgotten from the
short term store is lost whereas forgotten
memories in the LTM are still in the system
but cannot be retrieved.
4. Evaluation: This study is supported by other studies
such as the HM case study, however, the model is
oversimplified, in particular when it suggests that
both short-term and long-term memory each
operate in a single, uniform fashion, the models
main emphasis was on structure and tends to
neglect the process elements of memory
5. Application to Outcome:
Atkinson & Shiffrin demonstrated how cognitive
processes such as memory, can be scientifically
studied, developed a theory of memory, known
as the multistore model, and this theory enabled
them to study memory being a cognitive
process, thus, the study demonstrates that the
mind (cognitive functions, structures and
processes) can be studied scientifically, in which
cognitive theories and models can be applied to
real-life scenarios.
Schema Theory

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November 16, 2014
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A. Evaluate schema theory with reference to research studies

a. The schema theory is useful for understanding how
distortions, prejudices, and stereotypes are formed, as
well as is useful for explaining our cognitive processes
and how we do things such as categorize information
and make inferences. However, it is limited in that it is
unclear how schemas are created and how they
actually affect cognitive processes, it does not explain
how information that does not fit our schemas may be
ignored and forgotten (selection and storage) or
distorted (normalization) in order to rationalize, or why
the reconstructive nature of memory and distortions
are regarded as inaccurate.
1. A study demonstrating schema theory is Brewer
and Treyens, 1981
The researchers conducting this experiement
were Brewer and Treyens
Aim: to determine whether a stereotypical
schema of an office would affect memory recall
of an office
Method: laboratory experiment
Procedure: participants were taken into a
university student office and left for 35 seconds
before being taken to another room, they were
asked to write down as much as they could
remember from the office
Results: participants recalled things of a typical
office according to their schema, however they
did not recall the wine and picnic basket that
were in the office
Interpretation of Results: Participants' schema of
an office influenced their memory of it, they did
not recall the wine and picnic basket because it
is not part of their typical office schema
Evaluation: there was a strict control over
variables which allowed to determine cause and
effect relationship, also ruled out extraneous
variables, however the study lacks ecological
validity since it has a laboratory setting artificial

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environment and the task does not reflect daily

activity
Application to outcome: this study provides
evidence to support how our schemas can
affect our cognition/cognitive processes, in
particular memory, and that our schemas
influence what we recall in our memory.
2. Another study that demonstrate the schema
theory is French and Richards, 1933
The researchers conducting this study were
French and Richards
Aim: to investigate the schemata influence on
memory retrieval
Method: laboratory experiment
Procedure: In the study there were three
conditions:
i. Condition 1: Participants were shown a
clock with roman numerals and asked to
draw from memory.
ii. Condition 2: The same procedure, except
the participants were told beforehand
that they would be required to draw the
clock from memory.
iii. Condition 3: The clock was left in full view
of the participants and just had to draw it.
The clock used represented the number
four with IIII, not the conventional IV.
Results: In the first two conditions, the participants
reverted to the conventional IV notation,
whereas in the third condition, the IIII notation,
because of the direct copy. They found that
subjects asked to draw from memory a clock
that had Roman numerals on its face typically
represented the number four on the clock face
as IV rather than the correct IIII, whereas
those merely asked to copy it typically drew IIII.
Interpretation of Results: French and Richards
explained this result in terms of schematic
knowledge of roman numerals affecting memory

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IV.

retrieval. The findings supported the idea that

subjects in the copy condition were more likely
than subjects in other conditions to draw the
clock without invoking schematic knowledge of
Roman numerals
Evaluation: there was a strict control over
variables which allowed to determine cause and
effect relationship, also ruled out extraneous
variables, however the study lacks ecological
validity since it has a laboratory setting artificial
environment and the task does not reflect daily
activity
Application to outcome: This study provides
evidence to support how our schemas can
affect our cognition/cognitive processes, in
particular memory, and that our schemas
influence what we recall in our memory
Reliability of Memory
A. Discuss, with reference to relevant research studies, the
extent to which one cognitive process is reliable
a. Because the findings of Loftus & Palmer's experiment
are considered invalid, and the experiment lacked
ecological validity in comparison Yuille and Cutshall's
study, which was a quasi experiment, it can be
concluded that memory in eyewitness testimony is still
reliable, to some extent. Thus, the unreliability of
reconstructive memory (that can be influenced by
incorrect/distortive schemas) and research by Loftus
shows that memory is reliable to a small extent.
However, due to the limitations and artificial nature of
Loftus work, including that it lacks ecological validity
(EV) and demand characteristics were present, which
is overcome by Yuille and Cutshalls real eye-witness
testimony study. This suggests that memory is reliable to
a great extent. Overall, it can be considered that
memory is reliable to some extent.
1. Loftus and Palmer, 1974
The researchers conducting this study were Loftus
and Palmer

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November 16, 2014
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Aim: to investigate the effect of leading

questions on eye witness testimony of an event
Method: laboratory experiment
Procedure: participants were shown 7 films of car
accidents (5-30 seconds). After each clip,
participants were given a questionnaire asking:
i. To give an account of the accident
ii. Number of questions, including the critical
question How fast were the cars going
when they?
iii. Verb in the critical question was changed
to
smashed/collided/hit/bumped/contacte
d
Experimental conditions: Participants were
split in 5 groups of 9 each group were
asked the question with a different verb
Results: Loftus and Palmer found that the speed
estimates were influenced by the wording used:
i. contacted 31.8 mph
ii. hit 34 mph
iii. bumped 38.1 mph
iv. collided 39.3 mph
v. smashed into 40.8
The more severe-sounding verb produced
higher speed estimates. For example,
smashed gave an estimated 9 mph higher
than contacted
Interpretation of Results: Loftus and Palmer
concluded that the wording of the question did
have an effect on the speed estimates given. This
was suggested it may be because people are
poor judges of speed and are affected by the
wording of a question. These findings can be
explained by Bartletts view of memory as an
active reconstructive process. The verbs used in
the various conditions activated slightly different
schemas which influenced the speed estimates.
In this study, information was received after
witnessing the accident researchers used a

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leading question. Thus after the accident was

reconstructed in the participants mind, the
schema that were influenced by the leading
question relating to the different verbs associated
with speech explains how reconstructive memory
works. This study also supports the idea that when
people witness complex events, they tend to
report inaccurate and numeric details like time,
distance and speed.
Evaluation: The experiment was rigorously
controlled so it was possible to establish a causeeffect relationship between the independent
variable (the critical words) and the dependent
variable (estimation of speed). Additionally, this
allowed for extraneous variables not affecting
the results. However, students were used only, so
the findings of the experiments may not be
necessarily generalizable to the population as a
whole until repeated on other groups. Moreover,
another limitation of the research is that it lacked
ecological validity. Participants viewed video
clips rather than being present at a real life
accident. As the video clip does not have the
same emotional impact as witnessing a real-life
accident the participants would be less likely to
pay attention and less motivated to be accurate
in their judgments
Application to outcome: Loftus research
indicates that it is possible to create a false
memory using post-event information. These
results indicate that memory is not reliable but
like all research studies, there are some limitations
that need to be considered relating to its
validity/ecological validity
2. Yuille and Cutshall, 1986
The researchers in this study were Yuille and
Cutshall
Aim: to investigate the accuracy/effectiveness in
recall eye-witness testimony using real
eyewitnesses from a real crime

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Method: field study

Procedure: There were 21 witnesses interviewed
by the police originally who had witnessed the
event from different viewpoints: (passing by in
the car, walking on the street or within buildings).
Twenty of those eyewitnesses were contacted by
the researchers four-to-five months after the
event, asking them to take part in a scientific
study. Of those 20, thirteen agreed to participate
in the study. All aged between 15-32; only three
female, and ten males. The victim was not asked
to participate as he did not wish to relive the
trauma. The researchers interviewed the
participants at this four or five month period after
the incident. The interviews were recorded and
transcribed. They used the same interviewing
procedure as the police had used with them
allowing them to give their account first and then
asking questions. Of course, one of the aims was
to look into the effects of leading questions, and
so following Loftus' procedures, two leading
questions were used. Half the group were asked
if they saw a broken headlight, and the other half
if they saw the broken headlight, when in fact
there was no broken headlight in the thief's car.
Similarly, half of the participants were asked
about a yellow panel on the car, and the others
about the yellow panel, whereas the quarter
panel was really blue. A scoring procedure was
introduced to turn the qualitative data collected
into quantitative data. This was carefully devised,
as the researchers needed to know not only the
true details of the event, but also be able to
compare the results to those of the police
interviews. The researchers decided to use
systems of 'action details' and 'description details'
(split further into object descriptions and
people descriptions to collate information from
the interviews.

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Results: The researchers ended up obtaining

more details than the police had. The police
found 392 action details against the researchers'
552 action details. What was found is that the
misleading questions had very little effect on their
recall. Ten of the eyewitnesses said that there
was no broken headlight and no yellow quarter
panel at all on the thief's car which was correct
to identify.
Interpretation of Results: It was found that
eyewitnesses were actually very reliable. There
were several factors which made this true,
including correctly recalling large numbers of
accurate details; almost always arguing the
misleading questions and a healthy comparison
between the police and research interviews.
Yuille and Cutshall concluded that eyewitnesses
were in fact not inaccurate, contrary to the
findings of the vast majority of previous research
into eyewitness testimony, which had all been
from laboratory experiments. The misleading
questions had had little effect on the eyewitness,
which again disagreed with a Loftus' theory of
misleading questions.
Evaluation: This was a field study looking at a real
incident with real witnesses, thus making it have a
very strong validity, the scoring procedure also
produced quantitative data from qualitative
data, which requires no subjective interpretation
and is easier to base conclusions upon. However,
it lacks generalizability since it is a one-off
incident and a field study. Moreover, there was
weak points in the scoring procedure, such as
with a question based on age: the thief was
actually 35 years of age, and when asked to
estimate the age, most eyewitnesses said he
looked as though he was in his early 20s which
was marked as an inaccurate memory, even
though he did really look that age

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V.

Application to outcome: Yuille and Cutshalls

study found that eyewitnesses were in fact not
inaccurate, contrary to the findings of the vast
majority of previous research into eyewitness
testimony, which had all been from laboratory
experiments. The misleading questions had had
little effect on the eyewitness, which again
disagreed with a Loftus' theory of misleading
questions. This demonstrates that memory can be
reliable to an extent
Models or Theories of Memory
A. Evaluate two models or theories of one cognitive process
a. The Multistore Model of Memory
1. Its advantages include that it was influential; early
model that stimulated further research into
memory processes, it is still accepted by most
psychologists and is still widely used, there is a
considerable amount of evidence demonstrating
the existence of short term memory and long term
memory as separate memory stores, it provides
support for anterograde amnesia, it is based on
considerable evidence
2. Limitations include that it focuses too much on the
structure of memory systems rather than providing
an explanation on how it works (functioning/
processing), it oversimplifies memory processes, it
assumes that stores are single and unitary, and
that it suggests that rote rehearsal is the only way
information transfers from the short term memory
to the long term memory
Glanzer and Cunitz, 1966
i. The researchers conducting this study
were Glanzer and Cunitz
ii. Aim: to see if they could find evidence for
the existence of separate short term and
long term memory stores
iii. Method: laboratory experiment
iv. Procedure: Glanzer and Cunitz presented
two groups of participants with the same
list of words. One group recalled the

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v.

vi.

vii.

viii.

words immediately after presentation,

while the other group recalled the words
after waiting 30 seconds. These
participants had to count backwards in
threes (the Brown-Peterson technique),
which prevented rehearsal and caused
the recency effect to disappear. Both
groups could free recall the words in any
order
Results: participants in the immediate
group remembered the first and last words
best, participants in the delayed group
remembered the words at the beginning
of the list. Both groups were weak in
recalling the words in the middle of the list
Interpretation of Results: Both groups
remembers the words from the start of the
list because they were stored in the Long
Term Memory. Words at the end of the list
were stored in the Short Term Memory.
When recall was delayed by a distractor
task it prevented maintenance rehearsal
and therefore affected the recency
effect without changing the primacy
effect. This supports the idea that STM and
LTM are separate stores because it shows
that one can be changed without the
other.
Evaluation: This is a controlled laboratory
study with highly controlled variables, but
there is no random allocation of
participants to experimental conditions so
it is not a true experiment. The participants
were all male and may possibly differ in
brain capacity/memorization to females.
lacks ecological validity as this
memorization of the items does not
present everyday ways of utilizing memory
Application to outcome: This supports the
idea that STM and LTM are separate stores

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because it shows that one can be

changed without the other,
demonstrating the validity of the multistory
model of memory
b. Levels of Processing Model of Memory
1. Its strengths include that it overcomes criticisms of
the Multistore Model as being too simple methods
of remembering. The levels of processing was very
influential when first proposed. It changed the
direction of research and stimulated further
research into memory Accounts for why some
things are remembered better and for longer than
others. The levels of processing theory is useful in
daily life as it shows how elaboration, which
requires deeper processing, leads to better
memory. It helps to understand processes at
learning stage. Also, it focuses on mental
processes rather than structures
2. Its weaknesses include that it lacks ecological
validity in that it focuses on mental processes
rather than structures. Another major limitation
difficult to define deep processing, and that the
levels of processing theory of memory is
descriptive rather than explanatory
Craik and Tulving, 1975
i. The researchers conducting this study
were Craik and Tulving
ii. Aim: to investigate how deep and shallow
processing affects memory recall
iii. Method: laboratory experiment
iv. Procedure: Participants presented with a
series of 60 words about which they had
to answer one of three questions, requiring
different depths of processing.
Participants were then given a long list of
180 words into which the original words
had been mixed. They were asked to pick
out the original words.
v. Results: Participants recalled more words
that were semantically processed

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VI.

compared to acoustically and visually

processed.
vi. Interpretation of Results: Semantically
processed words involve deep processing
which results in more accurate recall
vii. Evaluation: there was a strict control over
variables which allowed to determine
cause and effect relationship, also ruled
out extraneous variables, however the
study lacks ecological validity since it has
a laboratory setting artificial environment
and the task does not reflect daily activity
viii. Application to outcome: this supports the
idea that different levels of processing
allow for different accuracies of recalls
Biology and Cognition
A. Explain how biological factors affect one cognitive process
a. Alzheimers is a serious and progressive degenerative
brain disease, which leads to the loss of neurons and
often leading to dementia. The onset of symptoms is
gradual but its progression is irreversible. Alzheimers
impairs the creation of new memories but procedural
memory (how to die a bike or play a musical
instrument) is largely unaffected. Episodic memory
(memory of events and personal experiences) is the
most severely affected. Episodic memory problems are
the earliest symptoms of Alzheimers. Alzheimers also
causes a steady decline in the semantic memory
general knowledge about the world, concepts and
language.
b. Biological factors that affect Alzheimers include
1. Medial temporal lobe
2. Deterioration of neurons involved in the
production of acetylcholine
3. Amyloid plaques
4. Neurofibrillary tangles
5. Genetic predisposition
c. A study that shows how the medial temporal lobe
plays a role in AD therefore affecting memory is by
Schwindt and Black, 2009

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November 16, 2014
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1. The researchers conducting this study were

Schwindt and Black
2. Aim: to test the effect of episodic memory on AD.
3. Procedure: they conducted a meta-analysis of
fMRI studies on episodic memory in AD patients,
compared to normal & AD patients.
4. Results: there was greater brain activity in the MTL
and frontal lobe in the control group. Compared
to controls, the AD patients showed decreased
activation in the MTL and increased activation in
the prefrontal cortex. There were a number of
consistent findings across the previous studies.
5. Interpretation of Results: It was well-established
that AD patients show decreased activation in
the MTL.
6. Application to outcome: Schwindt and Blacks
study supports the biological factor of the medial
temporal lobe in causing AD and thus,
impairment in memory.
d. A study that shows how biological factors occurring in
the hippocampi play a role in AD therefore affecting
memory is by Mosconi, 2005
1. The researcher conducting this study was Mosconi
2. Aim: To test how the hippocampi region interacts
with Alzheimers, and to investigate metabolism in
the hippocampus, which is when the neurons in
the brain activate responses in the body and dies
3. Procedure: Followed a sample of 52 normal
participants for a period of 9 24 years
(longitudinal), they used a brain scan based
computer program that measures metabolic
activity in the hippocampus.
4. Results: Reduced metabolism in the hippocampus
was associated with later AD
5. Interpretation to Results: This can be explained by
the fact that the hippocampus of normal people
contains high concentration of acetylcholine
(Squire, 1987). Low concentrations are found in
people with AD. This results from severe brain

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VII.

tissue loss in areas of the forebrain, known to

secrete acetylcholine.
6. Application to outcome: Mosconis study supports
the role of the hippocampus in AD.
The Interaction of Cognitive and Biological Factors in Emotion
A. Discuss to what extent cognitive and biological factors
interact in emotion
a. The cognitive and biological interaction in emotion is
demonstrated in the Schacter and Singer study of 1962
1. The researchers in this study include Schacter and
Singer
2. Aim: to test the two factor theory of emotion (that
emotion arises from a combination of cognition
and arousal), using the hormone, adrenaline
3. Method: laboratory experiment
4. Procedure:
184 college males
Divided into 4 groups
All groups were told that they were going to be
given an injection of Suproxin in order to test its
effects on vision
Even though men were really receiving
adrenaline and:
Informed of the correct effects of adrenaline
(under the impression that it was suproxin)
Given no information on effects
Given false effects
Last group was given a placebo
4 Groups divided into 2 subgroups
Condition 1 euphoria
Confederate encouraged participant to play
with games inside the waiting room (withffice
equipment)
Condition 2 anger
Confederate completed a questionnaire at the
same pace as the participant but became more
and more angry as the questions became more
personal
Participants were observed for changes in
emotion

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November 16, 2014
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Participants were then asked to fill out a

questionnaire detailing their state of emotion
5. Results: participants that were given information
on the effects of adrenaline showed minimal
changes in emotion because they had an
accurate explanation of their emotion, but those
who had been told no effect showed much
higher changes in emotion because they had no
explanation for their state of arousal, so they used
cues of the confederate's behaviour and labelled
their emotions, these participants changed their
behaviour according to cognitive appraisal of
their emotions, rather than specific physiological
arousal, indicating that only general arousal is
required
6. Interpretation of Results: researchers concluded
that emotion occurs by a process of cognitive
labelling: the interpretation of physiological cues is
combined with contextual cues to construct a
person's subjective experience of emotion
7. Evaluation: study was an experiment so it was
possible to establish a cause-effect relationship
between the independent variable, and the
dependent variable, as well as they were able to
control for extraneous variables, however, the
study only included males, so it has low
generalizability, as well as they used deception,
which was necessary for the validity of the study
8. Application to Outcome: this study supports that a
combination of physiological change
(adrenaline) and cognitive labelling (appraisal of
the situation) can contribute to changes in
emotion
b. The cognitive and biological interaction in emotion is
demonstrated in the Speisman et al. study of 1964
1. The researchers conducting this study included
Speisman and others
2. Aim: to demonstrate the influence of appraisal on
emotional experiences.
3. Method: laboratory experiment

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4. Procedure:
Participants were shown a stressful film about
unpleasant genital surgery depicting Aboriginal
boys have circumcision in the context of puberty.
Accompanied by soundtrack, in which
investigators manipulated the appraisal of the
surgery by showing the film with 3 conditions + 1
control:
i. Trauma condition pain experienced by
boys and use of knife were emphasized
ii. Denial boys anticipation of entering
manhood pointed out thus deemphasizing the pain (presented the ps
as happy and deliberate)
iii. Intellectualization soundtrack ignored
emotional aspects of situation and
emphasized traditions of aboriginal
culture
iv. Silent nothing
Arousal state measured by galvanic skin
response (GSR) measure of electrical
conductivity of skin and indicator of autonomic
arousal and heart rate.
5. Results: observations and self-reports showed that
participants reacted more emotionally to the
soundtrack that was more traumatic, lowest in
intellectualization and silent conditions,the way
participants appraised (act of assessing someone
or something) what they were seeing in the film
affected their physiological experience in terms of
emotion
6. Interpretation of Results: the way participants
appraised what they were seeing in the
circumcision film affected their physiological
reaction to it
7. Evaluation: since this was a laboratory
experiment, we can establish a cause and effect
releationship, additionally we can control for
extraneous variables, on the other hand, because
they were shown a video, it lacks ecological

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November 16, 2014
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VIII.

validity, as well as participants could have

experienced psychological trauma after
watching the video
8. Application to Outcome: different emotions can
be displayed with the same stimuli, hence
showing the Theory of Appraisal (cognition) can
interfere with emotion. This supports that cognitive
factors do interact in emotion to a great extent.
c. The theories discussed above suggest that cognitive
and biological factors contribute and interact in
emotion, according to the two factor theory of
emotion, emotion results from physiological arousal
and cognitive labelling. According to Lazarus theory
of appraisal, evaluation of situations (cognition)
determines emotion. These theories have been
supported through much research, and although
there were a few limitations within the studies, there
have been no other theories or research that opposes
the idea that biological and cognitive factors
influence emotion. Therefore, all of these theories
suggest that both cognitive and biological factors
interact in emotion to a large extent
How Does Emotion Affect Cognition?
A. Evaluate one theory of how emotion may affect one
cognitive process
a. One theory of how emotion may affect the cognitive
process of memory is Flashbulb Memory (FBM)
suggested by Brown & Kulik (1977)
b. Theory of FBM involves how emotion affects memory
by enhancing it
c. A study demonstrating this theory is the Brown and
Kulik study of 1977
1. The researchers conducting this study are Brown
and Kulik
2. Aim: to investigate FBM and how it works (to
support their theory).
3. Method: interview
4. Procedure:
Interviewed 80 Americans
40 African Americans

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November 16, 2014
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5.

6.

7.

8.

40 Caucasian Americans
Had to answer questions about 10 events
9 of these events were mostly on assassinations or
attempted assassinations of well-known
American personalities
The last event was self-selected of personal
events that included self-shock
They were asked how much they rehearsed these
events (overtly or covertly)
Overly: rehearsal by discussing with other people
Covertly: private rehearsing or ruminating
Results: They found that J.F. Kennedy's
assassination in 1963 led to the most flashbulb
memories of all participants (90% of participants
recalled this in context and with vivid detail),
African Americans recalled more FBM's of civil
right leaders; e.g. the assassination of Martin
Luther King more than the Caucasians recalled it
(as a FBM). For the tenth event (which was selfselected) most participants recalled shocking
events like the death of a parent
Interpretation of Results: because these events
were highly emotional to each participant, they
were able to recall these events in vivid detail,
forming flash bulb memories
Evaluation: There were many participants, so
there is high ecological validity to the American
people, it is also naturalistic since the reactions
and memories of events were from real life
events, however, the participants and events are
only related to Americans so it cannot be
generalized to the rest of the population, it lacks
reliability since it is hard to replicate, and the
participants may have been under distress having
to recall these events
Application to Outcome: This study carried out by
Brown and Kulik supported the theories of
flashbulb memories whereby they were formed in
situations where we encounter surprising and
highly emotional information, are maintained by

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November 16, 2014
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means of overt rehearsal (discussion with others)

and covert rehearsal (private), differ from other
memories in that they are more vivid, last longer
and are more consistent and accurate, amd
require for their creation the involvement of a
specialized neural mechanism which stores
information permanently in a unique memory
system
d. Another study demonstrating the theory of flashbulb
memory is Conway et al. of 1994
1. The researchers conducting this study were
Conway and others
2. Aim: to test the theory of flashbulb memory
3. Method: interview
4. Procedure: participants were either UK or non-UK
citizens, the study was based on the resignation of
Margaret Thatcher (British Prime Minister,1990),
participants were asked and interviewed about
the event a few days after the event, they were
asked again 11 months after the event
5. Results: They found that 86% of UK participants still
had FBM of the resignation of Margaret Thatcher,
while there were fewer non-UK participants (29%)
had flashbulb memories of the event
6. Interpretation of Results: Conway claimed that this
event met the criteria for FBM for British people as
it was an unexpected and highly significant event
pertaining to their culture, therefore arousing
deep emotions, influencing the special neural
mechanisms and therefore creating FBM of the
event
7. Ealuation: this study is ecologically valid since this
was a real event, and because it was an
interview, there is in depth qualitative data,
however, distress in having to remember a tragic
event, and this is hard to replicate thus having low
reliability
8. Application to Outcome: suggests that flashbulb
memories exist and are different from normal

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November 16, 2014
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IX.

memories, however, they may only exist for events

with personal significance
e. In conclusion, FBM (affected by emotion) can
influence the recall of memories. However, it is hard to
test accuracy of memories as the evidence is very
retrospective
Overall Strengths: The majority of research into
flashbulb memories is naturalistic. It all involves
peoples reactions and memories formed from
real life events. Therefore there is high in
ecological validity.
Overall Weaknesses: However, the studies can
lack reliability as they cannot really be
replicated. Therefore, we cannot test to see how
consistent the results are. Also, much of the
research is retrospective, and there is the issue
that we cannot reliably measure how accurate
peoples initial memories are.
The effects of social or cultural factors on cognitive processes
A. Discuss how social or cultural factors affect one cognitive
process
a. The Bartlett study of 1932 demosntrates how culture
can affect memory through schemas
1. The researcher conducting this study was Bartlett
2. Aim: to prove that memory is reconstructive and
schemas influence recall as well as demonstrate
the role of culture in schema processing
3. Method: Bartlett used two techniques, serial
reproduction and repeated reproduction
4. Procedure: Bartlett performed a study where he
used serial reproduction, which is a technique
where participants hear a story or see a drawing
and are told to reproduce it after a short time and
then to do so again repeatedly over a period of
days, weeks, months or years. Bartlett told
participants a Native American legend called The
War of the Ghosts. The participants in the study
were British; for them the story was filled with
unknown names and concepts, and the manner
in which the story was developed was also foreign

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November 16, 2014
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to them. The story was therefore ideal to study

how memory was reconstructed based on
schema processing.
5. Results: The participants remembered the main
idea of the story but they changed unfamiliar
elements to make sense of the story by using
terms more familiar to their own cultural
expectations. The story remained a coherent
whole although it was changed.
6. Interpretation of Results: Memory is reconstructive,
and people try to make memories fit in with
whatever personal schema they have. These
changes show the alteration of culturally
unfamiliar things into what the English participants
were culturally familiar with. This makes the story
more understandable according to the
participants experiences and cultural
background (schemas).
7. Evaluation: due to the experimental design, a
cause-and-effect relationship was established
(high control of the independent and
confounding variables). Because it was a
controlled laboratory experiment, there are issues
of artificiality, additionally participants did not
receive standardized instructions, so some of the
distortions could be due to participants guessing
or other demand characteristics. Also the study
was specific to European Americans so there is a
low potential generalizability
8. Application to Outcome: Bartlett's study supports
the principle that the stimuli used in terms of
culture affected mental representations
(schemas)
b. Another study demonstrating how social factors can
affect memory is the Brewer and Treyens study of 1981
The researchers conducting this experiement
were Brewer and Treyens
Aim: to determine whether a stereotypical
schema of an office would affect memory recall
of an office

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November 16, 2014
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X.

Method: laboratory experiment

Procedure: participants were taken into a
university student office and left for 35 seconds
before being taken to another room, they were
asked to write down as much as they could
remember from the office
Results: participants recalled things of a typical
office according to their schema, however they
did not recall the wine and picnic basket that
were in the office
Interpretation of Results: Participants' schema of
an office influenced their memory of it, they did
not recall the wine and picnic basket because it
is not part of their typical office schema
Evaluation: there was a strict control over
variables which allowed to determine cause and
effect relationship, also ruled out extraneous
variables, however the study lacks ecological
validity since it has a laboratory setting artificial
environment and the task does not reflect daily
activity
Application to outcome: this study provides
evidence to support how our schemas can
affect our cognition/cognitive processes, in
particular memory, and that our schemas
influence what we recall in our memory
The Use of Technology in Investigating Cognitive Processes
A. Discuss the use of technology in investigating cognitive
processes
a. MRI Scans on Memory
1. This technique uses magnetic fields and radio
waves to produce 3D computer-generated
images.
2. MRI scans involve people to remove all metal
objects and clothing where they lie within an MRI
machine.
3. It can distinguish among different types of soft
tissue and allows researchers to see structures
within the brain

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November 16, 2014
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4. Advantages of MRI: Excellent resolution, noninvasive, fast, safer, and individuals can be tested
repeatedly
5. Disadvantages: Expensive, gives correlation but
not causation, cannot be used on everyone
(cant be used on individuals with metallic
implants)
6. A study using this technology on a cognitive
process is Maguire et al., 2000, on memory
The researchers conducting this study were
Maguire and others
Aim: Maguire hypothesized that full licensed taxi
drivers in London would have a different
hippocampi structure in their brains compared to
normal people.
Method: quasi experiment
Procedure: this was based on the knowledge
that London taxi drivers must do a two-year
training course where they end up being able to
find their way around the city without a map, MRI
scans were used to scan the structure of their
hippocampi, which were compared to already
existing MRI scans of healthy males who did not
drive taxis.
Results: Taxi drivers left and right hippocampi
had a larger volume compared to the non-taxi
drivers, also, some parts of the hippocampi were
smaller in the taxi drivers
Interpretation of Results: Maguire concluded that
there was probably a redistribution of grey
matter in the hippocampi of taxi drivers due to
the regular use of the spatial memory skills
required to remember roads; the neurons are
stronger in areas of the brain which are used
most.
Evaluation: Limitations of this study include that
the sample does not include women or lefthanded people, however, it is an experiment
which allows for the establishment of a cause

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November 16, 2014
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and effect relationship, and there were controls

to allow for a basis of comparison
Application to Outcome: By using an MRI,
Maguire was able to observe the structures in the
brain and find a correlation between the
hippocampi (biological factor) and memory skills
(cognitive process). Maguire used MRI scans to
investigate the structure of the hippocampi,
which would not be able to be seen using other
technologies such as an EEG or a PET scan
b. PET Scan on Language
1. The researcher PET scans require patients to be
injected with a radioactive glucose tracer which
shows the areas where glucose is absorbed in the
active brain.
2. More glucose metabolism means more brain
activity.
3. PET scans show a colored visual display of brain
activity; where radioactive tracer is absorbed
4. Advantages of PET Scan: sensitive, good
resolution, receptor mapping, it is possible to do
metabolic studies, and it can track ongoing
activity in the brain
5. Disadvantages of PET Scan: invasive, very
expensive, it takes longer than MRI scans, and
there is a limit to the number of injections
someone can have
6. A study using this technology on a cognitive
process is Tierney et al., in 2001, on language
The researchers conducting this study were
Tierney and others
Aim: yo evaluate, using PET scans, the bilingual
language compensation following early
childhood brain damage
Method: quasi experiment
Procedure:
i. 37 year old man (known as MA) with
normal speech functions who was
participating in a normal speech study. It
was discovered that he had a lesion in his

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November 16, 2014
Period 2A

left frontal lobe. Probably as a result of

encephalitis he suffered at the age of 6
weeks. He had no significant long-term,
clinically consequences. Both his parents
were deaf and he used sign language at
home from a very young age.
Researchers were curious to know if this
might have had something to do with his
ability to speak despite the brain damage
(that should have prevented him from
doing so.
ii. Researchers compared MA to 12 control
participants, who were fluent in sign
language
iii. PET scanning technologies were used
while the participants produced narrative
speech or signs
Results: MA's right hemisphere was more active
than the controls' during the production of both
speech and sign language
Interpretation of Results: Language function
seems to have developed in the right
hemisphere instead of the left hemisphere as an
adaptation following his early brain damage
Evaluation: Since this was an experiment, it calls
for the establishment of a cause and effect
relationship, however, there is not a direct
manipulation of the variables
Application to Outcome: Tierney utilized PET
scans to investigate the cognitive processes of
language and observe the areas of the brain
(biological factor) that activated while MA
produced language (cognitive process).
c. In conclusion, brain imaging technologies are very
useful in investigating cognitive processes. Useful in
different situations. All these methods have their own
advantages and disadvantages, primarily involving
invasiveness and levels of radioactivity. However, all of
these methods contribute to investigating the
relationship between cognitive processes and

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XI.

behavior. It is important to note that different brain

scans are used depending on the individual, the
cause of the problem and or the cognitive process
being investigated.
Methods used in the cognitive level of analysis and the ethical
concerns they raise
A. Discuss how and why particular research methods are used
at the cognitive level of analysis
a. Experiments are used to determine the cause and
effect relationship between two variables
(independent (IV) and dependent (DV) variables).
b. Researchers manipulate the independent variable (IV)
and measure the dependent variable (DV)
c. Attempt to control as many extraneous variables as
possible to provide controlled conditions (laboratory
experiments)
d. Experiments are considered a quantitative research
method, however qualitative data may be collected
as well
e. Loftus and Palmers study of 1974 reflected an
experiment since there was an independent variable
which was the verb in the leading question, as well as
it had a dependent variable which was the speed
estimates
1. Loftus and Palmer, 1974
i. The researchers conducting this study
were Loftus and Palmer
ii. Aim: to test their hypothesis that the
language used in eyewitness testimony
can alter memory. Thus, they aimed to
show that leading questions could distort
eyewitness testimony accounts and so
have a confabulating effect, as the
account would become distorted by cues
provided in the question
iii. Method: laboratory experiment
iv. Procedure: Participants in this study
watched seen film clips of different car
accidents. After each clip, participants
described what they saw and answered a

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November 16, 2014
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number of questions about it. One of the

questions, the critical question, asked
about the speed of the cars in the
accident. The experiment involved five
experimental conditions which were
defined by the verb used to ask the
question about the cars speed. The
critical question in one of the conditions
was: About how fast were the cars going
when they hit each other. For the other
conditions the verb hit was replaced with
contacted, collided, bumped, and
smashed into.
v. Interpretation of Results: Loftus and Palmer
found that the speed estimates were
influenced by the wording used:
contacted 31.8 mph
hit 34 mph
bumped 38.1 mph
collided 39.3 mph
smashed into 40.8
They argue that the results could be due
to a distortion in the memory of the
participant. The memory of how fast the
cars were travelling could have been
distorted by the verbal label which had
been used to characterize the intensity of
the crash. Additionally, Loftus and Palmer
argue that the results could be due to
response-bias factors, in which case the
participant is not sure of the exact speed
and therefore adjusts his or her estimate to
fit in with the expectations of the
questioner. (This is also an example of a
demand characteristic)
vi. There was also another experiment
conducted similar to the first:
vii. Aim: to provide additional insights into the
origin of the different speed estimates. In
particular they wanted to find out if the

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November 16, 2014
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viii.
ix.

x.

xi.

xii.

participants memories really had been

distorted by the verbal label
Method: laboratory experiment
Procedure: One group of participants was
asked how fast the cars were going when
they smashed into each other, and
another group was asked the same thing
but smashed was replaced with hit. The
third group wasnt asked for any speed
estimates. They were the control group.
One week later, participants were asked if
they had seen any broken glass in the film
clip. There wasnt any, but the dependent
variable measured how many participants
said they had in fact seen broken glass.
The independent variable was the verbs
changed in the question to each group of
participants
Results: participants who were asked how
fast the cars were going when they
smashed were more likely to report seeing
broken glass
Interpretation of results: This research
suggests that memory is easily distorted by
questioning technique and information
acquired after the event can merge with
original memory causing inaccurate recall
or reconstructive memory. The results from
experiment two suggest that this effect is
not just due to a response-bias because
leading questions actually altered the
memory a participant had for the event.
Evaluation: The experiment was rigorously
controlled so it was possible to establish a
cause-effect relationship between the
independent variable (the critical words)
and the dependent variable (estimation
of speed). Additionally, this allowed for
extraneous variables not affecting the
results. However, students were used only,

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November 16, 2014
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so the findings of the experiments may not

be necessarily generalizable to the
population as a whole until repeated on
other groups. Moreover, another limitation
of the research is that it lacked ecological
validity. Participants viewed video clips
rather than being present at a real life
accident. As the video clip does not have
the same emotional impact as witnessing
a real-life accident the participants would
be less likely to pay attention and less
motivated to be accurate in their
judgments
xiii. Application to outcome: this study by
using an experiment allowed a cause and
effect relationship to be developed and
recognized
1. Cause: The verbs in the
leading questions The
wording of the question in
eyewitness
testimony/testimonials
2. Effect: Their schema a
particular factor or experience
in their life can be influenced,
as their study shows that
people are affect by the
wording of a question.
The cause and effect relationship would
not have been able to be found using
other research methods (e.g.
observational or interviews, etc.)
f. Case Studies are used to obtain enriched (especially
qualitative) data and information about mediating
processes which could not be gained in any other
way, to study unusual psychological phenomena,
stimulates new research into an unusual phenomena,
to study a particular variable that cannot be
produced in a laboratory. For example, due to ethical

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November 16, 2014
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or financial restrictions, to obtain other information

they may not be able to get from other methods.
g. Milners study on HM in 1966 reflects a case study since
it was an in-depth study of HMs amnesia condition,
which resulted from a head injury sustained when he
was 9 years old, suffering epileptic seizures along with it
1. A case study was used because it was to study
the case of a man who suffered from
anterograde amnesia (inability to form new
memories) as a result of the removal of tissue from
the temporal lobe including the hippocampus,
which would not be able to be produced
ethically in a laboratory experiment, as it would
most likely cause a similar condition to the extent
of HMs.
2. A case study allowed researchers to observe HMs
behavior from when he was a young child, to his
adolescent years, and after the surgery, in which
they found out a link between the temporal
lobe/hippocampi and memory which led to
further research, findings and advances in later
studies, helping improve peoples understanding
of certain disorders such as amnesia, and memory
in general.
3. This unusual phenomenon could not be studied
using other research methods such as
experiments or naturalistic observation and indepth information would not be able to be
obtained/collected if case studies werent used.
h. Research methods are methods used for collecting
and analyzing data. The type of research method
used is dependent on the aim. At the CLA, the two
main research methods used are experiments and
case studies.
B. Discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at
the cognitive level of analysis
a. Clive Wearing Sacks (2007)
b. Method: Case Study
c. Procedure: Clive Wearing was a musician who got a
viral infection encephalitis. This left him with serious

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November 16, 2014
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brain damage in the hippocampus, which caused

memory impairment. He suffers from anterograde
amnesia impairment in ability to remember after a
particular incident as well as retrograde amnesia
impairment in ability to remember before a particular
incident. Wearing still has ability to talk, read, write,
and sight-read music (procedural knowledge). He
could not transfer information from STM to his LTM. His
memory lasted 7-30 seconds, and he was unable to
form new memories.
d. The ethical issues of this study included
1. Consent
Wearing did not give consent to being in a study
His wife gave consent for him to be studied
But Wearing would not remember being
informed of the study or giving consent due to his
short memory span
2. Confidentiality
Sacks violated Wearing's right to confidentiality
Wearings real name was revealed
His case was revealed to the world of psychology
But since Wearing's memory lasts a short period
of time, he would not remember that his
confidentiality was violated
3. Withdraw
Wearing would not remember being in a study or
his right to withdraw and so would not express
any desires to withdraw
4. Debriefing
Wearing was not debriefed
But because of his short memory span, he would
not know he is in a study and would not desire a
debriefing
5. A study demonstrating the ethical concerns of
experiments is the Speisman et al. study of 1964
6. The researchers conducting this study included
Speisman and others
7. Aim: to demonstrate the influence of appraisal on
emotional experiences.
8. Method: laboratory experiment

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November 16, 2014
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9. Procedure:
Participants were shown a stressful film about
unpleasant genital surgery depicting Aboriginal
boys have circumcision in the context of puberty.
Accompanied by soundtrack, in which
investigators manipulated the appraisal of the
surgery by showing the film with 3 conditions + 1
control:
i. Trauma condition pain experienced by
boys and use of knife were emphasized
ii. Denial boys anticipation of entering
manhood pointed out thus deemphasizing the pain (presented the ps
as happy and deliberate)
iii. Intellectualization soundtrack ignored
emotional aspects of situation and
emphasized traditions of aboriginal
culture
iv. Silent nothing
Arousal state measured by galvanic skin
response (GSR) measure of electrical
conductivity of skin and indicator of autonomic
arousal and heart rate.
10. Results: observations and self-reports showed that
participants reacted more emotionally to the
soundtrack that was more traumatic, lowest in
intellectualization and silent conditions,the way
participants appraised (act of assessing someone
or something) what they were seeing in the film
affected their physiological experience in terms of
emotion
11. Interpretation of Results: the way participants
appraised what they were seeing in the
circumcision film affected their physiological
reaction to it
12. Evaluation: since this was a laboratory
experiment, we can establish a cause and effect
relationship, additionally we can control for
extraneous variables, on the other hand, because
they were shown a video, it lacks ecological

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November 16, 2014
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validity, as well as participants could have

experienced psychological trauma after
watching the video
13. The ethical concerns of this study include
Psychological harm: Participants had to watch a
traumatic video