CHAPTER ONE

1.0
1.1

INTRODUCTION
BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

The Human Immune Deficiency Virus (HIV) and the resultant Acquired Immune Deficiency
Syndrome (AIDS) is a life-threatening disease for which there is as yet no cure; hence an urgent
need for preventive measures to curb this pandemic.
Various strategies have been put in place to curb the prevalence of HIV/AIDS the world over, yet
HIV/AIDS continues to spread at an alarming rate. Education stands as an important tool in
reaching out to vulnerable groups especially the sexually active and those inexperienced in the
realm of sexual activity: secondary school pupils.
At the beginning of the new millennium, approximately 1.7 billion people, which is more than a
quarter of the world's population, were between the ages of 10 and 24, and 86 percent of these
youths were living in less developed countries (Solomon 2004:1). It is reiterated in a number of
publications that these youths are tomorrow's parents (Solomon 2004:1). While some authors
appear to support this view, they also consider the term youth as a period during which people
explore and discover a range of life events or behaviours, such as early onset of sexual intercourse
(Kauffman, Orbe, Johnson and Cooke-Jackson 2013:783). It must be mentioned that the price for
early onset of sexual activity is high, as each year over one million teenagers become pregnant and
over four million are diagnosed with a sexually transmitted disease (STD) (Kauffman et al. 2013:110). This is certainly a concern, and thus, this developmental stage deserves more attention and
discussion.
Youth is the transition between childhood and adulthood. The increasing independence of youths
brings about new challenges and risks resulting in marked differences in patterns of morbidity and
mortality compared with younger children (Animaw 2009:10). Youths are more likely to engage in
1

risky behaviours, such as substance use and unsafe sexual practices. Despite this, youths have not
traditionally been considered a health priority since they have lower morbidity and mortality rates
than older and younger age groups (Mensch, Clark and Anh 2003:249-262.). According to Bayley
(2003:832), youths are twice as much likely to die from pregnancy-related health complications,
such as excessive bleeding and uterine infection like myometritis. It is critical to mention that
pregnancy among youths could be a function of sexual risk behaviours, such as unprotected sex and
early sexual initiation. Taking this into account, it is important to explore these issues further.
A recent study by Adamu, Mulatu and Si (2003:5) explored factors of sexual initiation, subsequent
risk behaviours, and condom use among 1,102 youth students in secondary schools in some parts of
Ethiopia. In his study, two-thirds of the sexual initiations were unprotected and some occurred with
casual or commercial sex partners (9.1%). It is asserted in the same study that multi-partnered sex
(52.7%) and sex with casual (30.4%) or commercial (25.3%) partners were the most commonly
reported lifetime risk behaviours. 56.7% of the youths claimed to never use condoms. Even though
this was the case, half of them indicated to have used them regularly and claimed to feel protected
by condom use from sexually transmitted infection. The study clearly indicated that geographical
locations of subjects was related to such usage of condom and expressed feelings of safety.
Socio-demographic characteristics, particularly gender, location, and age, are significantly
correlated with sexual and preventive behaviours (Gebregiorgis 2000:7). It is therefore important to
explore these factors in research studies, as engaging in sexual risk behaviours could result in
negative consequences. For example, sexual risk behaviours could lead to unwanted pregnancy,
which in turn has negative implications.
The Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS 2004a:93) states that todays youth
is the largest in history with nearly half of the global population being younger than 25 years of
age. Todays youth have also inherited a lethal legacy that is killing them and their friends, their
1

brothers and sisters, parents, teachers and role models, according to the Joint United Nations
Programme on HIV/AIDS/United Nations Children Emergency Fund/World Health Organization
(UNICEF/UNAIDS/ WHO 2002:6). Young people are both the most threatened globally
(accounting for half of the new cases of HIV) and the greatest hope for turning the tide against
HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS 2004a:93). So their behaviours, be it sexual or otherwise, will determine the
future of the HIV/AIDS epidemic. These behaviours will depend largely on their accurate
knowledge, perceptions and attitudes regarding HIV/AIDS.
More than two decades into the HIV/AIDS epidemic, the vast majority of young people remain
uninformed about sex and sexually transmitted infections (STIs). Although the majority had heard
about AIDS, many do not know how HIV is spread and do not believe they are at risk
(UNICEF/UNAIDS/WHO 2002:6).
Many approaches to HIV prevention, treatment and care require that people have true knowledge
and understanding of the epidemic and know their HIV status.
T e e n a g e r s worldwide are sexually active and tend to engage in risky sexual behaviour. It is
estimated that about 15 million teenagers aged 15 19 years give birth yearly, 4 million obtain
abortion, and about 100 million become infected with sexually transmitted diseases (STDs)
annually (USAIDS, 1997). Globally, about 40% of all HIV/AIDS cases involve the youth aged
15 24 years and it is estimated that about 7000 youth are infected daily (UNAIDS,2001).
Educational institutions, especially those at the secondary school levels play a role in
promoting positive sexual behaviour among young people. However issues relating to sex and
its practices continue to challenge most educational facilities especially those in developing
countries including Nigeria. Sexual health education for children and young adults is one of
the most hotly debated and emotional issues facing policy makers, national AIDS programme
planners and educators today. Arguments have raged over how explicit educational materials
1

should be, how much there should be, how often it should be given, and at what age to
initiate education. Indeed, the question has been asked: Why educate adolescents about sex,
sexual health and sexually transmissible diseases (STDs) at all?
Nigeria has experienced a high growth rate of the youth population over the last two decades ( EU
-Nigeria Cooperation, 2006 ) The early sexual maturation among girls and boys, together with a
tendency for sexual activity to begin at younger ages than later, have increasingly placed
teenagers at risk of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) including HIV/AIDS. In many African
communities such as Nigeria, the transition from late childhood to teenager occurs in the
context of rapid social change that disrupts family life. Hence, social and religious institutions,
such as the extended family, the church and mosques, which once governed values, rites of
passage, and marriage, have been largely replaced by secular institutions (Ampomah,
unpublished). The extent to which these social changes affect adolescents is a source of
concern in such societies like Ghana. Policy and service organizations are focusing on perceived
youth issues such as pre-marital sexual activity, unwanted pregnancies, out-of-wedlock births,
illegal abortions, STIs and high levels of HIV and drug abuse (Glover et al., 2003).
Educational institutions in Nigeria play a collaborative role in shaping the total health
development of the youth. Relative to improving the sexual behaviour, all secondary Schools
in Nigeria are supposed to have lessons related to sex and safe sex practices and also
encourage students to translate such lessons into practice. Public secondary Schools in the
Minna metropolis are expected to ensure that students in the schools have adequate knowledge
about sex and sex life. However, the extent to which the schools have executed this
important role, of promoting positive sex life of students, and the extent to which the students
put into practice what they have been taught is of concern and hence this study.

1.2

Statement of the Problem

There is little information on the extent to which Nigerian teenagers suffer from STIs,
especially HIV, abortion and unwanted pregnancies. The reported cases of HIV/AIDS among
adolescents aged 10-19 as at December 2000 was 949. This figure represents only about 40% of the
actual number of cases. Infection among females outnumbers that of males (female: male ratio 2:1)
(Dowuona, 2005).
In the Minna Metropolis, majority of teenagers aged 13 19 years are in secondary Schools and the
students are exposed to varied environmental influences that could hamper positive sexual
attitudes. This environment includes the exposure to alcohol in some hideout places, drugs,
smoking, and clubs among others. These exist and affect people living in cosmopolitan settings
including the youth and students in secondary Schools for that matter. Despite these efforts made
by school administrators and tutors, there has not been any evidence as to the knowledge levels of
students on sex and sexual practices coupled with the practices of safe sex amongst them. This
study therefore is intended to bring to fore the sexual behavioural practices and challenges amongst
secondary school students in the Minna metropolis taking cognizance of the nature of organization
of sexual education and behavioural change education in Schools.

1.3

Aims and Objectives

The main aims of this study are to assess the extent to which the organization of sexual education
for students in secondary school influences their behaviour regarding safe sex conduct against
the risk of HIV/AIDS and STDs in general.
Specific objectives of the study include the following:
i.

To describe the extent of effectiveness of organization of sex education at secondary

schools in the Minna Metropolis.
1

ii.

To assess students knowledge about sex and sexual behaviours against HIV/AIDS in Minna
Metropolis.

iii.

To determine the extent to which student knowledge influences their exposure to alcohol,
drugs and unsafe sex in Minna Metropolis.

iv.

To establish the extent of sexual activity and practices amongst students in Minna
Metropolis.

1.4

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study was to examine whether HIV risk reduction measures among teenagers in
secondary schools would reduce prevalence of behaviors that present high risk of HIV infection
among teenagers in secondary school, Minna metropolis.
The researcher also intended to use the findings of the study to offer recommendations to service
providers that will help prevent or at least reduce unsafe sexual practices among secondary school
students (teenagers).

1.5

Research questions

1. What is the extent of knowledge of students of secondary schools on sexual behaviour in Minna
Metropolis?
2. How does the knowledge about HIV/AIDS influence behaviour relative to alcohol, drugs and sex
among secondary school students in Minna Metropolis?
3. What is the extent of sexual activity of secondary school students relative to sexual intercourse
and use of methods against STDs in Minna Metropolis?
1

4. How is sex education organized in secondary schools in the metropolis?

1.6

Significance of the Study

The issue of HIV risk reduction measures among teenagers in Nigeria particularly in Minna
metropolis is very important for the prevention of problems relating to unwanted pregnancy and
Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs), including HIV/AIDS. Thus, it is expected that this study
would contribute to the development and implementation of appropriate health promotion
programmes to reduce both the incidence and prevalence of sexual risk behaviours and their
associated problems, including HIV/AIDS.
The study would assist all stakeholders especially the Ministry of Education, Local Government,
Ministry of Health, NGOs among others on how the measures aimed at positively sensitizing and
developing better safe sex practices among the teenagers in secondary school could be enhanced.
This study therefore would inform policy, curriculum development, instruction designs and also
general information education and communication on HIV risk reduction measures among the
teenagers in Minna, Niger State of Nigeria.

1.7

SCOPE OF THE STUDY

This study focuses on exploring HIV risk reduction measures among teenagers in senior secondary
schools in Minna metropolis, Niger State. It is the researchers hope that the outcome of this study
will increase awareness of the identified measures and the impact of these on secondary school
teenagers` sexual behaviours among the people of Minna metropolis.

1.8

Definition of Terms

Students

Persons, male or female studying in school, college or University (Getnet 2005:6).

Students in this study refer to persons attending high school in the 9th and 12th grade (Animaw
2009:3).
HIV

Human Immune Virus

SSS

Senior Secondary School

AIDS Acquire Immune Deficiency Syndrome

NGO Non Governmental Organisation
STD

Sexually Transmitted Diseases

LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0

Introduction

This chapter seeks to review literature relevant to the study. The purpose is to explore what has
been done in reproductive health and HIV/AIDS and provide a background and a basis for
making generalization for the study.

2.1

The History of HIV/AIDS in Nigeria

The first two cases of HIV and AIDS in Nigeria were identified in 1985 and were reported at an
international AIDS conference in 1986. In 1987 the Nigerian health sector established the
National AIDS Advisory Committee, which was shortly followed by the establishment of the
National Expert Advisory Committee on AIDS (NEACA)

At first the Nigerian government was slow to respond to the increasing rates of HIV transmission
and it was only in 1991 that the Federal Ministry of Health made their first attempt to assess the
situation with HIV and AIDS in Nigeria. The results showed that around 1.8 percent of the
population of Nigeria was infected with HIV. Subsequent surveillance reports revealed that
during the 1990s HIV prevalence rose from 3.8 percent in 1993 to 5.4 percent in 1999.
Following a peak of 5.8 percent in 2001, HIV prevalence then declined steadily throughout the
decade. When antiretroviral drugs (ARVs) were introduced in Nigeria in the early 1990s, they
were only available to those who paid for them. As the cost of the drugs was very high at this
time and the overwhelming majority of Nigerians were living on less than $2 a day, only the
wealthy minority were able to afford the treatment.

When Olusegun Obasanjo became the president of Nigeria in 1999, HIV prevention, treatment

and care became one of the governments primary concerns. The Presidents Committee on
AIDS and the National Action Committee on AIDS (NACA) were created, and in 2001, the
government set up a three-year HIV/AIDS Emergency Action Plan (HEAP). In the same year,
Obasanjo hosted the Organisation of African Unitys first African Summit on HIV/AIDS,
Tuberculosis, and Other Related Infectious Diseases.

In 2002 the Nigerian government started an ambitious antiretroviral treatment programme, which
aimed to supply 10,000 adults and 5,000 children with antiretroviral drugs within one year. An
initial $3.5 million worth of ARVs were to be imported from India and delivered at a subsidized
monthly cost of $7 per person. The programme was announced as 'Africas largest antiretroviral
treatment programme'. By 2004 the programme had suffered a major setback as too many
patients were being recruited without a big enough supply of drugs to hand out. This resulted in
an expanding waiting list and not enough drugs to supply the high demand. The patients who had
already started the treatment then had to wait for up to three months for more drugs, which can
not only reverse the progress the drugs have already made, but can also increase HIV drug
resistance. Eventually, another $3.8 million worth of drugs were ordered and the programme
resumed.

ARVs were being administered in only 25 treatment centres across the country which was a far
from adequate attempt at helping the estimated 550,000 people requiring antiretroviral therapy.
Despite increased efforts to control the epidemic, by 2006 it was estimated that just 10 percent of
HIV-infected women and men were receiving antiretroviral therapy and only 7 percent of
pregnant women were receiving treatment to reduce the risk of mother-to-child transmission of
HIV. As a result, in 2006 Nigeria opened up 41 new AIDS treatment centres and strated handing

out free ARVs to those who needed them. Treatment scale up between 2006/2007 was
impressive, rising from 81,000 people (15 percent of those in need) to 198,000 (26 percent) by
the end of 2007. Nigeria's programme to prevent the transmission of HIV from mother to child
(PMTCT) started in July 2002. Despite efforts to strengthen PMTCT interventions, by 2007 only
5.3 percent of HIV positive women were receiving antiretroviral drugs to reduce the risk of
mother-to-child transmission. This figure had risen to almost 22 percent by 2009, but still
remained far short of universal access targets which aim for 80 percent coverage. 2010 NACA
launched its comprehensive National Strategic Framework to cover 2010 to 2015, which
required an estimated N756 billion (around US$ 5 billion) to implement. Some of the main aims
included in the framework are to reach 80 percent of sexually active adults and 80 percent of
most at-risk populations with HIV counseling and testing by 2015, ensure 80 percent of eligible
adults and 100 percent of eligible children are receiving ART by 2015; and to improve access to
quality care and support services to at least 50 percent of people living with HIV by 2015.
Despite being the largest oil producer in Africa and the 12th largest in the world, Nigeria is
ranked 156 out of 187 on the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) Human Poverty
Index. This poor development position has meant that Nigeria is faced with huge challenges in
fighting its HIV and AIDS epidemic.

2.1

Knowledge of teenagers on sexual development and reproductive health

Teenagers lack of knowledge on early sexual development and reproductive health poses a risk
through unprotected sex in young people. This is reflected in disproportionately high rates of
STD infection (Rosenthal et al, 1994; and Maxwell et. al., 1995; Clark et al, 2002) and unwanted
pregnancy. Higher rates of STD infection have been associated with earlier initiation of sexual
intercourse (Rosenthal, et. al., 1994; Jejeebhoy, 2006). Educating adolescents on contraception,
1

HIV, and STD prevention has been shown to be effective in reducing these unintended
consequences (Daures, et. al., 1989; Bloodindex, 2007). Unfortunately, parents, although keen to
help their children, still do not communicate adequately with them about sex, mainly due to the
fact that many parents feel inadequate to the task (Geasler et al., 1995; DeJong et al., 2007), and
therefore are often embarrassed and uncomfortable to approach their children with the topic
(BBC News, 2000). In recent times, children have turned, particularly to more formal sources of
sexual health education such as school-based lessons (Wellings et al., 1995).

2.2

Practices in relation to sexual behaviour, HIV and STDs

Teenagers, a stage such as that of students of secondary schools in Minna, is an important stage
of life for establishing healthy behaviours, attitudes, and lifestyles that contribute to current and
future health. Many teenagers are sexually active, although not always by choice and in some
religions as many as half are married (Blanc, et. al., 1998). Teenagers may experience resistance
or even hostility from adults when they attempt to obtain sexual and reproductive health
information and services they need.
Sexual debut for most young people occurs during their teenage years. Sexual experience among
young people has been estimated in a number of countries: At age 15 years, 53% of young
people in Greenland, 38% of young people in Denmark (Werdelin et al, 1992), and 69% of
young people in Sweden (Klanger et al, 1993) have experienced intercourse. By age 18 years, the
percentage that are sexually active has been reported as 54.1% in the United States, 31% in the
Dominican Republic (Westhoff et al, 1996), 66.5% in New Zealand (Paul et al., 1995), and
51.6% in Australia (Rodden et. al, 1996). Age of debut has been estimated at a median of 17
years in England (Wellings et al., 1995) and a mean of 15.95 years in the United States (Zelnik,

1983), and 16.8 years in Sweden (Schwartz, 1993). Therefore, the majority of young people have
begun to have sexual intercourse before they leave their teens, and at least half by the age of 16.
Use of contraceptives and STD prevention has been reported to vary across adolescence
according to the age at which initiation occurs. Condoms and contraception are more likely to be
used when sex is initiated at later age in adolescence ( Zelnik, 2003). Education on these topics
has been found to be more effective if given prior to first intercourse (Howard et al, 1990), that
is, in adolescence or pre-adolescence. Sexual partner turnover rate is greater during adolescence
and the early twenties than in later years (Billy, 1993; Paul et. al., 1995). This is true not only for
numbers of casual partners, but also for those relationships perceived as being regular and
monogamous (Rosenthal et. al, 1990). Although these serially monogamous pairings may be of
short duration, their regular status, in the minds of many of the young people in them, confers
safety with respect to STD transmission (Rosenthal et al., 1990). Unprotected sex is viewed as
not risky because the partner is a regular partner as opposed to a casual one. Thus unprotected
sex occurs with multiple partners, but the cumulative risk is rendered invisible by the apparent
monogamy and commitment of each discrete relationship.
A study in Nigeria showed that the level of sexual activity and the incidence of sexually
transmitted diseases (STDs) are high among Nigerian teenagers, but use of reproductive health
services is low. Information about their attitudes and experiences is needed for the design of
youth-friendly programs. Twenty-four single-sex focus group discussions were conducted among
young people aged 15-20 attending secondary schools in Benin City. The discussions explored
the adolescents' perceptions of sexual behaviour among their peers, their knowledge of STDs and
their preferred means of preventing and treating STDs. The participants perceived that sexual
activity is common among their peers. They noted that although physical attraction is the main

reason for romantic relationships (which might include sex), the desire for material or financial
gain is the primary motivation for sexual relationships. The young people had some knowledge
about STDs, especially HIV and AIDS, but many believed infections were inevitable. When they
had an STD, most went to traditional healers; they were unlikely to seek treatment from doctors
because of high cost, slow service, negative provider attitudes toward young people and a
perceived lack of confidentiality. The participants considered media campaigns as the best way
to educate young people about STDs and condom use. Finally it was concluded that using media
campaigns to educate adolescents about risky behaviour and condom use (Keating et al., 2006),
educating parents about reproductive health and communication with adolescents, training
medical providers in low-cost diagnosis and treatment techniques, and establishing youthfriendly services that emphasize sensitivity and confidentiality would be helpful in reducing
high-risk sexual behaviour and controlling the spread of STDs (including HIV and AIDS) among
young people in Nigeria (Temin et. al., 1999;Satcher,2001; Bertrand, and Anhang, 2006).
A school-based study was also conducted among Mexican young people on condom use, other
sexual behaviours, and HIV/AIDS knowledge. Students (n=13,293, 11-24 years of age) from a
random sample of public schools in the central Mexican state of Morelos completed a selfadministered questionnaire. The results obtained were that the average age at sexual debut was
13.6 1.9 years among young men and 14.2 2.2 years among young women; 34.5% of sample
participants reported using condoms during their first sexual intercourse. More students had
intermediate HIV/AIDS knowledge levels (46%, 95% confidence interval [95% CI], 45.2-46.9)
than high levels (37%, 95% CI 36.2-37.8, p <0.01). Students knew more concerning HIV
transmission than about prevention of HIV infection. Among young men, high levels of
HIV/AIDS knowledge increased likelihood of condom use (odds ratio [OR] 1.4, 95% CI, 1.1-

1.7), while among young women high levels of knowledge decreased likelihood of using
condoms (OR 0.7, 95% CI, 0.5-1.0). Young men with high levels of HIV/AIDS knowledge were
more likely to have had three or more sexual partners (OR 1.7, 95% CI, 1.3-2.2), but young
women with high knowledge levels were more likely to have only one lifetime sexual partner
(OR 0.6, 95% CI, 0.4-0.9) (Uche et. al., 1997). It was finally noticed that levels of knowledge
with regard to HIV/AIDS were low in Mexican youth and that HIV/AIDS education programs
for Mexican students should focus on conveying knowledge on HIV prevention. Because
apparently knowledge is not directly correlated with condom use among young women,
prevention strategies that deal with social acceptability of condoms and social skills related with
condom negotiation are also needed. (Tapia et al, 2004).
Teenagers reproductive health is affected by pregnancy, abortion, STDs, and limited access to
information and clinical services. Reproductive health also is affected by nutrition, psychological
wellbeing and economic and gender inequalities that can make it difficult to avoid coerced or
commercial sex (Gage, 1998; UNAIDS, 2002). Data have shown that young women who
experienced a coerced first intercourse compared with those who did not were significantly less
likely to use condoms at last intercourse (13% versus 33%); significantly less likely to have
consistently used condom over the last six months (7% versus 25%); and were more likely to
report that they had never used condom (75% versus 59%) (Koenig et al., 2004).

2.3

Increase Rate of Sexually Transmitted Disease among Teenagers

Meschke (2002)School programs about human sexuality have evolved in response to concerns
about high rates of teen pregnancy and increasing rates of sexually transmitted infections (STIs),
including HIV/AIDS. Compared to teens in other industrialized countries, teens aged 15-19 have

the highest pregnancy rate .More than 800,000 females under age twenty become pregnant each
year: Eighty percent of those are unintended pregnancies . Although teens and young adults
15-24 years of age comprise only one quarter of the sexually active population of individuals
under 44 year they acquire nearly one half of all new STIs. This translates to about 9.1 million
young people in this age group acquiring. As a group, adolescents are at greatest risk for many
STIs. In fact, more than half of HIV infections acquired after infancy occur during adolescence.
The majority of parents, health professionals, and the public agree that there should be sexuality
education in schools and that girl should delay childbearing until they are self-sufficient.
However, there is a major difference between what most parents and professionals agree should
be in a curriculum and what is actually offered. In a 2004 poll conducted by the Kaiser Family
Foundation, National Public Radio, and the John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard,
95% of the parents of junior high students and 93% of the parents of senior high students
indicated that birth control and other methods of preventing pregnancy.
(Nnachi, 2003), The Nigerian society today has to grapple with many behavioural problems of its
youth. Such problems include truancy, disobedience, drug offences, assault, insult, stealing,
violent demonstrations, vandalism, examination malpractices, robbery, and secret cult activities.
Apart from these widely publicized behavioural problems, heterosexual activities are also listed
among types of behavioural problems prevalent in Nigerian secondary schools. These are
variously named in the literature as sex abuse, sex offences, sexual misconduct, sexual
immorality, sexual promiscuity, and sexual maladjustment He also observed that in terms of
behavioural problems, sex abuse appeared to be one of the most serious offences committed by
children and adolescents. Information on reproductive health, which shows that many Nigerian

girls are known to start involvement in active sex at the early age of thirteen years. The age of
initial sexual experience and involvement thus becomes younger than fifteen years.
Okonkwo and Eze (2000) observed that todays situation shows a sharp contrast to the traditional
Nigerian societal context in which girls avoided pre-marital sexual experiences for fear of social
punishments usually meted out to girls who lost their virginity before marriage. Observers blame
this state of affairs on parents. Basically, the task of educating children, especially adolescents,
about sex is seen as the responsibility of parents. The traditional Nigerian society, however, is
quite conservative on matters of sex. Consequently, parent-child discussion on sexual matters is
beclouded by parental inhibitions and inter-generational tensions. Most Nigerian parents shy
away from such discussions because it is generally believed that it will make the adolescent
attempt to experiment on what they have been told. In most African homes, parents are not fully
equipped to answer questions on sexual matters usefully. Even those who try to, pass on faulty
information to their children. The whole subject thus becomes surrounded by secrecy and the
children now become too embarrassed to discuss these matters with their parents. Three decades
after, the situation is hardly different as studies have shown that children rarely receive
information on sexual matters from their parents.

2.4

Views of teenagers on unwanted pregnancies, abortion and HIV / STDs

Sexual activity puts teenagers at risk of various reproductive health challenges. Each year about
15 million adolescents aged 15-19 years give birth, as many as 4 million obtain abortion and up
to 100 million become infected with curable STDs. Globally, 40% of all new HIV infections
occur among 15-24 year olds. It is estimated that 7000 are infected each day (UNAIDS, 1997).
In nineteen African countries, five or more percent of females aged 15-24 are infected with HIV

(UNAIDS, 2002). Reports on the Global AIDS Epidemic reports low and high estimates of HIV
prevalence among girls and boys aged 15-24, ratios of new female to-male infections among
those aged 15-24 are as high as 8:1 in South Africa (Shyisana,et al., 2005).
In Nigeria 2,460 secondary school students were surveyed in two secondary schools in Nsukka,
Enugu state. Of the students who supplied information about their sexual activity, 40% had had
intercourse; the proportions who were sexually experienced climbed from 26% of 14-year-olds
to 54-55% of 18-19-year-olds. While 36% of the young women had had sexual partners who
were roughly their age, 25% had been involved with older businessmen; the young women said
they have intercourse more frequently and are less likely to restrict intercourse to the safe period
of their cycle when they are involved with older partners than when they have boyfriends their
own age. Only 17% of sexually active students had ever used a contraceptive method other than
abstinence. In focus groups and in-depth discussions, students expressed a strong desire for
better education about contraception and the consequences of sexual intercourse, and
recommended that both schools and parents participate in educating young people about
reproductive health (Uche, et. al., 1997).

2.5

Socio-economic and cultural issues affecting teenagers sexual behaviour

Compared to women in their twenties, teenagers ages 15 to 19 are two times more likely to die
during childbirth, and those aged 14 years and younger are five times more likely ( UNICEF,
2000). What happens between the ages of 10 and 19, whether for good or ill, shows how girls
and boys live out their lives as women and men, not only in the reproductive arena, but in the
social and economic realm as well. Yet despite its impact on human development, adolescents
have been side lined as a research and policy subject in developing countries (Mensc et al 1998).

Youth risk behaviour, a general term used to describe adverse health behaviours adopted in
childhood or adolescence is one indicator of the health of young people that serves as a basis for
measuring teenagers health over time as well as a target for health policies and programs.
Young teenagers are more likely than older teenagers to be in residence with parents and in
school; however their absence from school or lack of parental support (i.e. surprisingly high
proportion of 10-14 year olds live with one or neither parents in many parts of sub Saharan
Africa) may be a cause for concern. While some of these young people not reside with a parent,
may be with the extended family, or in positive fostering or protective living arrangement, it is
notable that many are vulnerable to sexual exploitation, unsafe work and substance abuse
(Chong, et. al., 2006).

2.6

Factors influencing risky sexual behaviours

2.6.1

Religious attachment

A study by Kristin and Richard (2009:163) examined the association of religiosity with risky
sexual behaviours among teenagers and young adults. In their study religiosity was defined as
a set of institutionalised beliefs, doctrines and rituals, and ethical standards of how an
individual should live a good life. These authors also clearly indicated that youths who
perceived or viewed religion as a very important aspect of their lives were not only likely to
attend church frequently, but they were also more likely to have fewer sex partners. Added to
this, secondary youths with strong religious affiliation were also less likely to engage in sexual
intercourse before marriage. Outcomes of a range of studies seem to support the view that
adolescents who are more religious are more likely to delay sexual activity (Holder, Durant,

Harris, Daniel, Obeidallah and Goodman 2000:295-302). Similar claims are repeatedly made
in the literature that adolescents from a religious background with strong religious beliefs are
more likely to experience decreased rates of voluntary sexual debut (Fehring 2010:167).
Studies by Turbin, Jessor, Costa, Dong, Zhang and Wang (2006:445-454) support this
assertion and add that religiosity is protective against risky sexual behaviours. Other
researchers appear to disagree with this view by asserting that religiosity is unrelated to sexual
behaviors (Sheeran, Abrams, Abraham and Spears1993:39-52). Another factor that is claimed
to be related to secondary school youths` sexual behaviour is parental monitoring. It therefore
deserves some discussion.