SF1 SB

1
Science Focus 1 s e c o n d
Science
Focus
second
edition
The comprehensive science suite

Student Book
The second edition of the Science Focus 1 student book has been fully revised
and updated based on extensive teacher consultation. It provides complete
coverage of the Stage 4 and 5 Science Syllabus and addresses all the learning
outcomes in the domains of knowledge, understanding and skills. Each chapter
of the Student Book addresses at least one prescribed focus area in detail.
Homework Book
The Science Focus 1 Homework Book has a fresh new design and provides
worksheets containing consolidation, extension and revision activities.
The wrap-around Science Focus 1 Teacher Edition is new for the second edition.
Every page of the Student Book is surrounded by a wealth of support material,
allowing the teacher to approach the teaching and learning of science with
confidence.
LiveTextTM DVD
Pearson Places
www.pearsonplaces.com.au
Pearson Places is the online destination that is constantly evolving to give
you the most up-to-date educational content on the Web. Visit
Pearson Places to access educational content, download lesson
material, use rich media and connect with students, educators
and professionals around Australia.
Pearson Reader
More than an eBook, Pearson Reader provides unique online student books
that allow teachers and students to harness the collective intelligence of all
who participate. Search for a unit of work and contribute by adding links and
sharing resources.
Student Lounge
One location for student support materialinteractives, animations, revision
questions and more!
Teacher Lounge
One location for teacher support materialcurriculum grids, chapter tests
and more!
Science Focus 1 Second Edition

978 1 4425 1123 1
Homework Book
978 1 4425 1538 3
Teacher Edition
978 1 4425 1537 6
LiveText
978 1 4425 1539 0
Pearson Reader
978 1 4425 1536 9
Science Focus 2
Second Edition
Science Focus 3
Second Edition
Science Focus 4
Second Edition
978 1 4425 0853 8
978 1 4425 1122 4
978 1 4425 1525 3
Rickard Burger Clarke Geelan Loveday

Monckton Phillips Roberson Spirou Whalley
The Science Focus 1 LiveText DVD is new for the second edition and is
designed for use with an interactive whiteboard or data projector. It consists of
an electronic version of the Student Book with component links, some of which
are unique to LiveText. The features include one-touch zoom and annotation
tools that allow teachers to customise lessons for their students.
edition
Teacher Edition
Science
Focus
second
edition
Greg Rickard
Nici Burger
Warrick Clarke
David Geelan
Dale Loveday
Stewart Monckton
Geoff Phillips
Peter Roberson
Cherine Spirou
Kerry Whalley
PEARSON
Contents
Acknowledgements
Series features
vi
How to use this book
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
viii
Syllabus correlation
Verbs
xi
Being a scientist
Unit 1.1 Science and safety
Unit 1.2 Equipment
Unit 1.3 Observations and measurement
17
Unit 1.4 Reporting
25
Unit 1.5 Working scientifically
29
Chapter review
33
Solids, liquids and gases
34
Unit 2.1 The particle model
35
Science focus: Observation and discovery
43
Unit 2.2 Changes of state
45
Unit 2.3 Expansion
51
Unit 2.4 Density
57
Chapter review
63
Mixtures and their separation
64
Unit 3.1 Types of mixtures
65
Unit 3.2 Separating insoluble substances
73
Unit 3.3 Separating soluble substances
80
Unit 3.4 Water supply and sewage
86
Chapter review
92
Classification
94
Unit 4.1 Why classify?
95
Unit 4.2 Living or non-living?
102
Unit 4.3 From kingdom to species
110
Science focus: Grouping living things
114
Unit 4.4 Classification of animals
117
Unit 4.5 Plants and other kingdoms
127
Chapter review
135
iii
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
iv
Cells
137
Unit 5.1 Cells and the microscope
138
Unit 5.2 Plant cells
149
Unit 5.3 Animal cells
155
Unit 5.4 Single cells, groups of cells
158
Science focus: Stem cells
163
Chapter review
166
Heat, light and sound
167
Unit 6.1 Energy
168
Unit 6.2 Heat
176
Unit 6.3 Light
188
Unit 6.4 Sound
196
Chapter review
203
Forces
205
Unit 7.1 What are forces?
206
Unit 7.2 Friction
212
Unit 7.3 Gravity
218
Unit 7.4 Balanced and unbalanced forces
224
Unit 7.5 Forces in water
231
Unit 7.6 Magnetic forces
236
Chapter review
242
Earth in space
244
Unit 8.1 Earths movement in space
245
Unit 8.2 The Moon
250
Unit 8.3 The Sun
257
Unit 8.4 The solar system
262
Science focus: Early astronomy
275
Chapter review
279
Our planet Earth
280
Unit 9.1 Our Earth
281
Unit 9.2 Rocks and minerals
286
Unit 9.3 Types of rocks
292
Unit 9.4 Weathering and erosion
301
Unit 9.5 The atmosphere
306
Science focus: Global climate change
313
Unit 9.6 Weather
316
Chapter review
322
Sci Q Busters
324
Index
328
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the following for permission to reproduce copyright material.
The following abbreviations are used in this list: t = top, b = bottom, l = left, r = right, c = centre.
AAP Image: pp. 231tr, 258r, 314l, 314r.
Alamy: p. 19.
Auscape/John Carnemolla: p. 294bl.
Auscape/Reg Morrison: p. 293l.
Bureau of Meteorology: p. 301l.
Corbis: pp. ivb, 35, 169bcl, 169tcl, 224, 283, 296.
CSIRO Minerals: p. 76r.
CSIRO: p. 313t.
Dorling Kindersley: pp. 46 both, 47t, 145t, 145c.
Dorling Kindersley/Clive Streeter: p. 47b.
Dorling Kindersley/Colin Keates Courtesy of the Natural History Museum, London: p. 287br.
Dreamstime: pp. 87, 179tc, 179tr, 198, 293r.
Fairfax photos/Vince Caligiuri: p. 206.
Getty Images: pp. iii c top, 2, 45, 47, 102t, 121t, 163b, 231br, 280.
iStock Photo: pp. 4, 57, 68 all, 80 b, 128l, 129tl, 159br, 172, 175, , 231 l, 245, 252, 253, 257bl, 286bc,
286br, 292t, 313b.
Jupiter Images: p. 250.
The Kobal Collection/New Line Cinema: p. 281b.
Lin, Mike: p. 163t.
Melbourne Arts Centre, The, Concert Hall: p. 199b.
NASA: pp. ivcb , 218b, 251br, 251tr, 257t, 260, 263, 264, 265, 266 all, 267, 268t, 269, 275l, 275r, 278,
306, 317, 318br.
Opitz, Bernd: p. 214bl.
Pearson Australia: pp. 144, 191.
Pearson Australia/Elizabeth Anglin: 142b.
Pearson Australia/Alice McBroom: pp. 85, 258l.
Photodisc: pp. iiicb, 29, 51, 64, 65, 73, 80t, 149, 160, 188 all, 207cr, 213r, 236.
Photolibrary.com: pp. ivt, 9, 17, 43, 66, 75 both, 76l, 82r, 95t, 103b, 104c, 104b, 105bl, 106 both, 111b,
114, 115t, 117, 118t, 118b, 119r, 120tr, 120br, 122 all, 123 all, 127r, 128br, 129r, 130 both, 137, 138 all,
140 both, 141, 142cl, 142t, 143 all, 145b, 150, 155l, 158 both, 159t, 159c, 159bl, 164, 166, 168l, 178,
189br, 196, 199t, 214t, 220, 232, 244, 268b, 276, 277 both, 286tl, 286tr, 287bl, 288b, 289 both, 294br,
295l, 297, 302, 303t, 310, 319.
Photos.com: pp. 25 both, 200, 282.
Picture Source, The/Terry Oakley: p. 67t.
Rickard, Greg: p. 294t.
Science and Society Picture Library: p. 139.
Science Photo Library: pp. 142cr, 151b.
Shutterstock: pp. iiit, ivct, 3 all, 37, 43l, 53, 66l, 67b, 74 both, 74r, 94, 95 b, 96 all, 97 all, 81, 82l, 100 all,
102b, 103t, 104t, 105t, 105br, 107, 110, 111 all, 112 both, 115b, 118c, 119l, 120bl, 121b, 127l, 129 bl,
155r,167, 168r, 169 all, 170 all, 171l, 176, 179tl, 179b, 181 both, 189tl, 189tr, 189bl, 207tl, 207tr, 207cl,
207bl, 207br, 212 both, 214br, 216 all, 218t, 219, 225, 237, 251l, 257bc, 257br, 262, 281t, 286bl, 287t,
288tr all, 288bl, 292r, 294c, 295r, 301r, 303c, 303b, 316, 318l all, 324, 325 both, 326 both.
Sydney Water: p. 86.
Every effort has been made to trace and acknowledge copyright. However, if any infringement has occurred, the
publishers tender their apologies and invite the copyright holders to contact them.
Series
features
Science Focus Second Edition
The Science Focus Second Edition series has been designed for the revised NSW Science Syllabus, Stages 4 and 5.
This fresh and engaging series is based on the essential and additional content.
Student books with student CD
NENTW
ENT
O
C
The student book consists of chapters with the following features:
A science context at the beginning of each chapter
encourages students to make meaning of science in terms
of their everyday experiences.
Science Clip boxes contain quirky and fascinating science
facts and provide opportunity for further exploration by
students.
Unit and chapter review questions are structured around
Blooms Taxonomy of Cognitive Processes. Questions
incorporate the key verbs, so that students can begin to
practise answering questions as required in later years.
Investigating sections incorporate ICT and research
skills. These tasks are designed to push students to apply
the knowledge and skills they have developed within the
chapter.
Practical activities are placed at the end of each unit to allow teachers to choose when and how to
incorporate the practical work.
Science Focus spreads use a contextual approach to focus on the outcomes of the prescribed focus area.
Student activities on these pages allow for further investigation into the material covered.
Each student book includes an interactive student CD containing:
an electronic version of the student book
a link to Pearson Places for extensive online content.
Homework books
NENTW
ENT
CO
The homework book has a fresh new design and layout and provides the
following features:
A syllabus correlation grid links each worksheet to the NSW Science Syllabus.
Updated worksheets cover consolidation, extension and revision activities with
explicit use of syllabus verbs so that students can begin to practise answering
questions as required in later years.
Questions are clearly graded within each worksheet, allowing students to move
from lower-order questions to higher-order questions.
A crossword for every chapter spans across a double-page spread so students
can easily read the clues and instructions.
Sci-words are listed for each chapter in an easy-to-follow tabulated layout.
vi
Teacher editions (including teacher edition CD and student CD)
NEW
The innovative teacher edition contains a wealth of support

material and allows a teacher to approach the teaching and
learning of science with confidence. Teacher editions are available
for each student book in the series. Teacher editions include the
following features:
pages from the student book with wrap-around teacher
notes covering the learning focus, outcomes and a pre-quiz
for every chapter opening
approximately 10 different learning strategies per unit
in addition to the activities provided in each unit of the
student book
assessment ideas
answers to student book questions
practical activity support including a safety spot, common
mistakes, possible results and suggested answers to
practical activity questions
Teacher Resource boxes highlighting additional resources available, such as
worksheets, online activities and practical activities.
Each Science Focus Second Edition Teacher Edition CD includes:
student book answers
homework book answers
NEW Pearson Places
chapter tests and answers
curriculum grids
teaching program for each chapter
Pearson Places is the online
student risk assessments
destination that is constantly evolving
lab technician risk assessments
to give you the most up-to-date educational
safety notes
content on the Web. Visit Pearson Places to
lab technician checklist and recipes.
access educational content, download lesson
material, use rich media and connect with
students, educators and professionals around
W
NE LiveText DVD
Australia.
Pearson Reader
The LiveText DVD is designed
More than an eBook, Pearson Reader
for use with an interactive
provides unique online student books
whiteboard or data projector.
that allow teachers and students to
It consists of an electronic
harness the collective intelligence of
version of the student book
all who participate. Search for a unit of
with component links, some of
work and contribute by adding links and
which are unique to LiveText.
sharing resources.
The features include one-touch
Student Lounge
zoom and annotation tools that
One location for student support
allow teachers to customise
materialinteractives, animations,
lessons for students.
revision questions and more!
Teacher Lounge
One location for teacher support
materialcurriculum grids, chapter
tests and more!
For more information on the Science Focus Second Edition series, visit the Bookstore at:
vii
How to use this book
Science is a fascinating, informative and enjoyable subject. Science encourages us to ask questions and helps
us understand why things happen in our daily lives, on planet Earth and beyond. Scientific knowledge is
constantly evolving and challenges us to think about the world in which we live. Science shows us what we
knew, what we now know and helps us make informed decisions for our future.
Science Focus 1 Second Edition has been designed for the revised NSW Science Syllabus. It includes material
that addresses the learning outcomes in the domains of knowledge, understanding and skills. Each chapter
addresses at least one prescribed focus area in detail. The content is presented through many varied contexts
to engage students in seeing the relationship between science and their everyday lives.
The student book consists of nine chapters with the following features:
Unit
Classification
Prescribed focus area:
The key prescribed focus area

addressed within the chapter is
clearly emphasised.
The nature and practice of science
Key outcomes
Additional
Essential
4.2, 4.8.1, 4.8.2
Living things are classified according to

their structural features.
A range of plants and animals can be

identified using simple keys.
Animals are classified first as

vertebrates and invertebrates.
Vertebrates are then classified as

mammal, bird, reptile, amphibian or
fish.
Invertebrates are then classified into the

main groupings of arthropods, worms,
molluscs or cnidarians.
Plants are classified first as vascular

plants or bryophytes.
Organisms survive by producing their

own food (autotrophic organisms) or
by eating other organisms
(heterotrophic organisms).
Organisms can be classified by

designing simple keys.
Five important kingdoms are animal,

plant, fungi, monera and protists.
Species is the most specific grouping

that an organism can belong to.
Members of the same species are so

similar that they can reproduce and
produce fertile young.
The learning outcomes relevant

to the chapter are clearly listed.
A clear distinction between
essential and additional
outcomes is presented in
student-friendly language.
Units
Context
The context section
appears at the
beginning of each unit
to encourage students
to make meaning of science
in terms of their everyday
experiences.
Unit
4.1
context
4.1
context
3 State which of the groups in Question 2 has the most detailed

description of the organisms in it.
14 A mnemonic is a silly sentence that helps remind you of

something. You could, for example, remember the order in
organism are classified (kingdomphylumclass
which organisms
orderfamily
orderfamilygenusspecies)
by, instead, remembering
Kind people can often find green shoes! Create your own
mnemonic to re
represent the order of classification from
kingdom to spec
species.
4 Organisms are grouped into five kingdoms. List them.
15 The complete classification

cl
of a human is:
2 List these groups from the one that contains the greatest
ms to the group that contains the least:
number of organisms
m, genus, order, class.
family, species, phylum, kingdom,
5 State the structural feature that splits animals into twoo phyla.
Kingdom: Anima
Animal
6 State the two major groups into which plants are classified.
ed.
4.3
Phylum: Chorda
Chordata (vertebrate)
QUESTIONS
Understanding
Class: Mammali
Mammalia (mammal)
Order: Primata ((primates)
7 Explain how you know a terrier and a poodle belong to the

same species.
Family: Hominid
Hominidae (hominids)
8 Explain how you know that a horse and a donkey are different
species.
Genus and spec

species: Homo sapiens
Use this and inf
information from the text to construct a table
s
that shows the similarities
between a human with a dog and
the differences bbetween them.
9 Describe how the unique scientific name for every living thing
is created.
Remembering 10 A subphylum represents a group smaller than a phylum but
166 You have just discovered

di
a new species! You must now report
your findings to the AS4NT (The Australian Society for
Things)
Naming Things).
bigger than a class. Use this information to explain what you
1 State the meanings of

terms
taxonomy and taxonomist.
thinkthe
a subclass
represents.
a Outline the ccharacteristics of your new organism. Be

creative!
2 List these groupsApplying

from the one that contains the greatest
11 The scientific name of the Tasmanian devil is Sarcophilus
number of organismsharrisii.
to Identify
the group
that contains the least:
its:
b Construct a diagram
d
or model of your new species.
c Classify your organism by placing it in a kingdom.
a genus
family, species, phylum,

kingdom, genus, order, class.
b species.
Identify important characteristics shared by all animals in the
3 State which of the12groups
2 has the most detail
genus Felis in
(the Question
cat family).
description of theAnalysing
organisms in it.
d Further class
classify your organism by giving it a name using
the binomial naming system.
13 Four native plants found in the Blue Mountains are Banksia

anksia
4 Organisms are grouped

into
fivepunctata,
kingdoms.
Listandthem.
d Banksia
ericifolia,
Eucalytpus
Acacia floribunda
marginata. Analyse this information to:
5 State the structural feature

that ofsplits
animals
a State the number
species this
represents.
ents.into two phyla
b Name the plants that are in the same
ame genus.
6 State the two major cgroups

into which plants are classified.
Predict if botanists couldd ever cross any of these plants to
Understanding
edlings.
make new seedlings.
113
Investigating
The investigating activities can
be set for further exploration
and assignment work. These
activities may also include
a variety of structured tasks
that fall under the headings of
reviewing and e - xploring.
planets as terrestrial, gas giants or dwarfs;

and geologists classify rocks as igneous,
sedimentary or metamorphic. Biologists have
the most difficult classification job of all
they need to be able to classify every living
thing, placing every organism into groups
that are similar in some way.
Classification makes life a lot easier

for everyone, not just scientists.
At the supermarket, items are
hey
organised by type or by the way they
are packaged. Canned fish is in one
nd
aisle, pasta in another and sauces and
bread somewhere else. Canned
vegetables are in one place, the fresh
ones in another and the frozen ones
in the freezer. Classification in the
supermarket helps you find what youu
want. If you need some chocolate
syrup for your ice cream, then you will
sert
probably find it with the other dessert
kely
toppings. Likewise, soy sauce is likely
uce.
to be found near the tomato sauce.
Scientists need to be abl

many different tasks. On
important is classificatio
the organisation of differ
groups of related types.
elements as metals, non
metalloids; astronomers
Creating
1 State the meanings of the terms taxonomy and taxonomist.t
2002 and beyond
Classification
Unit
QUESTIONS
Remembering
Voyager 1 & 2
The solar system
Why classify?
Scientists need to be able tto carry out

many different tasks. One of
o the most
important is classification. Classification is
the organisation of different
differen things into
Chemists classify
groups of related types. Ch
non-metals or
elements as metals, non-m
astronomers
classify the
metalloids; as
me
tronomers cla
4.3
4.3
Chapter opener
creating questions. Questions

incorporate a variety of verbs,
including the syllabus verbs.
All verbs have been bolded
so students can begin to
practise answering questions
as required in examinations in
later years.
Fig 4.1.2 Goods at the supermarket are
19 Much of the information we know about the outer

uter planets
came from the Voyager 1 and 2 missions. Use the information
in the table to construct a scaled timeline for each mission. N
Date
Mission
20 August 1977
Voyagerr 2
5 September 1977
Voyagerr 1
5 March 1979
Voyagerr 1
9 July 1979
Voyagerr 2
12 November 1980
Voyagerr 1
25 August 1981
Voyagerr 2
24 January 1986
Voyagerr 2
25 August 1989
Voyagerr 2
1998
Voyagerr 1
2002 and beyond
8.4
8
4
What happened?
Launches
8.4
8
4
Launches
Flies by Jupiter
INVESTIGATING
INVESTIG
INVE
STIGATIN
STIG
ATING
ATIN
G
Flies by Jupiter
Flies by Saturn
Flies by Saturn
Flies by Uranus
Investigate
your available resources (e.g. textbook,
Flies by Neptune
Most distant human-made
encyclopaedias,
Internetobject
etc.) to:
Exploring past Pluto
1 Find out what or who each planet was named after.
Voyagerr 1 & 2
Construct a booklet that summarises this information,

including pictures of each planet and the person or object the
planet was named after. L
INVESTIGATING
INVESTIGAT
INVESTI
GAT
ATING
ATIN
NG
N
G
2 Find out what the given statement means.

Money spent on space exploration would be better spent on
e -xploring
Investigate your available resources (e.g. textbook,

encyclopaedias, Internet etc.) to:
things like medical research and aid programs.
mation,
including pictures of each planet and the personn or object the
To find ou
out more about the solar system, a list of web destinations
can be found oon Science Focus 1 second edition Student Lounge.
There, you will also find a link to a website that allows you to
construct a model of a spac
space probe, such as the Cassini spacecraft
that was sent to explore Saturn.
Organise a class debate on this issue. L
etter spent on
Money spent on space exploration would be better
272
classified to make them easier to find.
Libraries have their own classification system,

organising their books by types, subject and author.
Textbooks on the same subject are going to be in
roughly the same place, novels by the same author will
be grouped together, and encyclopaedias will be in their
own section.
Practical activities
Fig 4.1.1 Although it may look like something from science fiction,
this Hercules beetle is a very real living thing. Biologists need to be
able to classify all living things, even Hercules beetles.
95
Unit content
Making a pasta key
Aim
To construct a key to classify pasta.
4.1
PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES
VIT
VI
TIE
T
IE
IES
ES
Aim
Unit
The unit includes illustrations, photos and content to keep

students engaged and challenged as they learn about
science. A homework book icon appears within the unit
indicating a related worksheet from the
Worksheet
supporting homework book.
Practical activities are placed at the end of each unit,

allowing teachers to choose when and how to best
incorporate practical work into the teaching and learning.
A practical activity icon will appear throughout the unit
to signal suggested times for practical work. Within some
practical activities a safety box
4.1
appears that lists very importantt 2 Constructing
keys
ur
safety information. Some
practical activities are design
!
your own (DYO) tasks and
others may be conducted using
ed to
a data logger. Icons are inserted
indicate these options.
4 When
en you get to the poin
point where you are at a particular type,
draw the pasta or paste a sample of it in that place on your
key.
5 Gather all the pasta togeth

together again and decide on a new set of
To construct different
types of keys to classify collect
Equipment
eristics by which tto reclassify your pasta. Once again,
characteristics
A sample of at least five different kinds of uncooked pasta (e.g.
spiral pasta, tubes, shells, bows, spaghetti etc.) in a beaker or cup.
Safety
Method
uct a dichotomous key.

construct
Questions
ns
1 Identify
fy the main feature of a dichotomous key.
1 Pour the contents of the beaker onto your bench.
2 Look at the keys designed by other groups. State whether
2 As aplants
group, decide(e.g.
on the characteristics
(e.g. shape,
size etc.)rhus)they
Some
oleander
and
are
used the same chara
characteristics that you did.
you will use to classify your sample of pasta.
3 Evaluate
uate the different key
keys you constructed. Which do you
3 In your
workbook, construct
a dichotomousin
key tosome
classify
nk was better? Why?
think
cause
allergic
reactions
people.
your pasta.
pasta
Equipment
A collection of at least ten of one of the following:

Fig 4.1.15
s LEAVESCOLLECTEDFROMDIFFERENTTREESANDSHRUBS
school
Start off your key like this.
Unit questions
viii
A set of questions related to the unit are structured around

Blooms Taxonomy of Cognitive Processes. The questions
move from straightforward, lower-order remembering,
understanding and applying questions, through to
more complex, higher-order evaluating, analysing and
C
Constructing
Constructi
t ting
g keys
k
Aim
Method
To construct different types of keys to classify collected objects.
Safety
Some plants (e.g. oleander and rhus) are known to

cause allergic reactions in some people.
Equipment
A collection of at least ten of one of the following:

s LEAVESCOLLECTEDFROMDIFFERENTTREESANDSHRUBSAROUNDTHE
school
s PIECESOFCOMMONLABORATORYGLASSWAREANDEQUIPMENT
s OBJECTSFROMAPENCILCASE
1 As a group, decide on the characteristics you will use to

classify your ten objects.
2 Group the objects according to the characteristics you chose.

3 Construct a dichotomous key and a tabular key that would
allow others to classify your ten objects in exactly the same
way as you did.
Questions
1 Outline some practical advantages of classifying different

EQUIPMENTUSEDINTHELABORATORY
2 Compare the dichotomous keys you constructed with your
tabular keys. Which was easiest to construct? Suggest why.
101
DYO
1 List three examples of each of the following:

a organisms
b vertebrates
c Identify a feature of birds that resembles

re
a feature of those
long-extinct dinosaurs.
c invertebrates
d endotherms
8 Identify whether the following ques

questions are dichotomous:
e ectotherms
a Does the animal have a backbone?
f angiosperms
CHAPTER REVIEW
g conifers
h fungi
i protists.
1 List three examples

each
of the following:
b the three main of
orders
of mammals
c the four main classes of invertebrates
a organisms
d the five main orders of arthropods
e the five main classes of vascular plants.

b vertebrates
Understanding
invertebrates
Explain why.
e ectotherms
5 Clarify the meanings of the following terms:
a respiration
f angiosperms
b excretion
g conifersc
h fungi
stimulus
d response
species
g vertebrate
a the person
b the lion.
10 Identify whether the
he following pairs of animals belong to the
same species:
a a Lebanese mann and a Chinese w
woman
c a greyhound and
nd a poodle
d a lizard and a crocodile
e a donkey and a horse.
11 You are standing
ng by a campfire, list
listening to the rustle of the
he bushes, the crackle of the fire and the laughter
possums in the
of your friends.
all of the things mentioned in
nds. Identify whether al
this sentence
nce are alive. Do any of the non-living things show
any of the
Explain.
he characteristics of life? Ex
a Identify some of the other ways in which they classify the

music.
h exoskeleton
heterotroph.
a the five imain
classes of vertebrates
b the
d What type of animal is that?
12 Electronic
ronic music storage systems ssuch as iTunes classify the
music
usic they contain in a number of different ways (e.g. by
artist).
e taxonomy
i protists.f
c Did you feed the dog?
b a tiger and a gorilla

rilla
3 Explain why scientists classify things.
d endotherms
4 Cells were unknown before the invention of the microscope.
2 State:
b What colour is your T-shirt?
9 You watch somebody run across a field being chased by a

hungry lion. Identify
characteristics of life are shown
dentify which character
by:
2 State:
Remembering
a the five main classes of vertebrates
b Recent research has indicated th

that many (if not all)
dinosaurs were warm blooded aand that birds may have
evolved from them. Use this info
information to classify
dinosaurs, placing them in the correct
animal kingdom.
c
6 Plants and animals both use cellular respiration for energy.

threeExplain
main
orders
ofundergo
mammals
Explai
o photosynthesis.
why only
plants can
Applying
Ap
plying
ying
th f Appl
i l
fi
t b t
7 Until recently, it was thought that dinosaurs were reptiles.

a If this was correct, list the kind of features you would
expect dinosaurs to have.
b Explain the advantages of using ddifferent keys to classify

the same music.
Analysing
Ana
13 Classify the following as angiosper
angiosperm, conifer, fern or
bryophyte:
a pine
b tree fern
c apple tree
d liverwort.
135
Fact File
Mars
Fig 8.4.7 Mars showing red earth and polar caps.
Mass
0.107 times that of Earth
Moons
Two (Phobosdiameter 23 km,

Deimosdiameter 10 km)
Diameter
6794 km ( = 0.53 Earths

diameter)
Surface
Soft red soil containing iron oxide

(rust),
(
), giving
g g the pplanet its red
appearance. Cratered regions, large
volcanoes, a large canyon and
possible
possibl dried-up water channels.
Polar caps of frozen carbon dioxide
and water.
Atmosphere
Atmo
Very thin, mainly carbon dioxide
Gravity
Gr
0.376 times that on Earth
Surface
temperature
120 C to 25 C
25.2
1.52 AU (228 million km)
Time to orbit Sun

(year)
687 Earth days
Scale model (Sun = 300 mm)

Diameter
1.4 mm
Distance from
Sun
49.1 m
Mars
Fig 8.4.8 The Mars Phoenix mission. The landing system

syste
stem on Phoenix
allows the spacecraft to touch down within 10 kilometres
etres
res of its
targeted landing area.
The asteroid belt

The asteroid belt is made up of thousands
ds of small
ound the Sun
rocky metallic bodies and dust in orbit around
Sun.
ameter of about
The largest asteroid is Ceres, having a diameter
1000 kilometres. Researchers have found several nearEarth asteroids, but none are predicted to crash into
Earth in the near or distant future.
Two (Phobos
Deimosdiam
Diameter
6794 km ( = 0
diameter)
Fig 8.4.9 Thousands of asteroids lie in a belt between Mars and

Jupiter. One is Ida, an asteroid big enough too have a gravitational
field that has trapped its own orbiting moon,, Dactyl.
266
Worms
Polyps
Polyps are cnidarians that att
attach themselves to
something like a rock. Corals and anemones are
examples of polyps.
There are three different phyla of wormsroundworms,

flatworms, and segmented worms.
Roundworms
Roundworms have long cylindrical bodies that are in
one piece without segments. They have a digestive tube
with a mouth and anus. Some roundworms are
parasitic, living off (and weakening) other living
animals. Others live free in water or damp soil.
Examples of roundworms are threadworms, hookworms
and the parasitic roundworms found in the intestines of
humans, dogs, pigs and horses.
Science
Science Clip features

contain quirky
information related to
the topic that students
will find interesting.
Clip
What do I do?
Flatworms
Flatworms are similar to roundworms in that they also
can be parasitic or free. They differ in that they have
flat bodies instead of round ones. If they have a
digestive system, it has only one opening, which acts as
both mouth and anus. Flukes and tapeworms are
examples of flatworms.
Fig 4.4.18 Coral polyps

olyps are living
ng things
th
called cnidarians.
opening acts
as both mouth
and anus
Medusas
Medusas are cnidarians
nidarians that can swim about freely.
Jellyfish are medusas. Many ar
are harmless, whereas some,
ellyfish, can kill.
kill The stinging cells of
like the box jellyfish,
others, such as bluebottles, in
inject a mix of chemicals
that leave painful, raised red w
welts wherever they touch
the skin.
It is currently recommended
that bluebottle stings are
soaked for about
20 minutes in hot water
(say under a hot shower or
4.4
0.107 times th
Moons
hooks anchor the

worm to the
internal wall of
the gut
Segmented worms
Also known as annelids, segmented worms can be
found both on land and in water. They have welldeveloped body systems and bodies with multiple
segments. Examples are leeches and earthworms.
Ask
Sci
cii Q B
Busters
Bu
us
team
Chalk talk
Fig 4.4.19 Jellyfish are

medusas, a type of cnidarian.
The big Moon

Worksheet 4.3 Classifying
Fig 4.4.21 The segments are clear on the body of this leech.
Hot versus cold
Prac 2
p. x
and ancient skeletons, such as this fossilised dinosaur skull.
Chalk talk
The big Moon
115
Hi Isabella,
If a piece of chalk is held incorrectly, it first sticks
to the blackboard and then suddenly crumbles. The
chalk then slips and vibrates, causing the loud
squeal. As the vibrations die down and the chalk
dust falls out of the way, friction between the chalk
and the board increases until the chalk sticks once
again and the cycle is repeated.
Thats one theory anyway. There is another, which

is based on impurities in the chalk stick. These
small hard bits of grit scratch against the
blackboard much like your fingernails would.
And what about the solution? Well, you can ask
your teacher to try these:
s 3NAPTHECHALKINTWO4HISSHOULDDOUBLETHE
frequency of the sound and therefore should
not be heard.
s ATWHATANGLEITISHELD
s 0USHDOWNHEAVIERONTOTHEBLACKBOARD
This should rub the grit off quickly and the
lesson should be squeak free.
s HOWTIGHTLYTHEPIECEOFCHALKISHELD
s 5SETHEWHITEBOARD
s THELENGTHOFTHEPIECEOFCHALK
Or maybe you could

experiment yourself,
and then pass on the
results to your teacher.
s WHERETHECHALKISHELDBYTHEFINGERS
Career Profile boxes appear

throughout the book,
covering information about
specific careers in science.
Hot versus cold
Hi Q Busters,
I was at school yesterday when there was a loud squeal coming from the chalk as the teacher wrote on
the blackboard. What causes this? Can you suggest anything I can pass on to our teacher so she
doesnt do it again? Its driving the whole class mad!
Best wishes, Isabella
The frequencies of the squealing chalk depend on

the following things:
!PALAEONTOLOGISTEXAMINESCLASSIFIESAND
animal and plant fossils found in sedimen
This helps us understand the history of lif
Geologist
For example, if the chalk is held just above the

blackboard contact point and at right angles to it,
the frequencies are higher than if the chalk is held
at a 45 angle. In the first case, vibrations are
generated along the length of the chalk. In the
second case, the chalk vibrates by bending.
Pic of full moon?
Another way to prove it is to look at the low

Moon though a rolled-up piece of paper. This
will block out the surroundings and the illusion
should vanish.
Happy moon gazing!
The Q Busters Team
Hot versus cold

Dear Q Busters
Someone at school said she heard on the TV that hot water freezes faster that cold water.
This cant be true, can it? Please help as I am now confused about freezing water.
Regards, Alexandra
REPLY
Hi Alexandra,
Dear Q Busters,
The other night when we had a full moon it looked enormous just as it rose, but then got smaller later in the
night. How can this be? I thought the Moon was the same distance away from the Earth all of the time!
From Rachel
REPLY
Hi Rachel,
326
One theory suggests that the mind judges the

size of an object based on its surroundings.
With a low Moon the trees and houses near you
appear smaller against the moon which, in turn,
makes it appear bigger than it really is.
This would seem to be completely wrong by what

you have been taught so far in Science. This
phenomenon, where hot water appears to freeze
faster than cold water, actually has a special name.
Its called the Mpemba effect. It is named after the
Tanzanian high school student, Erasto Mpemba, who,
in 1963, discovered it when experimenting at school.
Happy chalking!
The Q Busters Team
The big Moon
Many, theories have been put forward, and many,

experiments have been conducted. The findings
suggest thats its only an optical illusion.
until the Moon is higher in the sky. Measure it

again, compare your measurements, and youll
find its more or less the same size no matter
where it happens to be in the sky.
To prove this for yourself, hold a ruler at arms

length and measure the Moon as it rises. Make a
note of this measurement, and then wait a while
There is still great debate out there over whether

this is fact or fiction, but here are the two main
theories at present.
the surface. Well, this is removing most of the

dissolved gases in the water. The gases actually
reduce waters ability to conduct heat.
Therefore, with less dissolved gas in the water,
it can cool faster.
But we still dont know for certain.
Happy freezing!
The Q Busters Team
1. Evaporation. As you know, when hot water is

placed in an open container it begins to cool
with steam coming off. This will reduce the
amount of water in the container. With less
water to freeze, the process can take less time.
2. Dissolved gases. When you are boiling water,
Alexandra, you know that its boiling because
you can see the bubbles rising and popping on
Insert pic?
327
ACCURATE RECORDS AND PREPARE

s KEEP
KEEPACCURATERECORDSANDPREPAREREPORTS
SAFELY IN A NUMBER OF DIFFERENT ENV
s WORK
WORKSAFELYINANUMBEROFDIFFERENTENVIRONMENTS
299
Case study boxes

cover an in depth
exploration of a single
case or topic.
Case
study
1.2
Case
study
Fig 9.3.15 Geologists studying sedimentary rock layers in the field.
Unit
Geologists study the composition and structure of the

Earth. This allows them to locate materials and minerals.
Geologists work in laboratories and in the field, usually as
part of a team. Fieldwork can involve spending time in
remote deserts, or in tropical or Antarctic areas.
Geologists can be involved in:
s ADVISINGONSUITABLELOCATIONSFORTUNNELSANDBRIDGES
s EXAMININGROCKSAMPLESUSINGELECTRONMICROSCOPES
s STUDYINGTHENATUREANDEFFECTSOFNATURALEVENTSLIKE
weathering, erosion, earthquakes and volcanoes
s TAKINGROCKSAMPLESFORANALYSIS
s FINDINGTHEAGEOFROCKSANDFOSSILS
A good geologist will be able to:
s WORKASATEAMMEMBERORALONE
Stormy weather
Palae
ladies, mares fart, hounds piss, open arse, bum-towel and pissabed.
Using his binomial system, they became Taraxacum officinale.
Chalk talk
REPLY
123
9.3
Fig 9.3.14 One of the jobs of a palaeontologist is to inspect fossils
Career
Profile
Career
Profile
Palaeontologists can be involved in:

s LOCATING
LOCATINGSITESWHEREFOSSILSMAYBEFOUND
SITES
DIG
s CAREFULLY
CAREFULLYDIGGINGFOSSILSOUTOFTHEROCKSINWHICH
they are fou
found
s PREPARING
PREPARINGFOSSILSFORDISPLAYORSTORAGE
FO
s DATING
DATINGFOSSILSTOWORKOUTTHEIRAGE
IN
s USING
USINGINFORMATIONABOUTFOSSILSTOSTUDYOTHERTHINGS
SUCH
A
SUCHASOILEXPLORATIONORTHEHISTORYOFLIFEONTHE
Earth.
A goo
good palaeontologist will:
AB
s BE
BEABLETOWORKSAFELYASATEAMMEMBERORALONE
AB
s BE
BEABLETOWORKVERYCAREFULLYANDPATIENTLYASITCAN
take yyears to remove fossils from rocks
A
s HAVE
HAVEAGOODEYEFORDETAIL
FO
s LOVE
LOVEFOSSILS
Fig 4.3.9 Until Linnaeus, common dandelions were known as naked
Sci
Sc
Sci
ci Q Bus
Buster
B
Bu
uste
us
ters
tter
ers
er
What do I do?
Unit
U
!PALAEONTOLOGISTEXAMINESCLASSIFIESANDDESCRIBES
animal and plant fossils found in sedimentary rocks.
This helps us understand the history of life on Earth.
Linnaeus and Cuvier proposed their kingdoms and

classes based on the information they had available at
the time. The development of the microscope, however,
revealed characteristics of organisms that had never
been seen before, particularly in plants and
microorganisms such as bacteria. With this new
information, new kingdoms were needed and others
could be re-organised.
Sci Q Busters appears after Chapter 9 and provides answers

to student questions. Students are able to email questions
that come up during class time to the Q Busters team at
SciQBusters@pearson.com.au
Cereal sounds
Palaeontologist
north of Finland in 1732, Linnaeus nearly fell into an icy

crevasse. He saved himself from near-death and went on
to discover 100 new plant species on this expedition.
microscope (SEM) of the head of a dogs parasitic tapeworm.
p
Clilip
Clip
Some leeches are used in medicine to suck out blood from

clots and to encourage blood flow into newly attached limbs
after microsurgery.
Career
Profile
Arguments in science
Fig 4.3.7 While on a scientific expedition to the far
Fig 4.4.20 An image obtained by a scanning electron
nce
enc
cience
cie
cien
SScience
Sc
soaked for about
in a bath). The traditional
vinegar solution does little
since the bluebottle injects
a chemical irritant that is
neither acid nor base.
Linnaeus originally left

room in his kingdoms
for mythical animals
such mermaids, satyrs,
unicorns and
monstrous humans.
Room was left for
Unit
Mass
for unicorns (white horses with single

long, spiralled horns growing from their
foreheads), unicorn-like horns are found
on narwhals (rare arctic mammals that
resemble dolphins) and some seahorses.
Homo ferus (humans

Many students of Linnaeus
who walked on all fours
went on to explore the world
like dogs) and Homo
for new plants and animals.
caudatus (humans who
One, Daniel Solander,
had a tail)!
accompanied Captain James
Cook on his first journey (on
which he discovered the east coast of Australia in
1770). He and Joseph Banks brought back to Europe the
first ever collection of Australian plants. Botany Bay
(originally called Stingray Bay, then Botanist Bay) in
Sydney was also named by them.
Although some changes were made by the French
zoologist Georges Cuvier in the early 1800s, the basic
system as developed by Linnaeus is still used today.
Indigenous Australian
classification
Aborigines traditionally classify animals according to
their usefulness, where they live or how they were used.
Penguins and emus, for example, are placed in the same
category as kangaroosboth are ground-dwelling
sources of meat and so they are grouped together. Other
birds are placed in the flying food source category. In
some instances, an animal has no Aboriginal name
because it was not used for anything. Some Aboriginal
tribes in northern Australia name plants according to
their uses or their locations, such as a swamp. In these
tribes, fish (guya) are also classified according to where
they live. This gives five categories:
garrwarpuy living near the surface
ngopuy
living near the bottom
mayangbuy living in rivers
raypinbuy living in freshwater
gundapuy
living among rocks and reefs.
Clip
Monstrous humans!
Fig 4.3.8 Although there is no evidence
Pearson Places icons direct students to

the Science Focus 1 Second Edition Student
Lounge on Pearson Places. The Student
Lounge contains animations, video clips, web
destinations, drag-and-drop interactives and
revision questions.
1.03 Earth days
Distance from
Sun
The Laps are the indigenous people of Scandinavia.

Reindeer are important to them and so they have more
than 107 different categories for them! Their native
Saami language classifies them according to their age,
condition, body shape and the shape of their antlers!
Science
Aboriginal flag icons denote material that is

included to cover Indigenous perspectives
in science.
Fact File
Tilt of axis
Clip
107 Reindeers!
Clip
Carl Linnaeus
In 1735, the Swedish naturalist Carolus (Carl) Linnaeus
(17071778) proposed a systematic way of grouping
and naming living things. He classified all living things
as either animal or plant. He then further divided all
animals into six classes: Mammalia (mammals), Aves
(birds), Amphibia (amphibians and reptiles), Pisces
(fish), Insecta (insects) and Vermes (all the other
invertebrates). In recognition of his pioneering work,
Linnaeus was made a noble in 1761. From then on,
he was known as Carl von Linne.
Scientists still argue over how many kingdoms

there should be. Some claim that the protists should
not have their own kingdom and that, instead, they
should be split amongst the animal, plant and fungi
kingdoms. Recent research suggests that the monera
kingdom could also be split to form
Science
two new kingdoms. Although the
argument continues, most accept
that there are five basic kingdoms
Penis worms!
(animal, plant, fungi, protists and
Science Focus 1 presents
monera).
nine main classes of animals,
Scientists also argue about how
but there are other obscure
many phyla and classes there are.
animals with their own
specialised classes. Sponges,
There is no hard-and-fast definition
for example, have their own
for a phylum and so scientists also
class (ponifera), whereas
argue about its definition, too,
starfish belong to another
sometimes merging the idea of class
class called echinoderms.
and phyla together. For these
Another small class is called
reasons, there may be up to 89
priapulida, otherwise known
as penis worms!
different classes.
Go to icons direct students to a unit within the same stage

of the NSW curriculum. This unit reference allows students
to revisit or extend knowledge. Go to
Science
Period of rotation
(day)
Science
Likewise, shellfish and crustaceans (maypal) have at

least ten categories. These are determined by how they
attach to rocks, how they move about and whether they
live amongst rocks or on a reef. Four distinct subgroups are:
gundapuy
attached to reefs or rocks
warranggulpuy move over the outer surface of rocks
lirrapuy
move around the edges of rocks
djinawapuy
attached beneath rocks or
inside coral.
Literacy and numeracy

icons appear throughout to indicate an emphasis on literacy
or numeracy. N L
Science Fact File boxes contain

essential science facts relevant
to the topic.
Science
On each continent, indigenous peoples established their

own keys to classify the living things around them.
Many early keys were based on whether the animals or
plants were useful as a food source, a source of fur or
natural fibres that could be woven or whether they were
part of their spirituality.
Animals, for example, were sometimes classified as
wild or domesticated. Other classification keys were
based on whether the animal lived on the land or in the
sea. The term fish, for example, used to refer to
anything swimming or anything that lived in the sea.
Even today, creatures such as jellyfish, shellfish, crayfish
and starfish include fish in their names, despite them
now being classified as creatures other than fish.
114
Other features or icons

The solar system
Grouping living things
Prescribed Focus Area:

The history of science
4.3
Remembering
Unit
Chapter review questions follow

the last unit of each chapter. These
questions are structured around
Blooms Taxonomy of Cognitive
Processes and cover the chapter
learning outcomes in a variety of
question styles to allow students
the opportunity to consolidate new
knowledge and skills.
CHAPTER REVIEW
Science
Focus
and current research

and development. The
features allow students to
explore science in further
detail through a range of
student activities.
Chapter review
The medicine man
British GP, Dr Harold Shipman killed an estimated 236

23
of his patients between 1974 and 1998. His visits to
sick, elderly people were often followed by a worsening
off their ailment and then what seemed to be an
ious death. Dr Shipman would return and wri
unsuspicious
write
th
out the death certificate and alter the records to say that
the person was so sick that they were close to death.
at the doctor was actually giving
Very few suspected that
ction.
his patients a lethal injection.
However, in 1986 he killed a healthy elderly lady and
st will and testament that
fabricated a poorly worded last
made him the sole beneficiary. The police investigated
the forged will and then exhumedd (dug up) her body.
They also exhumed the bodies of Shipmans other
und in each of
patients. Traces of morphine were found
aths. Shipmans
themthe probable cause of their deaths.
computer system became

vital evidence as the date of
every file he modified was
recorded. The files for many
of the deaths showed that
they were modified on the
day the patients died,
uncovering many more
likely murders.
Shipman was convicted
and given 15 life sentences,
but he committed suicide in
custody, leaving many
questions unanswered. The
motives for his crimes
remain a mystery.
Fig 1.2.8 Dr Harold Shipman

killed at least 236 patients. A
poorly forged will led to his
capture.
The
m
Clip
Science
Plastic money
Australia was the first to use the plastic banknotea
banknote $10
commemorative note introduced in January 1988 tto coincide with
the Australian Bicentenary. Plasticc banknotes are m
more durable than
paper ones, lasting four to five times
imes longer. A paper
pap $5 note had
an average life of about six months,
lasts more than
nths, a plastic one la
three years. Note Printing Australia
ralia (NPA) is owned by the Reserve
British GP, Dr Harold Shipman killed an est

of his patients between 1974 andQUESTIONS
1998. His
ON
NS
S
sick, elderly people were 1.2
often followed by a
of their ailment and thenRemembering
what seemed to be
1 List five documents that a criminal might try to falsify.
2
State
what
indicated
that
hat the Hitlerretur
diaries were fake.
unsuspicious death. Dr Shipman would
3 State what can be used to determine which typewriter was
ansom
note.
used
for
a
ransom
out the death certificate and alter the record
4 List the advantage(s) of Australian banknotes being printed
plastic.
the person was so sick thatonthey
were close t
5 List the features that usually give away fake banknotes.
V f
d h h d
The Science Focus 1

Second Edition package
Bank of Australia and prints all Australian banknotes. It has also

produced plastic banknotes for Thailand, Indonesia, Papua New
Guinea, Kuwait, Western Samoa, Singapore, Brunei, Sri Lanka and
New Zealand. NPA also sells plastic blank notes to government
printers in other countries so that they can print their own money.
Old and worn-out Australian plastic money is recycled into plastic
objects such as plumbing fittings and compost bins.
Understanding
6 Investigators generally ignore the slant and spacing of letters
in a handwritten document. Explain why.
7 Describe how a computer printer can be identified from
a fake letter.
Dont forget the other Science Focus 1 Second Edition

components that will help engage and excite students
in science:
Science Focus 1 Second Edition Homework Book
8 Explain how inks can be identified using:

a fluorescence
b chromatography
9 Describe the following:
a intaglio printing
b microprinting
c a water mark
>>
15
Science Focus spreads appear throughout the book. These

are special features on various aspects of science including
history, the impact of science on society and the environment
Science Focus 1 Second Edition Teacher Edition, with CD

Science Focus 1 Second Edition Pearson Reader
Science Focus 1 Second Edition LiveText
ix
Stage 4
Syllabus Correlation
chapter
1 2 3
Outcomes
Being a
scientist
Solids,
liquids
and
gases
Mixtures
and their
separation
Science Focus 1
4 5 6 7 8 9
Classification
Cells
Heat, light
and sound
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
Note:
indicates the key Prescribed Focus Area covered in each chapter.

Chapters may also include information on other Prescribed Focus Areas.
Our
planet
Earth
Earth in
space
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.10
4.11
4.12
4.13
4.14
4.15
4.16
4.17
4.18
4.19
4.20
4.21
4.22
4.23
4.24
4.25
4.26
4.27
Forces
Verbs
Science Focus Second Edition uses the following verbs in the chapter questions under the headings of Blooms
Taxonomy of Cognitive Processes. The verbs in black are the key verbs that have been developed to help provide
a common language and consistent meaning in the Higher School Certificate documents. All other verbs listed
below feature throughout the book and are provided here for additional support to teachers and students.
Remembering
Analysing
List
Name
Present
Recall
Record
Specify
State
Analyse
write down phrases only without further explanation

present remembered ideas, facts or experiences
provide information for consideration
present remembered ideas, facts or experiences
store information and observations for later
state in detail
provide information without further explanation
Understanding
Account
Calculate
Clarify
Define
Describe
Discuss
Explain
Extract
Gather
Modify
Outline
Predict
Produce
Propose
Recount
Summarise
account for: state reasons for, report on. Give an

account of: narrate a series of events or transactions
ascertain/determine from given facts, figures or
information (simply repeating calculations that are set
out in the text)
make clear or plain
state meaning and identify essential qualities
provide characteristics and features
identify issues and provide points for and/or against
relate cause and effect; make the relationships between
things evident; provide why and/or how
choose relevant and/or appropriate details
collect items from different sources
change in form or amount in some way
sketch in general terms; indicate the main features of
suggest what may happen based on available
information
provide
put forward for consideration or action
retell a series of events
express, concisely, the relevant details
Applying
Apply
Calculate
use, utilise, employ in a particular situation

information
Demonstrate show by example
Examine
inquire into
Identify
recognise and name
Use
employ for some purpose
identify components and the relationship between

them; draw out and relate implications
Calculate
information (requiring more manipulation than simply
applying the maths)
Classify
arrange or include in classes/categories
Compare
show how things are similar or different
Contrast
show how things are different or opposite
Critically (analyse/evaluate)
add a degree or level of accuracy/depth, knowledge
and understanding, logic, questioning, reflection and
quality to (analyse/evaluate)
Discuss
identify issues and provide points for and/or against
Distinguish recognise or note/indicate as being distinct or different
from; to note differences between
Interpret
draw meaning from
Research
investigate through literature or practical investigation
Evaluating
Appreciate
Assess
make a judgement about the value of

make a judgement of value, quality, outcomes, results
or size
Critically (analyse/evaluate)
add a degree or level of accuracy/depth, knowledge
and understanding, logic, questioning, reflection and
quality to (analyse/evaluate)
Deduce
draw conclusions
Draw
draw conclusions, deduce
Evaluate
make a judgement based on criteria; determine the
value of
Extrapolate infer from what is known
Investigate plan, inquire into and draw conclusions
Justify
support an argument or conclusion
Propose
put forward (for example a point of view, idea,
argument, suggestion) for consideration or action
Recommend provide reasons in favour
Select
choose one or more items, features, objects
Creating
Construct
Design
Investigate
Synthesise
make; build; put together items or arguments

provide steps for an experiment or procedure
plan, inquire into and draw conclusions about
put together various elements to make a whole
xi
Being a
scientist

Essential skills
Key outcomes
4.2, 4.13, 4.14, 4.15, 4.16, 4.17, 4.18,
4.19, 4.22
Different pieces of laboratory

equipment are used for different
purposes.
Use the correct piece of equipment for

the correct task.
Metric units must be included with all

measurements.
Care must be taken when measuring to

minimise errors.
Experiments need to be planned in

detail before you begin.
Each experiment should test only one

variable at a time.
Risks need to be identified before

starting an experiment.
Ways to minimise these risks need to

be thought of at all times.
Tables are a good way of recording

your experimental results.
Graphs are a good way of showing any

patterns that may exist in your results.
Unit
1.1
context
Science and safety
Scientists ask questions about how the

physical and living world around us
works. These might be about how
animals like ants breathe, how rainbows
are formed, why sunsets are red or what
affects the rate at which fruit rots. To
performing experiments. An experiment is

simply a test on a small part of the world.
Science: Asking questions

The answers to questions that scientists ask
often can be found in textbooks,
encyclopaedias or on the Internet. Sometimes
the questions that scientists ask have never
been asked before and that is when scientists
need to find the answers themselves by
investigate the world, scientists carry out

experiments. Many of these experiments can
be extremely dangerous and so a set of
laboratory safety rules is needed to reduce
the risks involved.
Quick Quiz
Prac 1
p. 7
The branches of science

Science covers many areas. So many, in fact,
that science is split into branches or disciplines.
Astronomy: astronomers ask questions about

the planets, stars and the universe, like What
causes an eclipse?
Biology: biologists ask questions about living

things. They might study why mosquito and ant
bites itch.
Chemistry: chemists investigate materials, chemicals

and chemical reactions and how they can be used.
They might ask why wood burns but steel doesnt.
Ecology: ecologists study how living things affect

each other and the environment in which they live.
They might ask about what animals are likely to
become extinct if world temperatures increase.
Geology: geologists study rocks, the Earth,

earthquakes, volcanoes and fossils. They might
ask what causes earthquakes to happen.
Physics: physicists ask questions about how and

why things move and the forces and energy
involved. They might ask questions about how to
make bike helmets safer.
Fig 1.1.1 Six of the many branches of science.
Science and safety
Safety in science
In science you will need to deal with many potential
dangers. You will work with intense heat, acids and
other corrosive substances. It is particularly dangerous if
any chemicals get splashed into your eyes. Other
chemicals are poisonous and can make you extremely ill
or can kill. Broken glass and equipment pose the risk of
cutting you or of fragments entering your eyes if they
shatter.
Safety rules
The science laboratory can be a dangerous place, but it
becomes far safer if everyone follows a set of safety rules.
Each laboratory is different and so is every class. This
means that one set of rules cannot be used by everyone.
Each class needs to develop their own set of rules with
their teacher to keep everyone safe. Common sense is a
good start. If something has the potential to hurt
someone then DONT DO IT!
Always look for potentially unsafe activities in the
lab and report these immediately to your teacher.
Fig 1.1.2 Working safely in the laboratory is the most important

skill you will learn this year in Science.
Fig 1.1.3 The students here are doing something potentially dangerous. What are they doing wrong? What rules would
you make to minimise the risk to themselves and to others in the lab?
Fig 1.1.4 The students here are doing the right thing. What are they doing right and what risks are they avoiding?
Worksheet 1.1 Laboratory safety
Unit
QUESTIONS
Remembering
1.1
1.1
Applying
1 List six of the main branches of science.
6 The following scientists are working in different branches or

disciplines of science. Identify which branch each is working in:
2 Make a list of four safety DOs and four DONTs in the

laboratory.
a Johanna is studying the eating habits of a cheetah.
3 Use your common sense to state whether the following rules

are good ones or silly ones likely to cause injury:
b Yianni is developing a new type of plastic.

c Lauren is studying the crystals embedded in a rock.
a It is OK to pour all substances down the sink after an

experiment.
d Brigid is studying the movement of the planets.

e Gary is investigating what animals might be affected when
a new dam is built.
b Running and pushing people in the laboratory is never

allowed.
f Ying is studying the flow of electricity through an electronic

circuit.
c It is OK to eat and drink in the laboratory.

d Spilt chemicals can be left unattended.
7 Within each branch of science are sub-branches. Identify

whether the sub-branches below belong in astronomy,
biology, chemistry or ecology.
e The teacher always must be told if something goes wrong.

f Safety glasses are optional when we use chemicals in the
laboratory.
a Optics: the study of light
g Chemicals should never be tasted or smelled.
b Entomology: the study of insects
h Always point test tubes away from yourself and others.
c Vulcanology: the study of volcanoes
i It is good science to mix unknown chemicals together.
d Zoology: the study of animals.

8 Identify five injuries that can happen in a science laboratory if
simple safety rules are not obeyed.
Understanding
4 Describe four dangers that you might have to deal with in a
science laboratory.
9 Identify another simple experiment in which the following

senses would be too dangerous to use:
5 Eye injuries are common in science laboratories. Explain what

could cause these injuries and describe what could be done to
minimise the risk of them.
a sight
b hearing
c taste.
10 Sometimes it is too dangerous to use some of our senses.
Complete this table by identifying which senses should and
should not be used.
Experiment
Senses that you would

use
Sense that would give the

most information
Senses that you would

NOT use
Testing the ability of strong acids

to clean a sheet of metal
Testing how long milk takes to
go off
Testing how long it takes for six
tomatoes to ripen
Studying lava flowing from a
volcano
Testing a new pesticide
>>
Science and safety
Evaluating
12 Propose what you should do if:
11 Inspect the safety signs shown in Figure 1.1.5 and propose

what each one might be warning you about.
a You accidentally break something in the laboratory.

b You smell gas.
c A hissing sound is heard coming from a Bunsen burner
that is not lit.
d You need to leave a Bunsen burner to collect some extra
equipment?
13 Propose a reason why some of the safety rules in Science are
different from those in other subjects, such as design and
technology, food technology and PDHPE.
Creating
14 Without using any words, design a simple two-colour sign to
tell people that:
a There is a slippery surface ahead.
b Crocodiles are in the waterways.
c Earmuffs must be used in this area.
d You should not eat centipedes.
15 Design a series of simple signs to inform students of the
science safety rules. The signs must be in only two colours
and use only a few words.
Fig 1.1.5
1.1
INVESTIGATING
Investigate your available resources (e.g. textbooks,

1 Find and draw the symbols commonly used to label these
types of chemicals:
a flammable
b corrosive
c explosive.
2 Define what these terms mean and write a definition for

each: L
a toxic
b caustic
c flammable.
3 Outline what these sub-branches of science study:
a botany
b microbiology
c paleontology
d acoustics
e seismology.
>>
6
Unit
Group A International
Group B Australian
a Describe his or her work.

b Explain why the scientists work was an important
development for science or society in general.
Marie Curie
Karl Kruszelnicki
c Identify dates that were important in the scientists life.

Explain why these dates were important.
Frank Macfarlane Burnett
Helen Alma Newton

Turner
d Present your information as either a poster, a PowerPoint

presentation or a diary as if written by the scientist.
Galileo Galilei
William Bragg
Robert Gallo
Richard Daintree
Anne Dollin
Nancy Burbridge
Stephen Hawking
John Cornforth
Alfred Nobel
Peter Doherty
Rosalind Franklin
Howard Florey
Isaac Newton
Fred Hollows
William Herschel
Mark Oliphant
Luc Montagnier
Andy Thomas
Charles Darwin
Sister Elizabeth Kenny
Albert Einstein
Barry Marshall
Ernest Rutherford
Tim Flannery
Thomas Edison
Sir Gustav Nossal
James Watson
David Unaipon
1.1
1
1.1
4 Find information about two of the scientists in the table below.

Select one scientist from each group. L
e -xploring
To find out more about the branches of science,
a list of web destinations can be found on
Science Focus 1 Second Edition Student Lounge.
We
b Desti nation
The mysterious case of the

stolen sausages
Scientists need to use all of their five senses to make detailed

observations.
The main sense a scientist uses is sight. They will also use
hearing, smell, taste and touch, although sometimes it will be far
too dangerous to use some of these.
In a way, a scientist is like a detective trying to solve a puzzling
case. Clues must be gathered through careful observation of all the
evidence. The various clues can then be linked together until a
conclusion can be drawn about the case.
In science, we dont always get it right the first timesometimes
more experiments and observations are required.
Aim
To act a set of observations to work out whom most likely stole the
sausages.
Method
1 Carefully read the story on the next page.
2 Prepare a list of observations as you read the story.
3 Draw lines between observations that seem related in some
way.
4 In groups, try and work out all the details of this
mysterious case who stole the sausages, when, why and
how!
5 Check with other groups to see if they agree with you.
>>
7
Science and safety
After a beautiful sunny morning, the weather on this fateful day has turned terrible, with torrential
downpours of rain and howling wind. You arrive home at 3.17 p.m. and are surprised to notice that the
neighbours lawn has been mowed. You are surprised since, from experience, you know that wet grass is
very hard to cut. You enter the house. The sausages that you left defrosting on the kitchen table are
gone! You enter the lounge room. The front window has been shattered! Pieces of broken glass are lying
everywhere. There is now nothing interrupting the view of next doors garden and lawn. Mums
favourite vase on the mantelpiece is lying in pieces on the floor. You remember that every time your
neighbour dropped in she always said, Why dont you get rid of that old vase? Its so ugly!.
The curtains are all messed up and the carpet is soaking wet and marked and smudged with mud! Some
strands of blond hair are stuck on the windowsill. But whats this? A small stone has been placed in the
middle of the coffee table the calling card of the sausage burglar? Later that night you notice that
Fritz, the golden retriever, hasnt touched the food in his bowl.
Questions
1 State what you want to know about the case or what
you are trying to investigate. Scientists call this the aim.
2 List the observations you have made.
3 Identify the suspects in this case.
4 Explain what evidence there is to link them to the crime
scene.
5 In conclusion, identify:
a who you think stole the sausages
b who or what broke the window
c when it probably happened
d who or what broke the vase
e the order it all happened in.
In the case above, you have used many of the skills a
scientist needs. To have successfully solved the case
you needed to:
Be clear about what you were trying to find out.
Make an educated guess of what you hoped to find
out.
Make careful observations of what happened.
Take careful measurements, if possible.
Infer reasons about why the investigation went as it
did.
Draw logical conclusions about what was found out.
Unit
1.2
context
Equipment
As a scientist, you will use a lot of

different pieces of equipment. You need
to know the name of each piece and how
to use it safely and accurately.
Everyday laboratory equipment

Equipment is used in science to help carry out
experiments and to make observations more accurate.
Chemistry experiments, for example, are commonly run
in beakers and conical flasks. Measuring cylinders are
used to accurately measure volumes of liquid and
thermometers are used to measure temperature.
Stopwatches and electronic timers are more accurate
than normal watches and clocks, and can be used for
better timing. Other equipment magnifies very small
objects that might normally be difficult to measure.
Microscopes magnify extremely small objects, whereas
telescopes magnify objects that are far away.
Microphones and electronic amplifiers allow you to hear
sounds that otherwise cannot be heard.
You will use a lot of different pieces of equipment in
the school science laboratory. As with all equipment,
there are special rules for using each piece. Your teacher
will instruct you on how to safely use each one.
Fig 1.2.1 The Bunsen burner is one of the most important pieces
of equipment you will use in science.
250
spatulas
thermometer
230
test
tube
210
190
170
measuring
cylinder
beaker
150
130
110
90
conical flask
70
50
watch-glass
30
or to take accurate
measurements
or to run experiments in
to measure out materials
test-tube rack with drying posts
safety glasses
bosshead
clamp
retort stand
Fig 1.2.2
tongs
or for keeping us safe

clay triangle
or for holding things
Commonly used
laboratory
equipment.
Equipment
Scientific drawing
Diagrams of scientific equipment must be easy to draw
and easy to read. You dont need to be an artist, but you
do need to follow certain rules so that your diagrams can
be understood by another scientist.
Scientists draw their equipment as a cross-section
they split the equipment down the middle. The
drawings are simple lines and curves, normally without
any shading or colouring. These diagrams are known as
two-dimensional (2D) scientific diagrams and are used
by scientists all around the world.
Collar: controls the amount of air that enters the

burner and controls the heat and colour of the flame.
The hole must be closed before lighting.
barrel
airhole (gas jet inside)
Worksheet 1.2 Laboratory equipment
gas hose
base
Worksheet 1.3 Wordfind
Fig 1.2.4 Parts of the Bunsen burner

Worksheet 1.5 The Bunsen burner
Pyrex
Using the Bunsen burner

Pyrex
filter paper
and funnel
test tube
beaker
conical flask
Fig 1.2.3 Always draw scientific equipment as a simple

2D cross-section.
Worksheet 1.4 Scientific apparatus
The collar controls the amount of air that enters the

burner and controls the heat and colour of the flame.
The collar must be turned so that the airhole is
closed whenever a Bunsen burner is lit. Very little air is
then able to mix with the gas and so the gas will not
burn well. It produces an easily visible, pale yellow
flame that is relatively cool. It is also a dirty flame
because it leaves a layer of carbon on anything that is
heated in it. This flame is called the safety flame
because it is the coolest flame and is the easiest to see.
If the collar is turned so that the airhole is open
then a lot of air will enter. The gas will burn efficiently
with no smoke and will be extremely hot (about
1500C). Although difficult to see, this flame is blue
in colour and noisy.
Prac 1
p. 13
light blue
The Bunsen burner
dark blue
hottest part of the flame

cone of unburnt gas
A potentially dangerous piece of equipment you will

use in the laboratory is the Bunsen burner. It is used
to heat chemicals. Your safety depends
upon using it correctly.
I n t e r a c t i ve
Fig 1.2.5 There is a small cone of unburnt

gas at the very base of a Bunsen burner
flame. The hottest part of the flame is just
above this cone.
10
Prac 2
p. 14
Prac 3
p. 14
Unit
1.2
evaporating dish
clay triangle
Bunsen burner
tripod and gauze mat
retort stand, bosshead and clamp
bench mat
crucible and lid
Fig 1.2.6 The Bunsen burner gets so hot that special equipment is needed to safely hold objects when heating them.
Prac 4
p. 15
Science
Prac 5
p. 16
Fact File
People in science:
Robert Bunsen (18111899)
The German chemist Robert Bunsen invented many
different pieces of laboratory equipment but the Bunsen
burner was not one of them. It is likely that Bunsens
laboratory assistant, Peter Desdega, developed it in
1855, possibly from earlier designs by the English
scientist Michael Faraday (17911867). This presents a
few questions: Who should get the credit? Who does
the work in science?
Bunsen worked on explosive arsenic compounds,
which almost killed him, and he lost one eye when a
glass container exploded. Working with the German
physicist Gustav Kirchhoff (18241887), Bunsen
discovered two new elementscaesium and rubidium.
Science
Clip
Smelly Bunsen!
Bunsen was a
bachelor for all his life.
He developed a
number of strange
personality quirks,
including not bathing!
International Bunsen
day is celebrated each
year on Bunsens
birthday of March 31.
11
Equipment
1.2
QUESTIONS
Remembering
1 State what each piece of equipment is used for:
a clay triangle
b beaker
c safety glasses
d test tube
c A physicist wants to accurately measure the time it takes

for a stone to drop 2 metres.
d An astronomer wants to study the surface of the Moon.
11 The Bunsen burner can be extremely dangerous if not treated
carefully. Identify what each of the students in Figure 1.2.7
might be doing wrong.
e thermometer
f measuring cylinder
g tongs.
2 Recall the following pieces of equipment by drawing their
correct 2D scientific diagrams:
a beaker
b a conical flask
c a test tube
d a tripod and gauze mat.
3 List the characteristics of:
a the safety flame
b the blue flame.
Understanding
4 Clarify the purpose of the collar in a Bunsen burner.
Analysing
12 Compare the following pieces of equipment by listing their
similarities:
5 Explain why a yellow flame is called a safety flame when it is

still hot enough to seriously burn you.
a a beaker and a conical flask
6 Explain why the gas must be turned on after the match is lit.
c tongs, a peg and a clamp
7 Explain why a Bunsen burner should be left for awhile before

it is packed away.
d a clay triangle and a gauze mat
8 Propose why you should not use a piece of burning paper to

light a Bunsen burner.
Applying
9 Identify a piece of equipment that you would use to:
a Measure the temperature of boiling water.
b Measure out exactly 55 mL of salt water.
b a beaker and a measuring cylinder
e a test tube and an evaporating dish.
Creating
13 Construct a labelled 2D scientific diagram that shows the setup used for boiling water. You will need to show the bench
mat, tripod and gauze mat, Bunsen burner and beaker.
14 Construct a plan of your school laboratory that shows where
the following special safety equipment is located:
c Transfer a small amount of solid onto a balance.
a fire blanket
d Pour liquid into a conical flask.
b fire extinguishers (Is there more than one type?)
10 Identify a piece of equipment that would assist these

scientists in making the following observations:
12
Fig 1.2.7
c eyewash
d broken glass container
a A microbiologist wants to study extremely small bacteria

that have been causing infections.
e bucket (maybe containing sand or another chemical to

soak up spills)
b A chemist is measuring the heat generated by a chemical

reaction.
f first aid cabinet

g safety signs.
Unit
1.2

encyclopaedias, Internet etc.) to find what these pieces of
equipment look like and state what they are used for:
a pipette
b burette
1.2
INVESTIGATING
e -xploring
To find out more about Bunsen burners, a list of
web destinations can be found on Science Focus 1
Second Edition Student Lounge.
We
b Desti nation
c micrometer
d barometer
e mortar and pestle
f ammeter.
1.2
1 What is it?
Aim
To draw, classify and name common laboratory equipment.
Measuring
equipment
Pouring
equipment
Storage
equipment
Equipment
to run
chemical
reactions in
Safety
equipment
Holding
equipment
Cleaning
equipment
Mixing
equipment
Equipment
A range of everyday scientific equipment.
Method
1 In your science workbook construct a table with eight
sections, as shown opposite.
2 Each piece of equipment you have been provided with must
be drawn under one of the headings. Draw each piece:
a as realistically as you can
b as a scientific diagram.
3 Write the name of each piece of equipment under the
diagram.
13
Equipment
2 Lighting a Bunsen burner
4 Open the airhole by turning the collar and observe the blue
flame produced.
Aim
5 Turn off the Bunsen burner by turning off the gas.
To correctly and safely light a Bunsen burner.
6 Light the Bunsen burner again, but this time in front of your
teacher, showing them you know what to do.
Safety
1 Tie long hair back and wear safety glasses.
2 Never turn your back on a lit Bunsen burner.
3 When not using the Bunsen burner, close the
airhole (producing a yellow safety flame) or turn
it off.
4 Allow the Bunsen burner to thoroughly cool
before packing it away.
Equipment
Questions
1 List your observations of the flame when the airhole is half
open.
2 Identify the colour of the flame when the airhole is open
completely.
3 Explain why the airhole
should be open or shut
when lighting a Bunsen
burner.
Bunsen burner
bench mat
matches
safety glasses
Method
1 Place a Bunsen burner on a bench mat and connect its hose
up to the gas outlet.
2 Ensure the hose is flat on the bench and not twisted.
3 Follow the instructions in the Science Fact File opposite
to light the Bunsen burner.
3 Investigating the flame
Fact File
How to light a Bunsen burner

1 Make sure the airhole in the
collar is closed.
2 Light a match or a taper and
place it close to the top of the
barrel. Dont get it too close.
3 Turn on the gas tap.
4 A flame should light. This flame
should be yelloworange in
colour and is known as the
safety flame.
5 If a hotter flame is needed then
open the airhole. The flame
should turn blue and become
noisier.
Part 1: Flame temperature
Method
Aim
To investigate the flame of a Bunsen burner.
Science
Safety
Do not hold the gauze mat or porcelain in the flame
with your bare handsuse tongs.
1 Set up and light the Bunsen burner.

2 Set it to the yellow flame.
3 With tongs, hold the gauze mat vertically in the flame so that
it touches the top of the burner.
Equipment
14
Bunsen burner
bench mat
matches
safety glasses
old and bald gauze mat
pin
tongs
small piece of broken white porcelain
Fig 1.2.8
>>
Unit
5 Carefully draw diagrams of any heat markings that you see.
Questions
1.2
4 Now set the flame to blue and repeat the experiment.
1 State whether your match lit up.

2 Predict the relative temperature of the flame at its centre.
Questions
1 Discuss whether the yellow flame is hot enough to make the
gauze mat go red.
3 Describe your observations of the pin, particularly at

its edges.
2 Describe the markings caused by the blue flame.
4 Compare the heat at the centre with the heat at the edges of a
Bunsen burner.
3 Sketch a diagram of a flame and label where the flame is

hottest and where it is coolest.
Part 3: Dirty and clean
Method
Part 2: Matches that wont light!
1 Hold a small piece of porcelain in a pair of tongs.
Method
1 Set up the Bunsen burner.
2 Place a pin carefully straight through an unlit match, a little
under its head.
3 Balance the pin on the top of the Bunsen burner so that the
match head is in the centre of the barrel.
2 Hold the porcelain in a blue flame and record your

observations.
3 Hold the porcelain in the yellow flame and record what you
see.
4 Copy the table below into your workbook and then complete it.
Questions
4 Light the burner as usual.

5 Quickly turn the collar so that you get a blue flame.
flame
1 Describe what happened to the porcelain in the yellow flame

and the blue flame.
2 State which flame could be called dirty.
3 Identify whether the dirty flame was cool or hot.
inner cone of cold

unburnt gas
pin
safety match
Fig 1.2.9 The match head should be just above the top of the Bunsen
burner.
Noise of
flame
Airhole
Colour of
flame
Coloured diagram
of flame
Coloured diagram of
What happened to the
gauze mat held in flame porcelain held in the flame?
Closed
Half open
Open
4 How hot is hot?

Aim
To accurately measure an amount of water and heat using different
flames.
Safety
Boiling water will burn badly if spilt. Treat it and the
hot beaker with care.
Equipment
Bunsen burner
bench mat
matches
safety glasses
tripod and gauze mat
retort stand
bosshead and clamp
100 mL measuring cylinder

250 mL beaker
stopwatch or clock with
seconds markings
>>
15
Equipment
Method
1 Set up the equipment for boiling water, as shown in
Figure 1.2.10.
bosshead
clamp
2 Accurately measure 80 mL of tap water using the measuring

cylinder and pour it into a 250 mL beaker.
3 Time how long it takes for the water to boil when using a blue
Bunsen burner flame. Boiling will be obvious when the water
begins to bubble vigorously.
4 Repeat the experiment with a yellow flame only.
thermometer
retort stand
beaker
Questions
1 State how long it took for the beaker of water to boil in each
case.
2 Identify in which case the beaker boiled first.
gauze mat
tripod
Bunsen burner
box of matches
3 Identify the flame colour that was the hottest.

4 Explain how you can tell which flame is the hottest.
5 Explain how you can control the heat and colour of a Bunsen
burner flame.
6 Explain why it is important to use the same quantity of water
in each part of the experiment.
bench mat
Fig 1.2.10
5 Heating a test tube

Aim
To safely heat a liquid in a test tube.
Safety
1 Use tongs to hold the test tube because the glass
will get very hot.
2 Point the test tube away from everyone, including
yourself.
Equipment
Bunsen burner
bench mat
matches
safety glasses
test tube
test-tube rack
wooden tongs or peg
Method
1 Adjust a Bunsen burner to get a blue flame.
2 Fill the test tube to about one-third with water.
3 With tongs, hold the test tube near its top.
16
4 Point the test tube

away from people,
including yourself.
5 Heat the test tube
carefully near the
bottom.
6 Move the test tube in
and out of the flame
until the water starts
to bubble.
7 Put the hot test tube
in the test-tube rack.
Fig 1.2.11 Constantly move the test

tube in and out of the flame to ensure
that all parts of its base is heated.
8 Record your observations.
Questions
1 Explain why pointing test tubes at people is dangerous.
2 Outline why test tubes must always be kept moving in a
flame.
3 Explain why tongs need to be kept near the top of the test tube
and not the bottom.
4 Explain why test tubes should never be laid flat on a bench.
Unit
1.3
context
Observations and
measurement
You are constantly observing and

interacting with the world around you
you hear the lunch bell, you smell your
classmates tuna sandwich and you see
that its raining outside. As a scientist you
will need to make detailed observations and

to think about what you have just observed.
Measurements can make your observations
more detailed and allow you to see any
patterns that may exist.
Fig 1.3.1 Not all scientists

make their observations and
measurements in the laboratory.
Qualitative and quantitative

observations
Scientists make two types of observations. Observations
can be qualitative. This means that the observations are
being written down in words only. Qualitative
observations could be made about the noise a bird
makes, the taste of ice-cream or a description of what
happens when water is boiled.
Other observations are quantitative. These
observations involve measurements and are stated as
numbers. Examples are: the temperature of a room
recorded as 25C, the time being 12.45 p.m., the
volume of a liquid in a can of soft drink being
measured as 375 mL, and the memory of an iPod
Prac 1
p. 22
being 8 GB.
Inferring and predicting

Once you have observed something, you can then make
a logical explanation (known as an inference) as to
what happened and why it happened. You may then be
able to predict what might happen in the future.

Predictions must be logical and based on the
observations made in your earlier experiments. You
make observations, inferences and predictions every
day, probably without knowing it. Consider:
Observation
Inference
Prediction
The dog barked.

That possum is back again.
The barking will frighten it away.
Sometimes the same observation can lead to different

inferences and predictions:
Observation
Inference
Prediction
or
Observation
Inference
Prediction
The leaves are turning brown.

The tree is dying.
I will have to get a new one.
The leaves are turning brown.
It is a deciduous tree that loses its
leaves in autumn.
It will get new leaves in spring.
In this case, a calendar could assist you in deciding

which is correct.
17
Observations and measurement
Measurement
Measurements are extremely important in science
because they improve the accuracy of your observations.
Measurements can also be arranged in tables and can be
used to construct graphs. Tables and graphs are very
useful in science because they make it much easier to
see any patterns that may exist in the measurements.
Units
Scientists use the units of the metric system for their
measurements. Grams are used for measurements of
small masses, like the mass of a coin or a mouse, whereas
kilograms or tonnes are used for heavier objects.
Centimetres, metres and kilometres are used for length.
Seconds, minutes and hours are used for time.
Measurement
Abbreviations
mm, cm, m,
km
Mass (sometimes incorrectly

called weight)
milligram, gram, kilogram,

tonne
mg, g, kg, t
Time
second, minute, hour
s, min, h
Speed
kilometres per hour, metres

per second
km/h (sometimes shown

on road signs
as kph), m/s
Volume of a liquid
millilitres, litres, megalitres
mL, L, ML
Temperature
degrees Celsius, kelvin
C, K
Whoops!
In 1999 NASA sent three
space probes to land on and
explore the surface of Mars.
All three failed.
One is thought to have failed
because NASA scientists did
not write the units down for a
series of measurements. One
group of scientists thought the
measurements were in older
Imperial units, whereas another
group thought they were
metric. This caused the
spacecraft to be programmed
wrongly so that it thought it
was higher than it actually was.
The spacecraft crashed into the
surface!
20C
C
Fig 1.3.2 You cannot always be sure of measurements exactly.
millimetre, centimetre,
metre, kilometre
Clip
Is the temperature
shown here 23.4C,
23.5C or 23.6C?
10C
Length, height and distance
Science
18
Commonly used metric units
30C
Sometimes
measurements fall
between the lines on
a device and some
guesswork is
needed. This causes
a reading error in
your measurement.
Science
Clip
Give em an inch and theyll

take a mile!
Some older Australians still use
Imperial units (e.g. pounds, inches,
feet, yards and miles) for their
measurements. These are the units
they grew up with and the units they
are most used to. People in the USA
(but not the scientists) also use
Imperial units (including degrees
Fahrenheit for their temperatures)
for everyday measurements.
Errors and mistakes

You will always have errors in your
Just right: person B will read this
measurements, regardless of how
measurement most accurately as 20
careful you are. Errors are not
B
C
A
mistakes. Mistakes can be avoided
Too low:
Too high:
with care. Errors are slight
person A will
person C will
changes in measurements that
read this as 18.2
read this as 21.5
cannot be avoided regardless of
how careful you are.
A reading error, for example,
is always made whenever you must
guess the measurement because it
0
5
10
15
20
falls between markings on your
25
30
35
measuring instrument.
Another important error is
caused by not having your eye
directly in line with the
measurement. This is called
Fig 1.3.3 Parallax error is caused by reading a measurement from an angle.
parallax error.
A beam balance is often used in the school laboratory

to measure the mass of an object. The mass is a measure
of how much matter there is in an object and is
sometimes incorrectly called weight.
Taking accurate measurements

You need to minimise errors and make no mistakes if
you are to take accurate measurements. Scientists do
this by following these rules or conventions:
Minimise parallax errors by always reading
measuring devices from directly in front.
Minimise zero errors by checking that the measuring
device has the correct starting point (usually zero).
Always write down measurements as soon as they are
taken. Do not try to remember measurements.
Always write down the units of the measurements.
Always use correct abbreviations for units. For
example, always use g for grams (not G or gms)
and mL for millilitres (not ML or mls).
If possible, write all measurements in a table.
When working in a group, always make sure you
have a copy of the results before you leave the
laboratory.
Always measure quantities in metric units.
Do not use fractions such as or in
measurements. Use decimals instead. For
example, 9.5 kg is acceptable but 9 kg is not.
1.3
An important measuring device:

The beam balance
Unit
A common problem when using measuring devices is

called zero error. This is when the device reads some
value even though nothing is being measured. An
example is a weighing scale that measures 0.12 kg when
nothing is on it.
Fig 1.3.5 A laboratory beam balance is used for measuring mass.
Mass is usually measured in the laboratory in grams,

abbreviated as g. Larger masses are usually measured in
kilograms (kg).
For increased accuracy,
an electronic balance is
Prac 5
Prac 3
Prac 4
sometimes used.
p. 24
p. 23
p. 23
Worksheet 1.6 Measurement
Go to
Science Focus 2 Unit 1.3
Prac 2
p. 22
Measure from the

bottom of the meniscus
if it curves downwards.
70 mL
Measure from the top

of the meniscus if it
curves upwards.
70 mL
65
65
Science
Fact File
Measuring curvy water

60
60
55
55
50
50
reading = 67 mL
reading = 66 mL
Liquids in narrow tubes, such as

measuring cylinders, often have a
curve at their surface. This curve
is called a meniscus. When you
need to measure the volume of a
liquid that has a meniscus, follow
these rules:
Measure from the bottom of the
meniscus if it curves downwards.
Measure from the top of the
meniscus if it curves upward.
Fig 1.3.4 Liquids in thin tubes often form a curved surface or meniscus.
19

0
100
200
300
400
500
600
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
10
Fig 1.3.6 A beam balance reading 200 + 70 + 3.5 = 273.5 g
1.3
QUESTIONS
Remembering
1 State the correct metric unit for:
a mass
b length.
2 State the abbreviation for each of the following metric units:
a
b
c
d
e
f
grams
kilogram
litre
millilitre
seconds
degrees Celsius.
Understanding
3 Define the following terms: L
a qualitative
b quantitative
c meniscus
d mistake
e error.
4 Copy the following into your workbook and modify any
incorrect statements so they become true.
a A qualitative observation is one where numbers are involved.
b If we use a thermometer, we are making a qualitative
observation.
c The colour of a leaf is an example of a quantitative
measurement.
d An inference is a logical explanation about what happened
in an experiment.
e A prediction is a logical guess about what might happen in
the future.
f Metric units are never used by scientists for measurements.
g The kilometre is an example of an Imperial unit.
h Seconds could be used to measure the distance that a
sprinter runs.
i There is 375 ML in a normal soft drink can. (Be careful!)

j Mistakes are the same as errors.
5 Describe the following types of errors:
a reading error
b parallax error
c zero error.
Applying
6 Identify four observations about samples of:
a salt
b milk
c talcum powder
d a $1 coin
e the gas you breathe out.
7 Identify each sentence below as an observation, inference or
prediction:
a The missing fish were eaten by the cat.
There will be no fish left in the pond after a while.
The cat is on the edge of the fishpond.
b One Olympian is bigger than the other.
The bigger Olympian will win the event.
One can lift a heavier weight than the other.
c The fish will be a big one.
Ive caught a fish.
The line is taut and the fishing rod is bending.
8 The gas you breathe out contains carbon dioxide. Identify this
statement as an observation or prediction.
9 Identify what is wrong with the following measurements:
a Mass of a mouse = 150 1_4 g
b The car was travelling at 100.
c The wind speed was 10 miles per hour.
d A full bottle of soft drink contains 1.25 mL.
e Evans height = 158 m.
20
>>
Unit
Type of empty
container
Mass of
container
Folded piece
of paper
1.2 g
Watch-glass
13.7 g
11 Identify whether NASA made an error or a mistake in

its failed 1999 missions to Mars. Explain your
reasoning.
Analysing
Beaker
12 Analyse these measuring devices and state their

measurements.
a
b
40
300
30
200
20
100
10
Mass of
container
+
substance
Salt
34.5 g
Crystals
Water
Mass of
substance
18.6 g
275.0 g
195.1 g
13 Jill is performing an experiment incorrectly in Figure 1.3.8.

Before Jill passed out, she wrote down everything that she
saw, heard and smelt in this experiment. Analyse what
happened and list all the qualitative observations that Jill
would have made.
5
30
Type of
substance
that was
added
1.3
10 Fred measured the mass of some substances that

could not be held in the pan of a beam balance. He
needed to put the substances in containers instead.
Complete the table (opposite) of his results by
calculating the missing values. N
3
20
100
200
300
400
500
600
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
10
100
200
300
400
500
600
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
10
h
60
100
200
14 While in hospital, Jill made some inferences and predictions

about the experiment. Classify which are inferences and which
are predictions.
a A chemical reaction happened between the metal and the acid.
15
45
Fig 1.3.8
300
30
b The dissolved metal turned the liquid green.

c The reaction caused the brown gas.
d A different acid might not produce brown gas.

16
17
e A different metal might not dissolve.
18
50
40
f Brown gas makes people pass out.

k
g More metal would have made more brown gas.
20
55 0
10
0
900
100
200
800
700
600
Fig 1.3.7
500
300
400
50
10
45
15
40
20
35 30 25
h Stronger acid would give us

more brown gas.
Creating
15 Robs poorly recorded results for
an experiment are shown in
Figure 1.3.9. Construct a table
and present the results as they
should look.
Fig 1.3.9
21
1.3
The burning question!
1 Melt a little of the wax at the bottom of the candle and use it
to stick the candle to the lid or Petri dish.
Aim
To observe a burning candle.
Equipment
Method
a candle
gas jar or beaker
metal or plastic lid or Petri dish
matches
access to electronic scales
Fig 1.3.10
2 Find the mass of the candle and lid or dish on the electronic
scales. Record your result.
3 Light the candle.
4 Use all your senses (except taste) to write as many
observations as you can. (Michael Faraday, the 19th century
scientist, made 53!)
5 Now cover the candle with a gas jar or beaker.
6 Record more observations.
7 Again, find the mass of the candle and lid.
Questions
1 How many different observations did you make? For each
observation, state whether it was qualitative or quantitative.
2 Compare the two masses. If they were different, propose a
reason why.
Taking measurements
Aim
To measure various items with a range of measuring devices.
Equipment
access to a range of instruments and pieces of equipment
that all show different quantities (e.g. 250 mL beaker filled
half-way with water, thermometer in a flask of cold water)
a sheet of A4 paper next to each piece of equipment
Method
1 In your workbook, construct a table similar to that shown
right.
2 Next to each piece of equipment is a piece of paper. Write
your measurement in your table and on the piece of paper.
22
Questions
1 Compare all the results on the paper from each group and
state any differences.
2 If you got all different measurements, does this mean that
everyone is wrong?
3 Identify any results that were significantly different from the
rest.
4 State a conclusion for this experiment.
5 Propose reasons why scientists may not get exactly the same
measurements.
Name of
piece of
equipment
What is
being
measured
My
measurement
Unit it is
measured
in
Unit
DYO
Aim
To develop a method that measures things without accurate
measuring instruments.
Equipment
small box of Smarties or M&Ms (with mass on box or on
packet)
a stack of identical sheets of A4 paper
30 cm ruler
access to a clock (not a stopwatch)
access to a calculator
Method
1 You have been given a very restricted range of equipment for
this experiment. In groups, design your own way of measuring
each of the following:
1.3
3 Oddball measuring
a the mass of a Smartie or an M&M without using any

weighing device
b the thickness of a single piece of A4 paper with a normal
ruler
c the time it takes for one heartbeat to happen.
2 Use your method to take/calculate each measurement.
Questions
1 Your methods probably measured the thickness of many
Smarties/M&Ms, sheets of paper or heartbeats. Explain why it
would be physically impossible to measure just one of each
with the equipment you were given.
2 Identify the assumption you made in each of your methods.
How massive?
Aim
To use a beam balance correctly to find the mass of various objects.
Equipment
access to beam balances
objects to weigh
50 g mass
Method
5 Repeat this step for all the sliding masses until you finish with
the lightest sliding mass.
6 When you have successfully got the pointer at 0, record the
measurement in your table and on the paper next to each
balance.
Questions
1 Construct a table in your workbook with the column headings

Object being measured, Mass and Units.
1 State what the reading of a beam balance should be when

nothing is in its pan.
2 Move all the sliding masses to 0 on the beam balance.
2 State the mass that you obtained for the 50 g standard mass.
3 The arm should now be balanced and reading 0. If this does

not happen, adjust the balance screw on the edge of the arm.
3 Explain why a 50 g standard mass might not be exactly 50 g

in an experiment.
4 Add the object to be measured and slide the heaviest sliding

mass until the arm drops below 0. Then pull the sliding mass
back one notch.
4 Describe three errors that might be present in these

measurements.
23
Measurements and
predictions
0.7
Aim
0.6
To find the mass of various lengths of spaghetti.

0.5
beam balance
four different lengths of uncooked spaghetti
ruler with 1 mm markings
Method
1 Break each length of spaghetti into three pieces so that you
have a wide range of sizes and so that you end up with nine
different lengths.
Mass (g)
Equipment
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
10
2 Construct a table in your workbook or set up an Excel

spreadsheet with headings Length and Mass.
3 Measure the length and mass of each piece of spaghetti and
record it in your table.
4 Use this information to draw a line graph and draw a line of
best fit through your points or generate the graph using your
Excel spreadsheet. N
5 Mark on your graph a length that you did not measure.
6 Use the graph to estimate its mass.
7 Get another length of spaghetti and break it at the length you
chose in step 6 above.
8 Measure and record the mass of the spaghetti you used in
step 7.
24
20
30
40
50
Length (mm)
60
Fig 1.3.11 Line of best fit for mass of spaghetti versus length
Questions
1 Explain what is a line of best fit.
2 Compare your predicted value for the mass of the piece of
spaghetti with the actual value.
3 State a conclusion about the link between mass and length of
an item.
Unit
1.4
context
Reporting
Scientists need to record their methods,

observations and measurements so that
other scientists can repeat their
experiments. To do this, they need to write a

scientific report.
Equipment or materials
This is a list of all equipment and
chemicals needed in the
experiment. The sizes of the various
pieces of equipment must also be
included.
Risk assessment
(safety guidelines)
This can be a short statement on
how you intend to minimise risks
when performing the experiment.
Any safety equipment you intend to
use should also be included here. For
many experiments, for example,
you would list safety glasses and a
lab coat or apron.
Fig 1.4.1 Your observations must be recorded as you go.

Otherwise, you might forget some of them.
Scientific reports
A scientific report should contain the following sections:
aim
hypothesis (optional)
equipment or materials
risk assessment (safety guidelines)
method
results (observations and measurements)
discussion (analysis of results)
conclusion.
Fig 1.4.2 Multiple observations are made in experiments and scientists

need to record all of them in the results section of their report.
Aim
This is what you intended to do in the experiment,
what you were trying to investigate or what you hoped
to achieve.
Hypothesis (optional)
You probably have an idea of what might happen
or what you might find out in an experiment. This
educated guess is called your hypothesis.
Method
This is a detailed list of what was done in the
experiment. To allow another scientist to be able to
repeat the experiment, you must include what quantities
were used and the exact order in which the experiment
was performed. This is often presented as a numbered
list. A diagram of the experiment (with all the
equipment connected, not separate) can be very useful.
25
Reporting
Results (observations and
measurements)
It can also include calculations and graphs and

improvements and ideas for future experiments.
You must include a complete list of measurements and

observations that you took in the experiment. Results
are easier to read if they are presented in a table. Always
include headings and units (e.g. m, s or kg) in your table.
For example, if you were heating water to boiling
point, you might contruct a table with temperature (C)
and time (min) as its headings.
Conclusion
Discussion (analysis of results)

This is where you:
Answer questions given in the prac.
Describe any problems you encountered in the
experiment and what you did to overcome those
problems.
Discuss what you think your results show about the
experiment.
State what you have found about the experiment
from other sources, such as textbooks, the Internet
or encyclopaedias.
This is where you summarise what you have found

out in the experiment. The conclusion should be
short and must relate directly to the aim.
Common mistakes made in

scientific reports
Writing a scientific report is sometimes difficult and
students make mistakes frequently. Tony ran an
experiment during which he tested the flexibility
and stretch of a fishing line. His scientific report is
shown below.
Prac 1
p. 27
Prac 2
p. 28
Date?
Apparatus? Materials?
No label
What length?
Spacings should be
equal, and increase by
the same amount
Points are too big
What weights?
No units
Put units in headings
A diagram would
help here
Units changed
The conclusion
does not match
the aim
Units changed
26
Fig 1.4.3 Tonys report had many mistakes in it, which are highlighted here.
Go to
What was actually

found out here?
Unit
QUESTIONS
Remembering
1.4
1.4
c needs to be added to the graph

d is missing from two measurements in his table.
1 List the sections required in a good scientific report.

2 State two things that must always be included in result tables.
3 State what graphs must always have on their axes.
7 Use the aim of Tonys experiment to re-write his conclusion so

that it matches.
Analysing
Understanding
4 In your own words, describe what is meant by the term aim.
8 Tonys hypothesis was excellent. Analyse why.
5 Explain the difference between an inference and a hypothesis.
9 Analyse the Mysterious case of the stolen sausages on page 8

and identify your:
Applying
a aim
6 Referring to Tonys report, identify what:
b hypothesis
a section is missing
c observations
b is missing from his method
d conclusion.
1.4
1
Spreading puddles
eyedropper
Aim
To measure the area of water droplets and see if there is a pattern
in their sizes.
Equipment
glass microscope slide
eyedropper
graph paper
glass
microscope slide
graph paper
Method
Fig 1.4.4 Count the number of squares covered by each drop.
1 Construct the table below in your workbook.

2 Collect a clean glass slide, an eyedropper and a piece of graph
paper and place the graph paper under the slide.
3 Drop one drop of water onto the slide.
4 Estimate the area covered by the drop by counting the squares

on the graph paper underneath. Count half-covered squares as
full and less than half-covered as empty.
5 Add another drop of water, being careful to keep it the same
size, and estimate the area covered.
Number of drops
1
10
Predicted area
(squares)
Actual area
(squares)
>>
27
Reporting
6 Repeat for three drops.
7 Predict the size for four, five and six drops. N
100
8 Check your predictions by counting the squares for four, five

and then six drops on the slide.
1 Compare the actual area to your predicted area and comment

on your prediction.
2 Describe any pattern you see connecting the number of drops
with the area covered.
3 Predict the size for seven, eight, nine and ten drops. N
Area (squares)
Questions
80
60
40
20
0
4 Present your results as a line graph, with Area on the vertical

axis and Number of drops on the horizontal axis. N
4 5 6 7 8
Number of drops
Fig 1.4.5
5 Measure the temperature of

the water every two minutes
until the water boils, recording
your results in your workbook.
Does salt make a difference?
Aim
To investigate if salt makes a difference to the boiling point of
water.
Safety
1 Tie long hair back and wear safety glasses.
2 Never turn your back on a lit Bunsen burner.
3 When not using the Bunsen burner, close the air
hole (producing a yellow safety flame) or turn it off.
4 Allow the Bunsen burner and other equipment to
thoroughly cool before packing it away.
Equipment
two 250 mL beakers

Bunsen burner
tripod
gauze mat
bench mat
thermometer
teaspoon or large
spatula
glass stirring rod
Temperature
(C)
10
Time
(min)
6 In another beaker, measure

out another 150 mL of water.
7 To this water, add two
teaspoons or two large
spatulas of salt. Use the
glass stirring rod to
dissolve the salt.
8 Once again, use a blue
flame to heat this beaker
of salty water until it boils,
recording its temperature
every two minutes.
Fig 1.4.6
Questions
1 Write up the experiment, using the headings of Aim,
Hypothesis, Equipment, Method, Results and Conclusion.
1 Set up your equipment to boil water.
2 Compare the boiling point of the salty water with the unsalted
water. Put your answer in the Discussion section of your
report.
2 Use the markings on the side of the beaker to measure out

150mL of water.
3 Construct a line graph of your results to show the difference

(if any) of the rise in temperature for both solutions.
3 Use the thermometer to measure the temperature of the

water. Record this temperature in your workbook.
Method
4 Carefully light the Bunsen burner and use a blue flame to heat
the water.
28
5 Cooks often add salt when they cook rice or pasta. Use the
conclusion from this experiment to propose a reason why.
Unit
1.5
context
Working scientifically
Scientists rarely start with an experiment,

but normally with observations made in
everyday life or even possibly by
accident. Their observations lead them to
ask questions like What caused that? or

Why did that happen?. They then design
experiments to answer their questions.
(the dog will probably be bluffed). Your conclusion

probably confirmed that dogs are easily bluffed, at least
on the first few tries.
Another example of observations leading to
experiments comes from Joe, Year 7 scientist.
Joe noticed that when he washed dishes he
sometimes made lots of froth and at other times
he made almost none. Joe has a problem. Hes about
to solve it scientifically.
Fig 1.5.1 Observations can trigger questions that eventually lead to

an experiment.
Observations can lead to

experiments
Most likely, you have already run an experiment based
on observations you have made about the world. It
might be as simple as throwing a ball to a dog. Throw
the ball and they fetch it. This observation has probably
led you to wonder what would happen if you pretended
to throw the ball. Although it doesnt look much like an
experiment, it definitely is. It has a clear aim (to test if a
dog can be bluffed by a pretend-throw) and hypothesis
Fig 1.5.2 Joe wondered why so much froth was produced in the
kitchen sink.
Fair tests and variables

Things happen due to lots of different factors, but it is
sometimes difficult to determine which factor has the
biggest effect and which ones have no effect at all.
Any test that a scientist carries out must be a fair
one. To be fair, you must change only one factor at a
time. These factors are called variables and are
anything that may affect the results of an experiment.
29
Joe thought about it carefully and came
up with a list of factors that could affect
the amount of froth produced:
Prac 1
the amount of detergent used
p. 31
the amount of water in the sink
the speed of the water coming from the tap
the temperature of the water.
These were his variables.
From their observations, scientists then make a
hypothesis. This is a prediction or educated guess
about what they may find in an experiment or what
might have caused the observations.
Joe had noticed that more froth was produced
when faster tap water was added and when more
detergent was used. He thought that these variables
would have a great effect, but didnt think the
temperature of the water in the sink would have
any effect at all.
This was his hypothesis.
Planning experiments
Scientists change only one factor or variable at a time.
Otherwise they would not be able to work out which
variable caused the effect. All the other variables must
be kept exactly the same or constant.
Go to
30
Joe then designed and ran two experiments that he

thought could solve his problem.
Experiment 1: He put three drops of detergent in
the sink each time. He ran hot water in very slowly
at first, then repeated with hot but faster water. He
repeated the experiment with very fast but equally
hot water. Each time he filled the sink half-way.
Experiment 2: He put one drop of detergent in the
sink and turned the tap on high until the sink was
half full. He then repeated the experiment with two
drops of detergent, then three and then four.
To make sure you design an effective experiment you
should know:
the problem you are trying to solve (the aim)
exactly what you are going to measure (called the
dependent variable)
what you are going to change (called the
independent variable)
what you are going to keep the same (called the
controlled variable)
anything else that might affect the experiment but
you cannot control (e.g. air pressure).
Prac 2
p. 32
Prac 3
p. 32
Unit
QUESTIONS
e Outline how Joe could measure the amount of froth
produced.
Understanding
1 Define the term variable.
2 Recall why only one variable should be changed at a time in
an experiment.
d Outline as a series of dot-points a detailed method that he

could use.
a the growth of a plant

b the time taken to cook a potato
e Construct a table for the expected results.
c the number of times you go to the toilet in a day
6 Joe then wanted to test whether the temperature of the water

had any effect on the froth. For this new experiment:
d your test results for this topic.

4 a Joe thought of four variables that may have affected
the amount of froth produced. List the four variables.
a State an aim.
b List the equipment he would need.
b Identify the variable that Joe didnt think was

important.
c State a risk assessment for the experiment.

d Outline as a series of dot-points a detailed method that he
could use.
c Predict which variable will have the most effect on

the experiment.
e Construct a table for the expected results.
d Identify two other variables that Joe didnt think of.
Froth production
Aim
To interpret another students experiment and write a report
correctly.
Equipment
a State its aim.

c State a risk assessment for the experiment.
3 Identify variables that are likely to affect:
5 For one of Joes experiments:

b List the equipment he would need.
Applying
1.5
1.5
1.5
dishwashing detergent with dropper

ruler
access to tap
large beaker/bucket/ice-cream container
thermometer
DYO
Part 2
3 Test one of the variables that Joe did not test.
4 Once again, write up the experiment.
Questions
1 State the variables that Joe tested.
2 Explain why Joe kept the variables the same in both
experiments.
3 List three other variables that could have been tested.
4 Describe which variable you think would have the most effect.
Method
Part 1
1 Repeat one of Joes experiments.
2 Write up the experiment, following the rules for writing a
report.
31
?
DYO
Answering a question
with an experiment
Travis noticed that when he dropped a ball, it never bounced

back to the same height from which it was dropped.
Aim
To identify variables and design a simple experiment.
Equipment
tennis ball
metre ruler
Method
1 Identify all the variables that you think will have some effect
on the bounce.
2 Decide which variable you are going to keep the same.
Fig 1.5.3
Questions
1 Identify which variables:
3 Design your own experiment that would test Traviss

observation. You will need to collect at least five different
measurements.
a affected the bounce height

b did not significantly affect the bounce height.
2 State two conditions that would combine to produce:
4 Perform the experiment.
a a high bounce
5 Construct a table of your results.
b a low bounce.
6 Make suggestions on how you could improve your

experiments.
?
3
Investigating variables
DYO
Aim
To design your own experiment and report on it.
Equipment
Prepare a list of the equipment you intend to use.
Safety
Once you have decided on your topic and method,
write your own risk assessment, listing all the
possible dangers that may be involved and what can
be done to minimise them.
Method
1 Read the following investigations and choose one of them to
run as an experiment. Whichever investigation you choose:
a Identify three variables that are likely to have an effect on
the results. List them in order from what you consider to
be the most important to what you consider to be the least.
32
b Choose one important variable and design your own

experiment that could test it.
c Prepare a risk assessment for your method and present it
to your teacher for approval.
2 Once approved, run the experiment and collect the necessary
results.
3 Write up your experiment using the normal headings of Aim,
Equipment, Method etc.
Possible topics
Nikki liked sweet coffee so she always added lots of sugar.
She often noticed, however, that a lot of it remained
undissolved at the bottom of the cup. She wanted to find out
why the amount on the bottom differed each time.
George heard an old tale that if you want an avocado to ripen
quickly, you should place it in a brown paper bag with a
banana! He thought this sounded weird and wanted to see if it
was true.
Samira liked to blow bubbles and wanted to find out how she
could make bigger ones.
CHAPTER REVIEW
1 State six of the common branches of science and recall what
each branch studies.
2 State the use for each of the following pieces of equipment:
Applying
8 For each of the following, identify whether the following
observations are quantitative or qualitative:
a The apple is red.
a spatula
b There is 200 mL of water in this beaker.
b beaker
c The packet of sugar states that it is 200 g but when you

hold it, it feels a lot lighter.
d tripod
e evaporating basin
f Bunsen burner.
3 Recall equipment used in the laboratory by drawing 2D
scientific diagrams for the following pieces of equipment:
d The thermometer reads that the temperature of the room is

25C.
9 Identify four observations you could make about:
a a glass of tomato juice
b an ice cube
a a beaker used to boil 200 mL of water
c rain
b a 50 mL measuring cylinder
d grass.
c a tripod with wire gauze

d a Bunsen burner.
4 List the steps you need to follow to light a Bunsen burner.
5 State the correct metric units for:
a mass
b time
c length
d temperature.
6 List the subheadings needed when writing a scientific report.
Understanding
7 Explain why a Bunsen burners yellow flame is known as the
safety flame.
Analysing
10 Compare a Bunsen burners blue flame and its safety flame
by listing their similarities and differences.
Evaluating
11 Propose a reason why a Bunsen burners blue flame is hotter
than the safety flame.
Creating
12 You have often wondered whether your cup of hot chocolate
will cool down faster in a glass cup or a polystyrene cup.
Design an experiment to test this idea.
Worksheet 1.7 Crossword
Ch
pt
Worksheet 1.8 Sci-words
c measuring cylinder
on
Remembering
er R
sti
ev i ew Q u e
33
Solids, liquids
and gases

Key outcomes
Additional
Essentials
4.2, 4.7.1, 4.7.2, 4.7.3
Scientists construct models based on

experimental evidence to help explain
things that cant be observed directly.
Matter is made up of particles that are

moving continuously.
Matter expands when heated and

contracts when cooled.
The pressure of a gas increases as the

number of collisions increases.
Properties of solids, liquids and gases

can be described by a simple particle
model.
Changes of state occur by adding or

removing energy to the particles in a
substance.
The particle model can be used to

explain a wide range of characteristics
of a substance.
Diffusion occurs due to the random

movement of particles.
Sublimation occurs when a solid

changes directly to a gas or a gas
changes directly to a solidwithout
first forming a liquid.
Unit
2.1 The particle model
context
Water is one of the few substances on

Earth that you can see every day as a
solid, liquid and a gasliquid water runs
from the tap, water vapour comes from a
boiling kettle and solid ice cubes are in
the freezer. Although the same type of
particles make up ice, steam and tap
water, the three materials behave very
differently. The particles that make up solids,

liquids and gases are far too small to be seen
(even with a microscope) and so scientists
use a model to explain their various
properties.
Scientists, architects and engineers also use physical

models of things such as buildings, ships, aircraft and
landscapes. These models can be used to test how a
skyscraper might respond in an earthquake or how a
flood may affect the shape of a river valley. Likewise, a
model aircraft can be tested in a wind tunnel to see
how a newly shaped wing cuts through the air.
Sometimes scientists use a model to describe an idea
or concept that helps them explain how something
works. This type of model is particularly useful when
they are investigating something that cannot be seen,
such as the structure of the atom (the atomic model).
The model might not be exactly right but it can be used
to understand and predict how things behave and
reactjust like a model aircraft helps designers better
understand the real thing. For example, scientists
cannot see individual particles of water, but they can
observe how water (and ice and steam) behaves. From
these observations scientists have developed the
particle model to better understand different forms of
water and other solids, liquids and gases.
The particle model

Fig 2.1.1 Liquid water, solid ice and the water vapour in this mans
breath are all the same substance.
Models in science
Quick Quiz
Scientists often use models to help them
understand the world and the way it works.
Computer models, for example, are commonly used
to simulate weather patterns and to predict the
movements of the planets, tides and tsunamis, and the
effects of earthquakes.
Matter is the basic building material from which

substances are made. Everything in the universe is
made of matterfrom stars to spiders, galaxies to
geckos and planets to people. Matter has mass and
takes up space.
There are three states of mattersolids, liquids and
gases. Ice, water and steam, for example, are all water,
but in different states, or phases.
To explain the behaviour of solids, liquids and gases
scientists use a model known as the particle model.
This model proposes that all matter is made
up of tiny, invisible particles and explains
the different states in terms of how these
particles move and stick together.
35
The particle model
Particles in solids:
s STRONGLYBONDEDTOEACHOTHER
s VIBRATEALITTLEBUTNOTMUCHCOMPARED
TOLIQUIDSANDGASES
s VIBRATEFASTERWHENHEATED
Properties of solids:
s HAVEADEFINITESHAPE
s DONOTFLOW
s VIRTUALLYIMPOSSIBLETOCOMPRESS
s EXPANDIFHEATEDBUTUSUALLYLESSTHAN
LIQUIDSANDGASES
solid
Particles in liquids:
s WEAKLYBONDEDTOEACHOTHER
s BREAKTHEIRBONDSEASILY
s VIBRATEANDMOVEMORETHANTHOSEINASOLID
s MOVEFASTERWHENHEATED
Properties of liquids:
s NODEFINITESHAPE
s CANFLOWTOTAKETHESHAPEOFTHEBOTTOM
OFACONTAINER
s VERYDIFFICULTTOCOMPRESSVIRTUALLY
INCOMPRESSIBLE
liquid
Gas particles:
s ARE@FREEHAVINGNOBONDSBETWEENTHEM
s HAVEMUCHMOREENERGYTHANTHOSEOFASOLIDORLIQUID
s FLYAROUNDBOUNCINGOFFEACHOTHERANDTHEWALLSOF
THEIRCONTAINER
Properties of gases:
s NOFIXEDSHAPE
s GASESSPREADORDIFFUSE TOCOMPLETELY
FILLACONTAINER
s GASESAREEASILYCOMPRESSED

gas
Fig 2.1.2 The particles in a solid are in fixed positions but jiggle back and forth on the spot. The particles in liquids
and gases all vibrate too. These particles can move about freely though, giving liquids and gases the ability to flow and
move about.
Prac 1
p. 41
Solids
Solids come in many different types. Iron, plastic, wood and
sponge are all solids with very different characteristics. All
solids, however, share some common characteristics, which
are known as the physical properties of solids.
The particle model explains these properties by
imagining that the particles within the solid are bonded
strongly to each other and packed very closely together.
Properties of solids
Particle model of solids
Solids have a defined

shape and do not flow.
The particles are strongly

bonded to their neighbours,
so their position is fixed.
Solids are virtually

incompressible.
There is very little space

between the particles, so they
cannot be pushed any closer
together.
Solids expand when

heated and contract
when cooled.
Heating causes the particles

to vibrate faster, pushing them
further apart and causing the
solid to expand. The reverse
happens when the solid is
cooled.
Science
Clip
Viscosity and quicksand

Viscosity describes how easily a liquid flows. Water flows easily
and so has a low viscosity, whereas honey, which does not flow as
easily, has a high viscosity. Quicksand is an unusual substance
because its viscosity increases when you try to move through it
quickly, making it thicker and harder to move through. The best
way of getting out is to move through it slowly and smoothly.
36
Prac 2
p. 41
Unit
Gases
Water, oil, honey and mercury are all

Prac 3
Prac 4
very different liquids, but they, too,
p. 41
p. 42
share some common physical
properties. These properties can also be explained by
the particle model. In this model, the particles in a
liquid are packed very close together and can move
around freely.
Although most gases are invisible, they are

extremely important to life on Earth. The air
Prac 5
p. 42
you breathe is a mixture of gases and whenever
you smell something, your nose is detecting gas
particles. In the particle model, gas particles are not
bonded to each other at all. This allows
them to move around freely anywhere
within their container.
Properties of liquids
Particle model of liquids
Liquids flow to take

the shape of their
container.
The particles are weakly bonded to

their neighbours. This allows the
particles to move freely within the
liquid.
Liquids are virtually

incompressible.
There is very little space between

the particles, so they cannot be
pushed together any further.
Most liquids
expand when
heated and contract
when cooled.
Heating causes the particles to

vibrate faster, forcing them further
apart and causing the liquid to
expand. The reverse happens
when the liquid is cooled.
Fig 2.1.3 Liquids take the shape of their containers.
2.1
Liquids
Animati on
Science
Clip
The longest experiment of all time

According to the Guinness Book of Records, the University
of Queensland holds the title for the longest running
experiment. The experiment began in 1927 and is still
running! The aim of the experiment is to determine the
viscosity of pitch, a black liquid that is so viscous it appears
to be solideven brittle. Professors John Mainstone and
Thomas Parnell began the experiment by putting some pitch
into a large funnel and started counting the drops oozing
from its tip. Today, the ninth drop is only just starting to
form! This suggests that pitch is 100 billion times more
viscous than water.
Properties of gases
Particle model of gases
Gases have no fixed

shape and will spread
to fill their container.
The particles are not bonded to

each other and so are free to move
anywhere within their container.
Gases are
compressible.
Lots of space between the particles

allows them to be pushed closer
together easily.
Gases expand
dramatically when
heated and contract
when cooled.
Gas particles are constantly

moving. Heating a gas causes
the particles to move faster and
move further apart. This causes
the gas to expand. The gas
contracts when the gas is cooled
and the particles move slower.
In a confined space,
heating increases the
pressure of gases. The
pressure decreases
when cooled.
In a confined space, heating the

gas causes the particles to
collide with the sides of the
container more often and with
greater force. Pressure depends
on force and so it increases too.
The pressure decreases when
the gas is cooled and there are
fewer and less forceful collisions.
37
The particle model
Evidence for the particle model

Scientists dont believe in a model unless repeated
experiments have proven it to be accurate. Scientists
should be objective at all times. This means that they
should only rely on evidence collected from
experiments that have been repeated many times
around the world.
The particle model is not just an idea. This evidence
has come from repeated experiments.
Fig 2.1.5 Diffusion

happens when the
dividing plate is removed
from between two gas
jars. In this case, one jar
of brown nitrous oxide
gas is mixing via diffusion
with a jar of colourless air.
Dissolving
Although a sugar cube seems to disappear when it is
dissolved in a hot cup of tea, its sugar particles are still
thereyou can taste them! The water particles in the
tea have pulled the sugar cube apart and spread the
sugar particles throughout the cup.
Go to
Prac 6
p. 42
Science
Clip
That really smells!

Solvent particles (e.g. water):
these surround the particles in
the solid, pulling them apart and
then spreading them thinly
throughout the liquid. The liquid
is known as the solvent.
Solute particles (e.g. sugar):

dissolving spreads these thinly
throughout the liquid. Solute is
the substance being dissolved.
Natural gas (methane, CH4) is normally odourless, making it

undetectable if there is a leak or something is left on. To make
natural gas extra smelly, chemicals called mercarptans are added to
it. Mercaptans are the smelliest substances on Earth. The human
nose is so sensitive to them that it can detect one mercaptan
particle amongst several billion molecules of air.
nerve (to brain)

particle dissolves in
moist nasal membrane
moist nasal
membrane
Fig 2.1.4 The process of dissolving can be explained by the particle

model. The solid that dissolves is known as the solute. The liquid that
dissolves a solute is known as the solvent.
Diffusion
nose
The smell from an open bottle of perfume will quickly

reach you, even if you are on the other side of the room.
The gas particles have travelled across the room via a
process called diffusion.
Science
In the particle model, gas
particles move quickly.
Stench warfare
Sometimes they collide
The US military is currently
with each other, causing
developing a stink bomb
them to change directions.
that would drive away hostile
As a result, they make a
crowds in riots. Some smells
zig-zag path from the
we find pleasant, others are
bottle. Particles may also
nasty and others naturally
diffuse through solids and
evoke fear. Its these fearful
smells that the bomb would
liquids; for example, an ink
release, sending a wave of
stain may spread through
panic through the protesters.
paper or clothes.
Clip
38
nostril
Fig 2.1.6 Particles of onions are entering your nose whenever you
smell fried onions.
Science
Clip
Penis-eating fish!
In 2001, two men in Papua New Guinea had their penises bitten off
by piranha-like fish. The men had been fishing, standing up to their
waists in the Sepik River. They had a wee in the water and the urine
diffused far and wide until the fish sensed it. The fish followed the
faint urine trail and bit off its source!
Unit
Brownian motion
2.1
In 1827, a Scottish botanist named Robert Brown used

a microscope to look at pollen grains suspended in
water. He saw that the pollen grains were constantly
moving around as if they were being jostled by
something. This jiggling motion is now known as
Brownian motion and can be easily explained by the
particle model. The particle model explains that the
water particles are vibrating and moving about,
bumping into the pollen grains.
pollen grain
Worksheet 2.1 The particle model
Fig 2.1.7 Individual water molecules cant be seen, but their effect
on a pollen grain can be observed under the microscope. This jiggling
is known as Brownian motion.
2.1
QUESTIONS
Remembering
1 List three types of models that are used in science.
Applying
12 Identify a food or drink that contains:
2 List five different examples each of a solid, a liquid and a gas.
a both solid and liquid material
3 State what is meant by the term phase of matter.
b both a liquid and a gas
Understanding
4 Describe the term matter in your own words.
5 Describe Brownian motion and how it was first discovered.
6 Some people could mistakenly classify sugar, soft plasticine
and mud as liquids because they take the shape of their
container. Clarify the definition of a solid so that people
cannot make this mistake.
7 Describe what happens to the particles in a solid when it
dissolves.
c only solid
d only liquid.
13 a Identify how the fragrance of a perfume travels
throughout a room.
b Use a diagram to illustrate how the perfume particles
make their way across the room.
14 Identify which of the following statements are objective, based
solely on evidence:
a If I go outside with wet hair I will catch a cold.
8 Explain why diffusion is evidence for the particle model.
b I know it is raining outside because I can see the rain.
9 When trying to prove a new scientific model, a scientist

should repeat their experiments a number of times.
Explain why.
c The X-rays showed that I have a broken arm.

d Many people say that exercise is good for you.
10 Explain why the particle model predicts that gases can be

compressed, but predicts that solids and liquids cannot.
11 Foam rubber is a solid, yet it is easily compressed. Explain
how this can be.
>>
39
The particle model

Analysing
Evaluating
15 Compare the properties of solids, liquids and gases by

completing the table below.
16 There must be some bonds or attractions, however weak,

between the particles in a liquid. Justify this statement.
Property
Shape
Ease of
compression
Solid
Liquid
Gas
Definite
17 Propose a reason why a liquid (i.e. brake fluid) is used in

brake lines to transfer pressure to a cars brakes from the foot
pedal, whereas gas is used in shock absorbers.
18 Propose what might happen to the bonds (i.e. attractions)
between particles when the material they belong to is heated
and changes:
Very low
Bonds between
particles
Weak
Movement of
particles
Medium
a from a solid to a liquid

b from a liquid to a gas.
Creating
19 Construct your own version of the particle model. Draw it as
three layers, with solid at the bottom, changing into liquid and,
finally, gas at the top.
20 Design a device that uses foam balls and an air blower with a
variable speed control (say, a vacuum cleaner on reverse) to
model the motion of particles in liquids and gases.
2.1
INVESTIGATING
Investigate your available resources (e.g. dictionary, textbooks,

1 Explain the difference between a fluid and a liquid.
2 Find out about capillary action. Design an experiment to
demonstrate it.
3 Compare true and amorphous solids, using examples of each.
4 Find out more about the viscosity of liquids. Explain how
temperature affects the viscosity of honey.
5 Explain what surface tension is and how it enables some
insects to walk on water.
40
e -xploring
W
n
eb D
To find out more about the science applications
esti natio
below, a list of web destinations can be found on
Find out more about solids, liquids and gases, and investigate
plasma, the fourth state of matter. Compile a summary of the
states of matter and their properties using only labelled
diagrams.
Oooze! Find out how to make a substance that acts like a

liquid and a solid.
Unit
2.1
2.1
Method
Particle role play
A role play is another type of model that can help explain

something that is hard to see. In this role play you will experience
the movement of particles.
Aim
Use role play to simulate how particles move in a solid, liquid
and gas.
1 As a class or in groups, organise a role play in which the class

members act as particles in a substance. In particular, think
about how you will represent the movement and bonding of
the particles.
2 Use your particles to model a solid, then a liquid and, finally,
a gas.
Question
Write a description of the movement of the class members to
describe and contrast each state of matter.
Plasticine particle models
Aim
To build a model showing the arrangement of particles in various
solids.
Equipment
plasticine
Fig 2.1.8
Method
1 Use the plasticine to make 16 identical balls.
spheres arranged
in a body-centred
cubic pattern
Questions
2 Investigate the different ways you can pack several of the balls
together in regular patterns. One way is shown in Figure 2.1.8.
1 Specify the number of regular arrangements you were able to

construct.
3 Sketch the different packing arrangements you come up with.
2 Specify which phase would be most likely to show regular

packing patterns.
Silly putty
3 Use the spoon to mix thoroughly.
Aim
4 Use the plastic spoon again to measure out three spoonfuls of

borax solution into the second cup.
To determine whether silly putty is a solid or a liquid.
5 Add it to the waterglue mixture and stir rapidly.
Equipment
6 Remove the lump of silly putty and rinse it under cold water.
saturated borax solution
food dye (optional)
small container (e.g. film

canister)
two plastic spoons
white PVA glue
two small disposable paper

or plastic cups
Method
Questions
1 Roll your silly putty into a ball. Describe how the silly putty
bounces.
2 Sit a ball of silly putty on a flat bench top. Describe what it
does over five minutes.
1 Use the plastic spoon to measure out three spoonfuls of PVA

glue into the cup.
3 Put your silly putty in a small container (e.g. a film canister).

Describe how the silly putty changes shape over time.
2 Add one spoon of water. One or two drops of food dye (no
more) can be added at this stage.
4 Assess all your observations and decide in which state of

matter silly putty belongs.
41
The particle model
?
Comparing viscosity
DYO
Viscosity describes how easily a liquid flows. Water

flows easily and so has a low viscosity, whereas honey, which does
not flow as easily, has a high viscosity.
2 Design an experiment to compare the viscosity of each liquid.

3 Present your work as an experimental report, including all the
normal sections like aim, equipment, method, results,
discussion (questions) and conclusion.
Questions
Aim
To rank liquids according to their viscosity.
1 List the liquids from most viscous to least viscous.
Method
2 Assess your experiment and determine how you would do

things better next time.
1 Collect five liquids that you can find readily around your
home, such as water, honey, detergent, unwhipped cream and
tomato sauce.
?
5
Compressibility
DYO
Aim
To compare the compressibility of a gas with that of a liquid.
Equipment
plastic syringe (no needle attached)
water
rubber stopper
Method
1 Draw some air into the syringe.
2 Press the opening of the syringe hard

against the rubber stopper, as shown
in Figure 2.1.9, and try to compress
the air by pushing the plunger.
syringe
3 Now draw some water into the

syringe and repeat step 2.
Questions
1 State which substance you were able
to compress.
2 Use particle diagrams to explain what
happened with both substances.
solid rubber
stopper
Fig 2.1.9
Aim
To investigate diffusion in liquids.
Equipment
food dye
eye dropper
test tube or beaker
Method
1 Explain why the spread of

colour cannot be explained
by gravity alone.
2 Explain how temperature
affected your observations.
3 Explain the process of
diffusion in this experiment
in terms of particles.
one or two drops

of food dye
water
1 Almost fill a beaker or test tube with cold water.
test tube
2 Add a drop of food dye and let the mixture stand for several
minutes, sketching what you observe every 30 seconds or so.
Fig 2.1.10
3 Repeat steps 1 and 2, using hot water.
42
Questions
2
Diffusion of food dye
2.1
Unit
Science
Focus Observation and discovery
The individual particles that make up all matter are so
small that you cannot see them. It is through observation
and experiment that we have been able to reach our
present understanding of matter. Although we cannot see
the particles, there has always been evidence available for
those who are observant enough to notice it, and
interested enough to try and understand what they see.
Fig 2.1.12 The Scottish botanist Robert Brown was interested in

understanding the world around him.
Fig 2.1.11 Robert Browns study of pollen led to the idea of Brownian
motion, one of the major pieces of evidence that confirms the particle
model.
By early in the nineteenth century, experiments on

the behaviour of different states of matter had led to the
kinetic theory of matter. Part of this theory stated that
all the tiny particles of matter move constantly. The
model of tiny particles of matter that developed was all
based on deduction (making conclusions based on
evidence) rather than on direct observation of the
particles themselves. Having made observations, a good
scientist will then investigate further, to try and
understand what they have observed.
The Scottish botanist Robert Brown (17731858)
was an enthusiastic scientist whose search for an
understanding of the world led to the first observation
of molecules in motion. He sailed to Australia and
collected vast numbers of Australian plants. When
he returned to England, Brown used a microscope to
study the plants. It was while using his microscope to
make observations on tiny pollen grains that he
made an interesting observation. Brown could see
them jiggling and slowly moving about in zig-zag paths
through the water.
Knowing that the tiny pollen grains were not alive,

Brown wondered why they appeared to be moving about.
To investigate further, he placed a tiny drop of a stain
into a drop of water on a microscope slide. He was
surprised to see that the tiny particles of the stain also
jiggled about and moved in the drop of water. Brown was
unable to provide a full explanation for his observations,
but he reported his findings anyway. Regardless, his
findings supported the suggestion that all tiny particles of
matter move constantly. The motion of tiny non-living
objects jiggling about and moving through a drop of
water became known as Brownian motion.
pollen grains
drop of water on
microscope slide
Fig 2.1.13 Jiggling pollen grains in a drop of water. In the diagram,

the blue lines represent the movement of the blue water molecules,
and the wiggly red lines show the movement of the pollen grains.
43
The particle model
STUDENT ACTIVITIES
1 a Describe what is a model.
b Describe an example of how the particle model can be
used to predict the behaviour of each state of matter when
a solid is heated.
c Investigate and explain what these other scientific terms
mean, and when they are used:
inference, hypothesis, prediction, theory, law, observation.
2 a Outline the features of a good scientific model that
can lead to it becoming accepted without anybody
seeing the thing that the model suggests is there.
b Discuss this in a group and create a final list of the most
important features of a good scientific model.
c Present your findings to the class.
3 The inference from Brownian motion is that the water
molecules moving in the water droplet, although too small to
see, are observed because of the jiggling effect produced by
their collisions with the pollen grains. Create a short story, or
comic strip, to show how the water molecules bumping into
the pollen grains produce Brownian motion. L
44
4 Brown mounted the pollen grains in water at room

temperature. Another experiment that would have been useful
would be to place identical pollen grains into a drop of warm
water.
a Explain why this experiment might have assisted Brown in
understanding what he saw.
b Predict the result you would expect to observe.
c Use a microscope to test your prediction.
5 a Describe the features of Robert Browns
approach that enabled him to make an important
contribution to science knowledge.
b Outline how technology might have helped Brown in his
work.
Unit
2.2
context
Changes of state
Substances can exist in three different

statessolid, liquid and gas. Heating or
cooling a substance might just simply
alter its temperature. Sometimes, however,

the substance might change state.
Fig 2.2.1 Liquid is

one of the three states
of matter. It often forms
rounded droplets like
these drops of mercury.
Mercury is the only metal
that is a liquid at normal
room temperature.
Applying a model
melting. A solid wax candle, for example, absorbs
Ice changes state when it melts. It absorbs heat energy
enough heat energy from the flame to melt and
from whatever is around it (e.g. the air, a glass of
change into pools of liquid wax.
lemonade or the Esky its in) and changes from a solid
to a liquid. Likewise, the solid wax of a candle is quickly
turned into a liquid after the candle is lit. Some of the
Melting point
wax is also turned into a gas that keeps the flame burning. The temperature at which a particular solid changes
Most substances change state if enough heat energy
into a liquid is called the melting point. The table
is added or removed from them. This process can be
below shows the melting point of various substances.
explained by using the particle model.
Substance
Solid to liquid
Water
To change a solid (e.g. ice) to a liquid (e.g. water), heat

energy must be added to make the particles vibrate more.
This causes solids to expand. Adding more heat energy
eventually loosens the linking bonds between the
particles and a liquid is formed. This change is called
Candle wax
Sugar
Table salt
Melting point (C)

0
60
186
801
Gold
1064
Diamond
3550
45
Changes of state
Liquid to solid
The reverse of melting is freezing, otherwise known as
solidification. When a liquid loses energy, the vibration
of particles lessens and the bonds between particles are
once again strong enough to keep them in fixed
positions.
Boiling point
The temperature at which a liquid boils is called its
boiling point. Some sample boiling points are shown in
the table below.
Substance
Boiling point (C)
Water
100
Freezing point
Candle wax
400
The freezing point of a substance is the temperature at

which the substance changes from being a liquid into a
solid. As freezing and melting are the reverse of each
other, the freezing point and the melting point of a
substance occur at the same temperature.
Table salt
1465
Gold
2856
Diamond
4827
Evaporation
A liquid does not have to boil for vaporisation to
occurboiling just speeds up the process. Evaporation
is occurring whenever a liquid changes into a gas at
a temperature below its boiling point. The warmer
the liquid, the faster the rate of evaporation. A
puddle of water will eventually evaporate on a
dry day as particles at the surface absorb enough
energy from the air to escape the liquid. It will
Prac 1
p. 49
evaporate even faster on a hotter day.
larger bubbles
Fig 2.2.2 Changing states of mattersolid state (ice), liquid state

(water), gaseous state (steam).
Liquid to gas
A liquid changes into a gas when heat completely
breaks the bonds between the particles. When heat is
added to a liquid, small bubbles of gas soon begin to
form within the liquid. When enough heat is added,
these gas bubbles become large enough to float to the
surface and boiling occurs. When a liquid boils, bubbles
of gas escape into the air. This is known as vaporisation.
46
Fig 2.2.3 Boiling occurs when bubbles of gas escape from the liquid.
Gas to liquid
The opposite of vaporisation is condensation.
Condensation occurs when gas particles lose heat
energy and turn into liquid. When you breathe out on
a very cold day, the water vapour in your breath (a gas)
condenses to form tiny droplets of water that are
suspended in air and appear fog-like. A similar thing
happens when you breathe on a window. Small water
droplets condense on the glass, making it difficult to
see your reflection.
Unit
Sublimation is a much less common change. Sublimation occurs

when a solid absorbs heat and changes directly to a gas without
melting and going through the liquid phase.
An example of sublimation is when dry ice (frozen carbon
dioxide) sublimes to form carbon dioxide gas.
Sublimation is also the word used when a gas changes directly
into a solid.
Substance
Sublimation point (C)
Dry ice (carbon dioxide)
78.5
Mothballs (naphthalene)
48.0
Graphite
2.2
Solid to gas
3825
Fig 2.2.4 When you breathe out your breath contains a

lot of water vapour. Breathing onto a cold mirror causes
the vapour in your breath to condense into a fine film of
liquid water droplets.
Worksheet 2.2 States of matter
Prac 2
p. 50
Prac 3
p. 50
Fig 2.2.5 Dry ice sublimes to form a thick white cloud that is often used on stage
and in movies to produce the effect of fog.
Science
Clip
Lord Kelvin, superscientist!

William Thomson was born in
1824 in Belfast, Ireland. William
was one bright kid, starting
university when he was 10 years
old and becoming a professor at
22! He invented the absolute
temperature scale (later called
the Kelvin scale), a method of
refrigeration, the depth sounder,
an accurate marine compass and
many other inventions,
improvements and theories. In
1892 he became a lord (Lord
Kelvin). He died in 1907.
Fig 2.2.6 Sublimation of iodine
47
Changes of state
2.2
QUESTIONS
11 Figure 2.2.8A shows the particles in a solid. Identify which of
B, C or D best represents the solid after it was heated.
Remembering
1 State the scientific term used to describe when:
a a liquid changes into a gas

b a gas changes into a liquid
12
c a solid changes directly into a gas.

2 State another term for freezing.
3 Specify which change of state is the opposite of:
a melting
b condensation.
4 Specify the:
a boiling point of water
b melting point of gold
c freezing point of wax
Fig 2.2.8
d sublimation point of dry ice.

5 Name two substances that sublime.
Identify which of the following is likely to be closest to

the melting point of steel:
Understanding
6 Describe what happens at the melting point of ice and identify
at what temperature it happens.
A 0C
7 Describe what happens to the particles when water boils.
C 100C
8 Explain why the melting point of a substance must be the

same as its freezing point.
D 1500C
Applying
9 Identify three changes of state that commonly occur around
your home.
10 Identify the correct terms for each change of state shown in
Figure 2.2.7.
B 60C
13 Identify which of the following is likely to be closest to the

melting point of oxygen:
A 200C
B 0C
C 20C
D 100C
14 The temperature of liquid water cannot go higher than
100C. The lowest temperature steam can be is 100C.
Use this information to explain why steam burns are
normally worse than burns from boiling water.
gain heat
Analysing
15 Compare evaporation and boiling by listing their similarities
and differences.
solid
liquid
16 Analyse the following substances and determine whether

they would be a solid, liquid or gas:
gas
a sugar at 200C
b table salt at 1400C
lose heat
c gold at 3000C
Fig 2.2.7
48
d mothballs (naphthalene) at 500C.
Unit
18 Kevin notices that when his pool is heated to 27C, the water
level falls by about 10 cm each week.
a Explain how this can happen when 27C is much lower
than the boiling point of water; i.e. 100C.
2.2
b Analyse what is likely to happen if the pool was:
2.2
17 Analyse what would happen to an unlit wax candle on a

40C day.
i not heated
ii heated to a higher temperature, say 30C.
Evaluating
19 Compare the physical properties of dry ice and water ice.
Evaluate which is better for producing fog for a stage effect.
INVESTIGATING

1 Explore the history of the thermometer, and the three different
temperature scales (Celsius, Fahrenheit, kelvin).
the advantages of both methods over normal freezing and

drying
the storage life of foods after snap freezing or freeze drying.
Present your work as a brochure for shoppers. N
2 Find out about snap freezing and freeze drying.

Find out:
the differences between frozen food and snap-frozen food,
and dried food and freeze-dried food
what types of food are snap-frozen or freeze-dried
2.2
e -xploring
To find out more about dry ice and sublimation, a list Web Destination
of web destinations can be found on Science Focus 1
Second Edition Student Lounge. Produce a brochure with a set
of rules for handling dry ice safely.
Ice to water to steam

1 temperature graph
3 Light the Bunsen burner and keep the airhole opening in the
same position throughout the experiment.
Fig 2.2.9
thermometer
Aim
To investigate what happens to the temperature of water as it changes
state.
Equipment
ice cubes
water
Bunsen burner
bench mat
gauze mat
tripod
beaker (250 mL)
measuring cylinder (100 mL)
thermometer (0C to 110C)
or temperature probe
Method
ice + water
gauze mat
tripod
Bunsen burner
1 Mix several ice cubes with 100 mL of water.

2 Place the thermometer in the icewater mixture and record the
temperature once every minute for three minutes.
bench mat
>>
49
Changes of state
4 Heat the icewater mixture, and continue to record the
temperature at one-minute intervals until the water boils.
Measure the temperature for three more minutes after boiling
starts, but stop boiling if the water level falls below 50 mL.
5 Record your measurements in a table.
Questions
1 Present the results in a graph, showing temperature on the
vertical axis and time in minutes on the horizontal axis. N
CO2 hovercraft
2
Aim
To observe the process of sublimation.
Equipment
small pieces of dry ice
tongs
compass
plastic film canister with lid
Safety
Never touch dry ice with your bare skin as it will

freeze very quickly, leaving a nasty burn.
2 Explain why you had to keep the airhole opening fixed during
the experiment.
3 Your graph probably did not start exactly at 0C. Explain why.
4 Identify any level sections in your graph. Explain why level
sections may occur.
5 Imagine you were able to capture the steam produced when
all the water has evaporated and measure its temperature as
you continued to heat it. Describe the temperature graph that
would be observed.
2 Use a compass to poke several small holes in the lid of the

film canister.
3 Place a small piece of dry ice in the film canister and put the
lid on.
4 Put the enclosed canister on your desk so that the lid is at the
bottom.
5 Try pushing the canister and record your results.
Questions
1 Describe what happens to a piece of dry ice as it sits on your
desk.
2 Identify what change of state is occurring.
3 Explain your observations in terms of a particle model.
Method
1 Use the tongs to place a small piece of dry ice on your desk
and record your observations.
Teacher demonstration
3
4 Describe what happens when you push the film canister

across the desk and explain your observations in terms of a
particle model.
Fig 2.2.10
test tube
Iodine sublimation
Watch your teacher gently heat the test tube in a fume cupboard
until a small amount of purple gas is produced.
Observe what happens as the iodine cools.
Safety
speck of iodine
fume cupboard
Bunsen burner
Iodine gas is poisonousexercise caution and use a

fume cupboard. Check the MSDS. Safety glasses must
be used. Seal the test tube with a rubber stopper after
heating and leave inside the fume cupboard.
bench mat
2 Identify whether any liquid iodine formed.
Questions
1 Describe the iodine at the start of this demonstration and any
changes in state that occurred.
50
3 Describe the coating on the side of the test tube as the

contents cooled.
4 Explain how you know that the purple substance produced
after heating was a gas.
Unit
2.3
context
Expansion
Substances dont always change state

when heated or cooledsometimes they
expand or contract instead. Solids,
liquids and gases expand when heated
and contract when cooled. This property
of solids, liquids and gases can be very
useful in things like thermometers, hot-air

balloons and reinforced concrete. However,
expansion and contraction can also be a
problem, causing buildings to crack and
causing powerlines to sag.
Fig 2.3.1 Pipes need to

be engineered so that they
dont buckle when they
expand from heating and
dont leak when they
contract from cooling.
Expansion and particles
Expansion of solids
A substance may change state when heated or cooled,

but this depends on how much heat is gained or lost. If
a substance doesnt change state, then its temperature
will change and it will either expand (get larger) or
contract (get smaller).
The particle model easily explains expansion and
contraction. Most solids and liquids expand when
heated. This occurs because their particles vibrate more
rapidly. They push each other further apart so that the
substance takes up more space. In a gas, heating the
particles makes them move at higher speed and push
harder against anything they come in contact with. If
the gas is in a balloon then the balloon would expand.
If the gas is heated inside a steel cylinder then
the gas particles would hit the sides of the
cylinder harder and more often, creating a
Prac 1
higher pressure in the cylinder.
p. 55
Different solids expand at different rates. The table

below shows how much a 1 metre length of different
solids will expand when the temperature is increased by
1C, 10C or 100C.
1 metre length expansion table
Temperature
1C
10C
100C
Solid
Expansion amount (in mm)
Invar (nickelsteel mixture)
0.001
0.01
0.1
Wood (oak)
0.003
0.03
0.3
Pyrex
0.003
0.03
0.3
Glass
0.009
0.09
0.9
Platinum
0.009
0.09
0.9
Steel
0.011
0.11
1.1
Concrete
0.011
0.11
1.1
Iron
0.012
0.12
1.2
Brass
0.019
0.19
1.9
Aluminium
0.025
0.25
2.5
51
Expansion
Steel and concrete expand at the same rate. This

allows steel rods to be used as reinforcement for
concrete with no risk of cracking. If aluminium was
used instead of steel then the bars would expand twice
as much as the concrete and would crack it.
battery
alarm bell
bimetallic
i strip
bends upwards
up
to complete
compl the
circuit and
an turn
bell
on the alarm
al
concrete slab
invar
brass
steel reinforcing rod
Fig 2.3.2 Iron rods in reinforced concrete give the concrete more
strength. Iron and concrete expand at the same rate and so the
concrete will not crack when the temperature changes.
invar
heat
brass
Science
Fig 2.3.4 Brass
cold day
expands much more

than invar when
heated. The brass
layer lengthens but is
stuck to the invar
layer. Both are forced
to bend to relieve the
tension between the
two layers. A
bimetallic strip can be
used to trigger a fire
alarm.
hot day
Fig 2.3.3 Power lines sag more on hot days. Heat makes the metal
wires expand to become slightly longer.
Tight-fitting lids on glass jars can be released by

warming the jar, perhaps by placing it in hot water.
Steel expands more than glass when heated and so the
lid becomes loose. Likewise, the ends of a garden hose
expand slightly when heated so that they are
connected more easily. When the hose ends
cool, they contract and fit around the
connection more tightly.
Prac 2
p. 55
52
Clip
Cracking dishes and bimetallic

strips
A cold dish or glass may crack when its
run under hot water due to one side trying
to expand faster than the other, leaving the
object no choice but to crack.
Not all expansion is a nuisance. A
thermostat in a heater, oven or refrigerator
may use a bimetallic strip to control a
switch. A bimetallic strip is made of two
different metals. Because one expands
more than the other when heated, the strip
bends so one metal expands a greater
distance than the other, just as a runner on
the outside of a curved track runs further
than a runner in an inside lane.
Expansion of liquids
Liquids generally expand much more than solids when
heated. This means space must be left for liquids to
expand into when filling containers such as petrol and
liquid petroleum gas (LPG) tanks. Thermometers
contain a liquid (mercury or coloured alcohol) in a
bulb connected to a narrow tube that makes the liquid
rise noticeably when heated.
Unit
expansion
chamber
radiator
Fig 2.3.5 A car radiator contains water that is used to cool the
engine. This water expands when it absorbs engine heat, and may
overflow into an expansion chamber.
Gases expand and contract more than solids and liquids

when heated and cooled. A gas tries to expand when
heated, but may be stopped by its container. If so, then
heating causes the gas to exert a greater pressure on its
walls. If the gas is cooled, then it exerts a lower pressure
inside the container.
If the walls of the container are flexible (such as in a
balloon) then this increased pressure will push the walls
out further, making the container
expand. Likewise, the container will
shrink in size if the gas is cooled.
The unusual behaviour of water

At most temperatures, water acts like other substances
when heated or cooled. At 4C or above, it expands
when heated, whereas below 0C it contracts.
However, between 0C and 4C water behaves quite
strangely. As the temperature of water changes from
0C to 4C it contracts instead of expanding. This
means that water at 4C will always sink to the bottom
because the particles in water at 4C are packed more
tightly than at any other temperature. Likewise, water
expands when the temperature drops to freezing point.
This gives ice the ability to float on water and also
explains why bottles filled with water crack when
placed in the freezer.
Worksheet 2.3 Graphing
Prac 3
p. 56
2.3
Expansion of gases
Prac 4
p. 56
ice layer
1C
2C
3C
4C
Fig 2.3.6 The fact that water is most dense at 4C means that water
in lakes and ponds at 4C will sink to the bottom, pushing the less
dense warmer water to the top, where it is cooled by the cold air and
winds. Once all the water is at 4C it freezes from the top down. This
is extremely important for the survival of fish and other animal life
living below.
Fig 2.3.7 Hot-air balloons rise to great heights by making use of the
fact that hot, expanded gas is less dense than cooler gas.
53
Expansion
2.3
QUESTIONS
Remembering
1 State what happens to the pressure as gas is heated inside a
container.
2 State the temperatures at which water expands and contracts
in the way that is opposite to what other substances do.
3 State whether liquids expand more or less than solids when
heated. Give a reason for your answer.
4 List the following in order from least to greatest expansion
when heated: concrete, pyrex, brass, platinum.
Understanding
5 Describe why particles in a substance take up more space
when heated.
6 Describe what the particles in a gas are doing to cause
pressure.
7 Describe what happens to the movement of the particles in a
solid as it is heated.
15 An old-fashioned incandescent light globe is made of glass with a

platinum filament.
a Use the table on page 51 to state the expansion abilities of
both glass and platinum.
b Describe what you notice about their expansion abilities.
c Assess why the answer to part b is important.
16 Calculate by how much these materials would expand. N
a a 1 metre steel rod heated so that its temperature rises
by 100C
b a 1 metre plank of wood that increases in temperature by 1C
c a 2 metre block of concrete heated so that its temperature
goes up by 10C
d a 50 centimetre iron rod that increases in temperature by
100C.
17 Assess which type of bimetallic strip would bend most when
heated: one made of iron and brass, or one made of iron and
aluminium?
8 Explain why it is more important to have a constriction in a

clinical thermometer than in a laboratory one.
Evaluating
9 Explain why invar is often used to make accurate technical

instruments that are used in hot situations.
18 Propose a reason why you think mercury or coloured alcohol is

used in thermometers instead of coloured water.
10 Explain why a clinical thermometer is usually shaken after

use.
Applying
19 Propose a reason why bridges have small gaps at each end.

gap
gap
11 Identify two uses of expanding liquids.

12 a Identify two problems that expanding solids
can cause.
b Explain how each problem is overcome.
13 Draw a diagram to demonstrate how a bimetallic strip can be
used in a light switch that is activated by the heat of your
hand.
Analysing
14 Use the expansion table on page 51 to assess which solid or
solids expand:
a most when heated
b least when heated
c the same as steel
d the same as platinum
e three times more than wood
f four times more than pyrex.
54
Fig 2.3.8
20 Some barbecue hotplates make sounds when they are first heated
or begin to cool down. Propose what causes these sounds.
Creating
21 Construct a bar graph, comparing the expansion of different
substances using the information in the table on page 51. N
22 Construct a table like the one on page 51, but for a 10-metre
length of each material. N
Unit
INVESTIGATING
Investigate your available resources (e.g. textbooks, encyclopaedias,

Internet etc.) to find how a spiral of bimetallic strip can be used as
a temperature gauge or how it is used in flashing car indicators.
2.3
e -xploring
2.3
2.3
We
b Desti nation
To find out more about how different types of
thermometers work, a list of web destinations can be
found on Science Focus 1 Second Edition Student Lounge.
Ball and hoop
1
Aim
To investigate the expansion of metals on heating.
Safety
1 DO NOT HEAT THE CHAIN.
2 After use, place the equipment onto the heat-proof
mat to cool. The brass ball will remain hot for a
long time. BE VERY CAREFUL.
Fig 2.3.9
Equipment
ball and hoop apparatus
Bunsen burner
tongs
bench mat
Method
3 Use the tongs to carefully place the ball on the hoop. Does it
still fit through?
Questions
1 Check that the ball fits through the hoop when both are at
room temperature.
1 Identify the scientific idea or concept that this activity

demonstrates.
2 Heat the ball over a Bunsen burner (blue flame) for one
minute or so.
2 If, using a different ball, it did not fit through the hoop at
room temperature, explain what you would do to make it fit.
The bimetallic strip
2
Aim
To investigate the operation of a bimetallic strip.
Equipment
bimetallic strip
tongs
Bunsen burner
bench mat
Method
1 Hold a bimetallic strip using the tongs and heat it in a Bunsen
burner flame until you notice an effect.
2 Repeat the experiment, but this time heat the other side of the
bimetallic strip.
Questions
1 Describe what would happen as more heat is applied.
2 Explain how you can tell which side of the strip is expanding
the most.
55
Expansion
Expanding air
Aim
small balloon
To investigate the expansion of air.
Equipment
500 mL beaker
Bunsen burner
gauze mat
tripod
string
Method
1 Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 2.3.10.
2 Ensure that you have just enough weight to keep the balloon
at the bottom of the beaker and below the top of the water
level.
3 Heat the water gently with the Bunsen burner and record your
observations.
The gas thermometer
4
Aim
To show that air expands when heated and contracts when cooled.
Equipment
weight
small water balloon

weight
string
water
bench mat
any flask of about 500 mL to 1 L

rubber stopper (to fit flask) with glass tube insert
clear plastic tubing to fit glass tube
retort stand
bosshead and clamp
food dye
ice cubes
Fig 2.3.10
Questions
1 Describe what happened to the balloon as you heated the
water.
2 Use the particle model to explain your observations
3 Propose why the balloon may start to float.
Questions
1 Explain what your hands did to the air in the flask.
2 State what cooling did to the air.
3 State any evidence from this experiment that air can expand
and contract.
4 Explain how this apparatus could be used as a simple
thermometer.
Fig 2.3.11
retort stand
clamp
Method
1 Use Figure 2.3.11 as a model to build a gas thermometer.
2 Gently place your hands around the flask. Record your
observations.
3 Take your hands off. What do you see?
clear plastic tubing
flask
4 Place one or two ice cubes on the flat bottom of the flask.
Record all your observations.
rubber bung with
glass tubing
food dye/water
56
bosshead
Unit
2.4
context
Density
Many people have been tricked into

believing that a kilogram of lead is
heavier than a kilogram of feathers. Of
course they both weigh the same since
they both contain one kilogram of matter.
Lead has a high density, meaning that only a

little of it is needed to make up one kilogram.
Feathers have such low densities that a huge
pile of them is required to make up one
kilogram.
Technically, density is defined as the mass of a one

centimetre cube of a substance. The mass of one cubic
centimetre of water is one gram, so the density of water
is one gram per cubic centimetre. Different substances
have different densities. Gold, for example, is very dense,
having a density of 18.9 grams per cubic centimetre.
The particle model explains why some substances are
denser than others. Since all substances are made of
different types of particles, then the density of a
substance depends on how heavy these particles are and
how closely they are packed together. This suggests that
gold particles are much heavier and closely packed
together than water particles.
Fig 2.4.1 An object will float on water if it is less dense than water.
Density and the particle model

The term density is used to describe how much mass is
packed into each cubic centimetre of a substance.
Science
Clip
Black holes
Astronomers believe that black holes in outer space come in
various sizes, some no bigger than a pinhead, but with a mass
many times greater than that of our Sun, making black holes the
densest objects imaginable! The gravitational attraction of black
holes is so strong that not even light can escape.
air
foam rubber
wood
oil
Calculating density
water
glass
steel
copper
lead
gold
iron
Most substances and objects are not in convenient one

centimetre cubes, and so their densities need to be
calculated instead. Two things are needed to calculate
the density of an object:
the mass of the object (e.g. in grams)
its volume (e.g. in cubic centimetres, abbreviated
as cm3).
To find the mass of an object you can simply place it
on a set of scales or on a balance. However, finding the
volume can be more difficult.
Fig 2.4.2 Each of these cubes has a volume of one cubic centimetre
(1 cm3); however, they all weigh a different amount because they are
of different densities.
57
Density
Volume
So, for the lump of plasticine:
Two different ways can be used to find the volume of

an object.
Regular shapes
If the object is a regular shape, such as a sphere, cube,
cylinder or cone, then you can calculate its volume
using a mathematical formula.
For example, you can find the volume of a
rectangular prism by multiplying length width height
(V = L W H).
L = 4 cm
4.8
3
Prac 2
p. 61
= 1.6 grams per cubic centimetre

= 1.6 g/cm3
Worksheet 2.4 Density
Prac 3
p. 62
Floating and sinking

An object floats if its average density is less than that of
the liquid it is in. Pure water has a density of 1 g/cm3.
This means that the average density of an object must
be less than 1 g/cm3 if it is to float. Gold has a much
higher density than water and so it sinks. In contrast, oil
floats because it has a density of only 0.9 g/cm3.
H = 2 cm
W = 3 cm
density =
Volume V = L x W x H
=4x3x2
= 24 cm3
Fig 2.4.3 Maths can be used to calculate the volume of

regular shapes.
Prac 1
p. 61
Irregular shapes
If an object is irregular or oddly shaped, then its volume
can be found by placing it in a measuring cylinder and
measuring how far the water rises. Note that 1 mL takes
up the same space as 1 cm3. This method will not work,
however, if the object is porous or absorbs any water.
110
110
100
100
90
90
80
80
75 mL
70
70
60
60
50
50 mL
density of egg is greater

than density of liquid
40
30
30
20
20
10
10
salt water
density of egg is less

than density of liquid
float in salt water than it is to float in fresh water.
Fig 2.4.4 The object

in the measuring cylinder
at right has a volume of
75 50 = 25 mL or 25 cm3.
Sample calculation
A lump of plasticine has a mass of 4.8 grams and a
volume of 3 cubic centimetres. Density is found by
dividing the mass by its volume. Mathematically,
this is shown as the formula:
mass
density =
volume
58
egg
Fig 2.4.5 Salt water is denser than fresh water, making it easier to
50
40
fresh water
Salt water is more

dense than fresh
water. As a result, it is
easier for us to float in
the ocean than in a
freshwater lake or
river. An egg will sink
in fresh water because
its average density is
just greater than that
of the water. Mixing
some salt in the water
increases the density
of the liquid to just
greater than that of
the egg. The eggs
density is now less
than that of the liquid
and so the egg floats.
Science
Clip
Get low and go, go go!

Firefighters advise that if you
are ever caught in a house fire
you must move outside as fast
and as low as you can. The
reason? The smoke and intense
hot air from the fire will be less
dense than the air close to the
floor and will rise. You could
easily be overcome by this heat
and smoke if you stood and
ran. You would then collapse
before you got outside. The air
near the floor will be cooler and
have less smoke and this is
where you need to be. Dont
just lie there though! Crawl out
as quickly as you can!
Unit
Controlling density
Go to
Science
Clip
Brewing scientifically
stronger
beer
Prac 4
p. 62
2.4
hydrometer
Fish contain a swim bladder that can be used to control

the fishs average density by adding or removing air.
This allows the fish to float, sink or stay suspended as it
swims. Changes to the temperature or the amount of
salt in the water can affect its density, so a fish may
need to be able to alter its density simply to remain at
the same depth. Scuba divers wear inflatable vests that
use the compressed air from their tanks to do the same
job. Submarines work on the same principle, using
compressed air to expel water from ballast tanks,
getting less dense in the process.
weaker
beer
Beer brewers use a

hydrometer to measure the
density of beer at various
stages in the brewing
process. Depending on
the alcoholic strength of
the liquid, the hydrometer
floats at different levels.
A higher alcohol content
causes the brew to have a
higher density. The higher
the density of a liquid, the
higher an object will float.
Fig 2.4.6 Brewers use the term specific gravity to refer to density.
The stronger the beer, the higher the hydrometer floats.
2.4
QUESTIONS
Remembering
Applying
1 State which weighs more: a tonne of gold or a tonne of

sawdust?
10 A piece of metal has a mass of 6 g and a volume of 2 cm3.

Calculate the density of the metal. N
2 State what is meant by the density of a substance.
11 Calculate the volume of a block of glass of length 4 cm, width

2 cm and height 3 cm. N
3 State the density of:

a water
12 Calculate the volume of the brick in Figure 2.4.7. N
b wood
c copper
6 cm
d gold.
4 Name the two things we need to know to find the density
of an object.
5 State the mathematical formula for:
8 cm
Fig 2.4.7
20 cm
Fig 2.4.8
a the volume of a rectangular prism

b density.
Understanding
13 Calculate the volume of the

stone shown in Figure 2.4.8. N
100 mL
100 mL
90
90
80
80
70
70
60
60
50
50
8 Explain why an egg will float in salt water, but not in fresh
water.
40
40
30
30
20
20
9 Explain how steel-hulled ships can float when steel is more

dense than water.
10
10
6 Describe two ways to find the volume of an object.

7 Describe how you could predict whether an object will float or
sink in a liquid.
14 If the mass of the stone in

Question 13 is 32 grams,
calculate its density. N
59
Density
2.4
QUESTIONS
Analysing
15 Calculate the density of each of the following: N
18 A type of garden potting mix has a density of 1.2 g/cm3.

Calculate the mass of 2 litres (2000 cm3) of this potting mix. N
19 Calculate the mass of 4 cm3 of gold. N
2 cm
32 g
26.4 g
2 cm
4 cm
20 The tile shown in Figure 2.4.11 has a density of 2.5 g/cm3.

Calculate how much a load of 100 of these tiles will weigh. N
4 cm
3 cm
4 cm
2 cm
B
A
90 g
10 cm
5 cm
7700 kg
volume = 50 cm3
C
10 cm
5 cm
4 cm
Fig 2.4.11
D
Evaluating
Fig 2.4.9
16 Calculate the density of a type of

rubber if a sample of it has mass 75 g
and volume 50 cm3. N
17 Calculate the volume of the object in
the measuring cylinder in Figure 2.4.10
if it contains 30 mL of liquid. N
60 mL
50
40
30
20
10
Fig 2.4.10
2.4
22 A lump of brand A concrete has the same mass as a lump of

brand B concrete, but the brand B lump has less volume.
State which concrete brand is the most dense and justify
your answer.
23 Propose how you could find the density of an oil sample
using a beaker, an electronic balance and a calculator.
Creating
24 Perspex has a higher density than a type of cooking oil, but a
lower density than water. Construct an illustration to
demonstrate what would happen if all three are placed in the
one beaker.
INVESTIGATING

1 Find out what Plimsoll lines on ships are used for.
60
21 Two blocks of wood, one oak and the other cedar, have the
same volume, but the cedar block has less mass than the oak.
Evaluate the densities of oak and cedar.
2 Explain how Archimedes helped the King of Syracuse to

determine whether the goldsmith who made the kings crown
used pure gold or not.
Unit
Density of cubes
2.4
2.4
3 Copy and complete the table below for each 2 cm cube. N

Volume
(cm3)
Aim
Substance
To measure and calculate the density of cubes of different

substances.
Aluminium
Equipment
Brass
Mass (g)
density kit containing 1- and 2-cm cubes of various

substances
scales
ruler
calculator
Method
Questions
1 Find the mass of each cube using the scales.

2 Copy and complete the table below for each 1 cm cube. N
Substance
Density
(g/cm3)
Mass (g)
Volume
(cm3)
Aluminium
Brass
Density
(g/cm3)
1 Explain why 8 cm3 is given as the volume of the larger cubes

when the side length of each cube is only 2 cm. N
2 Identify which of the densities you calculated were similar.
Explain this result.
3 List the substances in order of density from smallest to
largest.
Density of irregular objects
4 Repeat steps 2 and 3 for the other objects.

5 Copy and complete the table below. N
Aim
To determine the density of various objects by displacing water.
Object
Mass (g)
Volume
(cm3)
Density
(g/cm3)
Equipment
measuring cylinder (100 mL)
various irregular objects that are small enough to fit in the
measuring cylinder (e.g. stone, ball bearing, bolt)
plasticine
scales
water
Method
1 Find the mass of each object using the scales.
2 Pour 50 mL of water into the measuring cylinder.
3 Hold the measuring cylinder at an angle and gently slide one of
the objects into the water, as shown. Note the new water level
and, hence, find the volume of the object.
Questions
1 Compare your densities with those found from previous
experiments or from Figure 2.4.2.
2 List the possible sources of error in this experiment.
61
Density
Density of liquids
?
DYO
Aim
1 Design your own way of finding the mass of, say, 50 mL of

each liquid.
To design an experiment to determine the density of various

common liquids.
2 Calculate the density of each liquid.
Equipment
measuring cylinder
scales
various liquids (e.g. water, cooking oil, salt water, honey etc.)
Questions
1 Explain how you found the mass of the liquid in each case.
2 Draw a diagram to demonstrate where each liquid would float
if all the liquids were all placed in the one beaker and allowed
to settle into layers. Hint: The most dense layer will be at the
bottom.
Average density
Aim
Questions
To investigate how the shape of an object affects how it floats.
1 Explain what you did to make the plasticine float.
Equipment
2 If plasticine is more dense than water, discuss why plasticine

can float when made into different shapes. Hint: Consider the
term average density.
plasticine
a tub of water
Method
1 Roll the plasticine into a ball and put it into the water. Record
your results.
2 Change the shape of the plasticine to see if you can make it
float.
3 Experiment with different shapes to see what shape floats
best.
62
Method
3 Relate your observations to metal ships. How does a metal

ship float when a block of iron will sink?
CHAPTER REVIEW
Remembering
1 State the three phases of matter.
17 Substance A has a melting point of 10C. Identify its state at

normal room temperature.
2 List a household example of each of the states of matter.
Analysing
3 Record the different possible changes of state in the table

below.
18 Compare the bonds between particles in a solid with those in

a liquid.
To solid
From solid
From liquid
From gas
To liquid
Melting
19 Assess which of the following are possible units for density.

(There may be more than one answer.)
To gas
A grams
B cubic centimetres
C cubic centimetres per gram
4 Name a substance that sublimes.
D grams per cubic centimetre
5 State the opposite term to expansion.
E kilograms per cubic metre.
6 Specify which states of matter are compressible.
Evaluating
Understanding
20 Evaluate whether the following statements are true or false.
7 Describe two phenomena discussed in this chapter that can

be explained by the particle model.
a Density is how heavy an object is.
8 Explain what is a model and why they are used in science.
c An object will float if it has a higher density than the liquid

it is in.
9 Describe one piece of evidence that supports the particle

model.
b Density describes the amount of mass in a certain volume.
21 Sometimes when oil spills from a ship at sea it catches alight.

Propose why this is possible given that there is so much
water.
10 Explain why a dish may crack when run under hot water.
11 Explain how a thermometer works.
12 Explain what causes gas to exert pressure when placed in a
container.
Creating
Applying
22 Construct a diagram to demonstrate how a bimetallic strip

may be used to control the heating element in an electric iron.
13 Identify at which of these temperatures water is the most

dense. Give a reason for your answer.
23 Design an experiment to find the density of a piece of metal

that has an irregular shape.
24 Using your knowledge of the particle model, construct
diagrams to demonstrate the arrangement and motion of
particles in a solid, a liquid and a gas.
A 0C
B 1C
C 3C
D 4C
pt
on
Ch
14 Identify all the changes of state involved when a container of

frozen soup is thawed out and boiled.

er R
sti
ev i ew Q u e
15 Identify a method you could use to find the volume of a

brussels sprout.
16 For the block of metal shown in
Figure 2.4.12, calculate its: N
a volume
b density.
5 cm
1100 g
Fig 2.4.12
4 cm
5 cm
63
Mixtures and
their separation

The applications and uses of science
Key outcomes
Additional
Essentials
4.3, 4.7.5
Mixtures are an important part of your

everyday life.
A solution is a type of mixture in which

a solid is dissolved in a liquid. The solid
is known as the solute and the liquid is
known as the solvent.
Water is an important solvent for both

living things and industry.
Industry uses the processes of

filtration, sedimentation, sieving,
distillation, chromatography,
evaporation, condensation,
crystallisation and magnetic attraction
to separate components of a mixture.
Useful substances may be obtained by

separating pure substances from
mixtures using a variety of separation
techniques.
Crystallisation can be used to separate

a solute from a solvent.
Unit
3.1
context
Types of mixtures
Soft drinks, Vegemite, orange juice, milk,

sea water, hair gel, deodorant and
sunscreen are just some of the mixtures
you might use every day. Even the air
you breathe and the blood in your veins
are mixtures. Clearly, mixtures are an

important part of your everyday life and so it
is important that we understand what they
are and how they behave.
Solutions
Solutions are the most common type of mixture. A
solution is formed when one substance (known as the
solute) dissolves in another (the solvent). For example,
when sugar is mixed with water, the solute is the sugar
and the solvent is the water. A sugar solution has been
formed. The sugar particles have dissolved and are now
spread through the water particles, making them
impossible to see anymore. You know its still there
because you can taste it. It is the same with salt
solutions. Although the salt seems to have disappeared,
it definitely can be tasted. Sugar and salt solutions are
transparent (see-through) and look just like water. This
transparency is a characteristic of all solutions. A
solution may be coloured (e.g. orange soft drink) but it
will always allow light to pass straight through it.
Solutions can also be made by dissolving a liquid in
a liquid, or a gas in a liquid. If one substance
can dissolve in another, the substance is said to
be soluble. A substance that will not dissolve
is called insoluble; for example, sand is
Prac 1
insoluble in water, but sugar is soluble in water. p. 70
Fig 3.1.1 Most houses recycle their plastic, aluminium, glass and paper
waste. They then need to be separated.
solvent
solute
solution
What is a mixture?
A mixture contains two or more chemically
Quick Quiz
pure substances that can be separated easily
using a physical process such as sieving or filtering. To form
a mixture, two or more pure substances are mixed together.
No new substances are formed. Instead, the particles of each
Fig 3.1.2 A solute does not disappear when it dissolves. It is still in
pure substance are spread between the particles of all the
other pure substances. For example, if you mix a packet of the solution. This can be proved by weighing the solute and solvent
and the solution they form. The total mass of a solution is always
Smarties and a packet of M&Ms, you create a mixture of
equal to the mass of the solvent plus the mass of the solute. The mass
Smarties and M&Ms. You dont create a new type of
is conserved.
chocolate!
65
Types of mixtures
Concentration
When a solvent (e.g. water) contains
a large amount of solute (e.g. salt) the Prac 2
Prac 3
p. 71
p. 71
solution is said to be concentrated.
The opposite of concentrated is dilute.
Adding more solute makes the solution more
concentrated, whereas adding more solvent will dilute
a solution.
If more and more solute is added to a solvent, a
point is reached where no more will dissolve. When a
solution reaches this point, it is said to be saturated.
Caramel, for example, is made from a saturated sugar
solution.
Fig 3.1.3 Soft drink is a solution of sugar, flavourings, colourings

and carbon dioxide gas in water.
Common solutions
Solution
Solute
Solvent
Uses
Soda water
Carbon
dioxide
(gas)
Water
(liquid)
Preparing soft
drinks
Salt water
(saline
solution)
Sodium
chloride
(solid)
Water
(liquid)
Cleaning contact
lenses, cooking
Two-stroke
motor fuel
Oil (l)
Petrol (l)
Running a lawn
mower
Lime water
Calcium
hydroxide
(s)
Water (l)
Testing for
carbon dioxide
Methanol
(l)
Pure
alcohol (l)
Methylated
spirits
A dilute solution
has a small
amount of
dissolved solute.
A concentrated
solution has a
large quantity of
dissolved solute.
Fig 3.1.4 A concentrated solution has more solute particles
Cleaning oilbased paints
dissolved in it than a dilute solution.
Science
Science
Clip
How come pizza still tastes good the next day?

The tomato paste base of a pizza does more than add flavour.
Water trapped in tomato fibres does not mix with fat in the cheesy
toppings. This is because the base does not absorb fat from its
toppings and so the pizza tastes very similar to how it did the
previous day.
66
Clip
Snowy solutions
The freezing point of a solvent is lowered when a substance is
dissolved in it. Thats why antifreeze is added to a car radiator
when going to the snow. It makes it less likely that the water in
the radiator will get cold enough to freeze, stopping it from
cracking. Winter is bitterly cold in Europe and northern America
and a saltgravel mixture is sprinkled on roads to prevent ice
forming and to give cars better grip.
Solutions are clear and transparent, allowing light

to pass straight through. In contrast, colloids are cloudy
due to light being scattered (reflected) off their larger
particles.
The substance in which the
particles are being spread is known
Science
as the dispersion medium. The
dispersion medium can be a solid,
Brown dams and rivers
a liquid or a gas, as can the particles
Some dams and rivers
that are mixed in with it. This
always appear brown and
results in several possible colloid
never settle out clear. Some
combinations:
of the brown colour is
sols
suspended soil. There may
emulsions
also be some colloidal clay
particles present, which do
foams
not settle out.
gels
Prac 4
p. 72
aerosols.
3.1
A mixture of water and sand is not a solution, but is

known as a suspension.
In a solution, the sizes of the solute and solvent
particles are similar. In a suspension, the particles being
mixed are much bigger than those in a solution. The
particles start off being suspended in the liquid, making
it cloudy. If left undisturbed, however, the particles will
settle to the bottom of the container. The substance
that settles out of a suspension is called the sediment.
Sediment can be strained or filtered out of a suspension.
Some medicines are suspensions, as are some types of
paintthey separate into different layers and therefore
need to be re-mixed before use.
Unit
Suspensions
Clip
Colloid type
Sol
Fig 3.1.5 The particles in a suspension are much larger than those
making up a solution and can be strained or filtered. If left long
enough, the particles drop out and form a sediment on the bottom of
its container.
Colloids
A colloid is a mixture that
is between a solution and a
suspension. The particles
in a colloid are bigger than
those in a solution, but
smaller that those of a
suspension, and do not
settle out as quickly.
Fig 3.1.6 Acrylic paints are

colloids whereas oil paints are
suspensions.
Particle
type
Solid
Dispersion
medium
Examples
Liquid
Blood, ink, paint
Emulsion
Liquid
Liquid
Milk,
mayonnaise,
hand cream,
vinaigrette
Foam
Gas
Liquid
Shaving foam,
whipped cream
Gel
Liquid
Solid
Jelly, hair gel
Aerosol
Liquid
Gas
Fog, mist clouds
Solid
aerosol
Solid
Gas
Smoke
Sols
A sol is a colloid where particles of a solid are spread
throughout a liquid. Blood plasma is an example of a sol
in which solid blood proteins are spread throughout
water. Blood is made up of blood plasma and blood cells.
Emulsions
An emulsion is a colloid in which particles of a liquid
are spread throughout another liquid. Milk, for example,
is an emulsion of liquid fat spread throughout water.
67
Types of mixtures
Normally, oil and water will not mix. Detergent,
however, helps break up fat and oil drops into small
particles that allow an oilwater emulsion to form. A
chemical that helps fats form an emulsion is called an
emulsifier. Detergent helps emulsify fats, as does bile in
our intestines, making fats easier to digest. Many foods
contain emulsifiers to stop fats separating into layers.
Fig 3.1.8 A gel is a colloid in which liquid particles (e.g. water) are
held between the particles of a solid (e.g. gelatine). Jelly is a wellknown example of a gel. Gels melt easily when heated.
Fig 3.1.7 A foam is a colloid made up of a gas mixed with a liquid.

Shaving foam and fire extinguisher foam are examples.
Worksheet 3.1 Mixtures
Prac 5
p. 72
Fig 3.1.9 Aerosols have liquid or solid particles spread throughout a

gas. Mists and fogs are aerosols in which water droplets are spread
throughout air. Smoke is a solid aerosol formed when solid carbon is
spread into air.
3.1
QUESTIONS
Remembering
1 State two examples of suspensions.
2 List two examples of substances that are:
a soluble in water
b insoluble in water.
3 State whether the following statements are true or false:
a In a solution, the solvent is always water.
b A solute is always a solid.
c A substance that is insoluble must be a solid.
d When a mixture is made, new substances are not formed.
Understanding
4 Define what is meant by the terms solution, solute and
solvent. L
68
5 Explain why the particles in a suspension sink, whereas those

in a colloid do not.
6 Explain why some medicines need to be shaken before using
them.
7 Outline how a torch could be used to test for a colloid.
8 Explain how detergent changes an oilwater suspension into
an emulsion.
Applying
9 Identify the correct answer. When coffee powder is mixed with
hot water, the water is the:
A solute
B solvent
C solution
D colloid.
>>
Unit
A they are spread too thinly throughout the solvent
a Draw a line graph showing the relationship between the

amount dissolved and the temperature of the water.
B they have been destroyed by the solvent
b Interpret the graph and predict the amount of solid that

could be added to water at 35C and 85C.
C they have been converted to solvent particles
c State a conclusion to the investigation.
D they have been converted to a different substance.
3.1
10 Identify the correct answer. In a solution, the particles of the

solute cannot be seen because:
Creating
11 Identify the substance that settles out of a suspension of:
17 Construct labelled diagrams to illustrate:
a a mixture of chalk and water
a concentrated solution
b muddy water
a dilute solution
c used engine oil that contains bits of worn metal.
an emulsion
a suspension.
Analysing
12 Analyse the diagrams in Figure 3.1.10 below, and determine
which represents a solution, a suspension and which
represents a colloid.
18 Identify three classes of colloids and the dispersion medium

of each. Give an example of each and construct a table to
display your answer.
13 Compare a concentrated and a dilute solution by listing their

differences and similarities.
19 Design an experiment to determine whether cordial is a

suspension or a solution. In your experiment, you should:
14 Classify each of the following as either a solution or

suspension: glue, saline (salt water), cream, whisky, muddy
water, sunscreen.
a Outline a clear aim for the experiment.
15 Graffiti remover is used to wash paint from a wall. Classify the

paint as either solvent, solute or solution.
c Suggest ways of reducing any wastes that might be made

in the experiment.
Evaluating
16 To test the solubility of an unknown solid, students placed a
solid into 200 mL of water. They then decided to see if
solubility changed with increasing water temperature. The
results are shown in the table. N
Temperature
(C)
25
Amount of
solid (g)
17
30
45
55
65
70
75
b Identify conditions (variables) that will change or should be

kept constant.
20 Remembering that the solute is not destroyed when dissolved

in a solvent, construct and complete the table below. Hint:
Refer to Figure 3.1.2. N
Mass of solvent
(g)
Mass of solute
(g)
100
12
60
20
32
40
46
49
Mass of solution
(g)
90
65
52
180
Fig 3.1.10
A
dispersion
medium
solvent particles
solute particles
sediment
69
Types of mixtures
3.1
INVESTIGATING

1 Find out about mixtures of metals, known as alloys.
a Clarify what is an alloy.
b Explain why an alloy is a mixture.
c Identify some alloys that may be found around the home.
d Relate the use of each alloy to its properties, such as
lightness or resistance to rust.
e -xploring
We
b
Desti nati
To find out more about the science behind the use of
salt to melt ice on roads, a list of destinations can be found
on Science Focus 1 Second Edition Student Lounge. Create
a brochure to explain to drivers why the salt is used and how
it works.
on
2 Find a method to separate the solid from the liquid in a

suspension. Find out how it is done in industry.
3 Identify the components of a soft drink. Compare the
ingredients of diet and regular soft drinks.
3.1
Testing solubility in water
Method
Aim
1 Use a spatula to place a very small amount of a substance

into a test tube.
To test the solubility of various substances in water.
2 Half fill the test tube with water.
Equipment
3 Place a rubber stopper in the top of the test tube and shake it
in an attempt to dissolve the substance.
salt
sugar
ground-up coloured chalk
copper sulfate
flour
soil
household and other substances, as provided by your teacher
test tubes
test-tube rack
water
rubber stopper(s)
spatula(s)
safety glasses
4 Return the shaken test tube to the test-tube rack and observe
it.
5 Repeat steps 1 to 4 for the other substances, recording your
observations.
Questions
1 Classify all the substances tested as either soluble or
insoluble.
2 Explain why it was important to use a very small amount of
each substance.
3 Identify which substance appeared to be:
a most soluble
b least soluble.
70
Unit
3.1
Temperature and solubility
2
Aim
copper sulfate/water
To find out how temperature affects the solubility of two different

chemicals.
Equipment
test tubes
test-tube rack
tongs
copper sulfate
calcium acetate
spatula
safety glasses
Method
Bunsen burner
bench mat
Fig 3.1.11
Questions
1 Fill the test tubes with cold water to a depth of 5 centimetres.
1 Describe the effect (if any) of heat on solubility.
2 Use the spatula to add a tiny amount of copper sulfate to a

test tube, and gently swirl the test tube to dissolve the
chemical.
2 Explain the difference in solubility between copper sulfate and

calcium acetate.
3 Continue adding more chemical until a small amount remains

undissolved in the test tube.
4 Gently heat the solution for about 1020 seconds. Do not
boil it.
3 Calcium acetate and air have similar solubilities. Use this

information to explain the bubbles that are seen as water is
first heated.
5 Again, swirl the test tube and try to dissolve more chemical.
4 Describe what happens as a saturated solution cools. (You

may have to leave your test tube of copper sulfate solution
overnight before answering this question.)
6 Place the test tube in the rack and leave it to cool. Observe
what happens as it cools.
5 Draw diagrams to show what happens to the solute and

solvent particles as a saturated solution cools.
7 Repeat steps 1 to 6, using calcium acetate.
Surface area and solubility
4 Swirl both beakers for 10 seconds in an attempt to dissolve as

much of the sugar as possible.
Aim
To examine whether surface area has any effect on the rate of
dissolving.
Fig 3.1.12
Equipment
two sugar cubes
two beakers
water
water
Method
1 Place an equal amount of water (e.g. to a depth of
5 centimetres) at the same temperature in each beaker.
2 Crush one of the sugar cubes into separate crystals.
3 Place the whole cube in one beaker and the crushed cube
in the other.
sugar cube
sugar crystals
(crushed sugar cube)
>>
71
Types of mixtures
Questions
1 The crushed cube has a greater surface area (imagine it
spread over the bottom of the beaker). Describe what effect
increasing the surface area of a solute has on the rate of
dissolving.
2 Describe why the entire crushed cube is used up rather than

just some of it.
3 State reasons for keeping water level and temperature the
same in both experiments.
Light transmission in
mixtures
light source
Aim
To examine the effect of light transmission in various types of
solutions.
light sensor
Equipment
data-logging equipment with light intensity probe

copper sulfate (solution)
muddy water (suspension)
starch in water (colloid)
light source
beaker
Method
Fig 3.1.13
keep these
distances fixed
4 If time permits, take several measurements for both the

suspension and the colloid and draw a graph of intensity
versus time for each. N
Questions
1 Place some copper sulfate solution in a beaker and direct a

beam of light into the beaker, as shown.
1 Compare the amount of light transmitted through each

substance.
2 Use a light sensor to measure the intensity of the light that

passes through the liquid.
2 Explain why it is important to keep the sensor and light

source at the same distance from the beaker in each case.
3 Rinse the beaker and repeat steps 1 and 2 for both the
suspension and the colloid. Keep the sensor and light source
at the same distances from the beaker.
3 Identify the type of graph you used in step 4.
Forming an emulsion
4 State a reason for using this type of graph.
Method
Aim
1 Use a funnel to pour an equal amount of water and cooking oil

into the plastic bottle.
Examine how two liquids that are insoluble in one another behave
when forced to emulsify.
2 Screw on the cap tightly.
Equipment
clear plastic bottle with a screw top cap

water
cooking oil
funnel
3 Observe the oil and water and record your observations.

4 Turn the bottle upside down several times and record your
observations.
5 Shake the bottle and record your observations.
Questions
1 Describe what happens to the oil and water mixture as you
start to agitate it.
2 Identify what sort of mixture you make when you shake the
bottle violently.
72
Unit
3.2
context
Separating insoluble
substances
It is often necessary to separate mixtures

into the pure substances which make
them up. This is possible because the
pure substances keep their own physical
properties even when they are all mixed
together. Different mixtures are made in
different ways and so different methods
are used to separate them. Separating

mixtures is important for many industrial
processes, including purifying metals,
removing sediment from old bottles of wine
and separating the cream from milkjust
to name a few.
Science
Clip
Whale of a filter
Fig 3.2.1 Surgical masks are one type of filter.
Separation processes for

insoluble substances
The insoluble particles in mixtures like suspensions and
colloids are much larger than the soluble particles
dissolved in solution. As a result, they require special
processes to remove them from the dispersion medium.
Instead of teeth, the baleen

whale has a filtering device
composed of 300 plates of
whalebone (baleen) hanging
from the roof of its mouth.
These baleen filter small
plankton called krill from sea
water. The whale then uses
its huge tongue to wipe the
filter clean before swallowing
the krill.
The main processes used are:

decanting
sieving and filtration
gravitation separation and centrifuging
magnetic separation and electrostatic separation
froth flotation.
73
Separating insoluble substances
Decanting
Decanting is a simple method of separation that can be
used to separate suspensions. The suspension is left long
enough for most of the sediment to collect at the
bottom of a container. The liquid above the sediment
is then carefully poured into another container.
Sieving is very important in industry. Crushed ore

can be sieved to collect the bigger pieces that require
further crushing prior to extraction of metals. Fishing
nets with various-sized holes ensures that only legallysized fish are caught. Any fish that is too small goes
straight back into the water. Fruit such as apples and
oranges are also separated into their different sizes by
throwing them onto a board with different diameter
holes after picking.
Fig 3.2.3 A sieve in action in the kitchen.

Fig 3.2.2 Old wines often form sediment that can be mixed back into
the wine if a bottle is moved too much during pouring. To avoid this
happening, wine is often decanted from the bottle into a decanter
before pouring.
Sieving and filtration

Both these methods use a fine mesh to trap the larger
particles. The smaller particles go straight through.
Sieving
Sieving is useful when there are different-sized particles
in a mixture. Sieves are commonly used in the kitchen
to remove lumps from flour. Likewise, a special sieve
called a colander catches spaghetti while letting the hot
water pass through.
74
Filtration
Filtration uses a very fine sieve called a filter. One type
of filter used in the laboratory is filter paper. Filter paper
contains millions of tiny holes that allow particles in a
solution to pass through, but not the larger particles.
These get trapped in the filter paper.
Filters are found in coffee plungers, tea bags, dust
masks, vacuum cleaners, car fuel systems, and spa and
swimming pools.
Worksheet 3.3 Filtering
Prac 1
p. 78
spinner
3.2
wet
clothes
Unit
filter paper
funnel
residue (solid material
left in the filter paper)
filter
stand
beaker
spin
water forced
out through
small holes
filtrate (liquid that passes

through the filter paper)
Fig 3.2.4 Filtering is used to separate solids from liquids. The

insoluble particles are too large to pass through the tiny holes in
the filter and get trapped in it. The liquid flows straight through.
Getting particles moving

These next two methods involve getting the particles
moving so that they separate.
to
basin
Fig 3.2.5 A washing machine spin dries clothes using a centrifuge
Gravity separation
action. A salad spinner works the same way.
When a mixture of water and particles of different

weights is stirred or shaken, the heaver particles will
migrate towards the bottom of the container.
This is how panning for gold workstiny
(but heavier) specks of gold sink to the
bottom of the pan, where they remain
Prac 2
p. 79
when the lighter gravel is washed off.
Blood is separated using a centrifuge. The centrifuge

holds special test tubes at an angle so that the heavier
particles in a liquid are forced to the bottom of the
tubes. Milk and its cream can be separated this way too.
Centrifuging
Another method involving the movement of particles
is centrifuging. The spin drier in a washing machine is
a type of centrifuge. When the spin cycle activates, the
drum rotates rapidly, forcing the clothes and water
against the drum wall. The walls contain small holes
that allow water to pass through them and be pumped
out, leaving the clothes spun dry.
Science
Clip
Now thats smart!

In the 1950s, scientists studying the Japanese macaque fed the
monkeys grains of rice on the beach. They expected the
monkeys would spend some time picking the rice from the sand.
However, one smart female, named Imo, took a handful of rice
and sand and threw it into the water. The rice floated while the
sand fell to the bottom, allowing her to skim the rice from the
surface. Soon the other monkeys learnt the same behaviour.
Fig 3.2.6 A laboratory centrifuge is used to separate blood into

different layers. The heavier red blood cells have been pushed to
the bottom while the lighter plasma is nearest the top.
75
Using magnetism and electricity

These next two methods use the invisible force fields
from a magnet or electricity to attract the particles that
are to be removed.
charged
wires
Magnetic separation
Magnets attract iron and steel (an alloy of iron) but do
not attract other metals, such as copper, gold or
aluminium. Magnets also have no effect on plastics,
glass, paper or cardboard. Therefore, magnets provide an
easy way of separating iron and steel from non-magnetic
materials. A bar magnet, for example, could be used to
separate iron filings from sand in the laboratory. In
industry, electromagnets are commonly used to separate
iron and steel from plastics and other nonmagnetic metals. This is done by suspending a
powerful electromagnet over a conveyer belt
that is carrying scrap. When enough iron is
Prac 3
collected, the electromagnet is turned off to
p. 79
release its load.
Go to
charged
particles
collect
on plate
+
+
+
+
+
+
charged
plate
smoke
Fig 3.2.8 An electrostatic precipitator helps to keep the atmosphere

free of fine dust and smoke particles by attracting them to the large,
electrically charged plates. This type of filtration system is very effective
because it does not stop the flow of gas up the chimney but cleans it on
the way up.
Froth flotation
Froth flotation is used in the processing of minerals.
During copper production, rocks containing grains of
copper must first be crushed and ground to a fine
powderthis is called liberation. Once liberation has
occurred, the powder is mixed with water and special
chemicals in flotation cells. Air is then blown into the
mixture to produce bubbles of froth. Chemicals in the
mixture stop the bubbles bursting and help the copper
stick to the bubbles. The unwanted part of the
powdered rock, called gangue, falls to the bottom of the
flotation cells. Copper ore, containing a high proportion
of copper, may then be skimmed from the top of the
flotation cells.
Fig 3.2.7 Electromagnets can be turned on and off, allowing

them to separate iron and steel from scrap materials.
Electrostatic separation
76
Industrial chimneys can contain electrostatic

precipitators, which remove waste products by charging
particles as they move up a chimney. Once charged, the
particles are attracted to charged metal plates and are
prevented from being released into the atmosphere.
Fig 3.2.9 Froth flotation of copper ore. The copper ore sticks to the
bubbles while the sand and rock sinks to the bottom.
Unit
QUESTIONS
Remembering
1 List four methods for separating insoluble components from a
mixture.
2 State whether the following statements are true or false:
a Filtration may be used to separate a solute from a solution.
Analysing
15 Complete the table below to compare all separation methods
studied in this section. Add as many lines as you need. L
Separation
method
Brief description
Example
Decanting
Liquid gently poured

from one container
into another, leaving
sediment at the
bottom of the
original container.
Wine from an
old bottle
poured into a
carafe, leaving
sediment
behind.
b Filtrate is what passes through a filter.
Understanding
3 Explain how you would decant water from a sandwater
mixture.
4 Give an example to explain how the sieving process works.
3.2
3.2
5 Explain what the residue is in filtration.

6 Describe how the spinning of a centrifuge causes separation.
7 Outline the process of froth flotation by placing the following
terms in order from first to last: chemicals added, skimming,
liberation, air blown in.
8 Define gangue and explain where it comes from.
9 Explain why salt cant be separated from salt water using filter
paper. Clarify your answer using diagrams, showing the sizes
of water and salt particles.
Applying
10 A quarry produces a mixture of small and large crushed rock
pieces. Identify and describe the basic method that may be
used to separate the small and large pieces.
paper element
11 Identify a separation method to assist with each of these

problems.
a A container of small metal nuts and bolts is spilt on the
grass near a workshop.
Fig 3.2.10
b An orchardist wishes to separate under-sized fruit before

packing fruit for market.
Evaluating
c An industrial chimney belches unacceptable amounts of

waste into the atmosphere.
16 Propose a reason why test tubes in a centrifuge are at an

angle and not vertical.
d A beekeeper needs to remove honey from honeycomb

before bottling.
17 Propose reasons why the paper element in an oil filter is

folded, as shown in Figure 3.2.10.
12 Identify and explain two uses of filtration in your home.

13 Identify some household appliances that contain a centrifuge.
14 During a heavy downpour, rain washes only the heavier stones
from a driveway into a pile at the lowest point of the driveway.
Identify and explain which separation method has occurred.
Creating
18 Draw a cross-section diagram of the filtration method used in
the laboratory.
19 Design a simple device to stop leaves entering stormwater
pipes after being washed down the spouting of a roof.
Specify which separation technique has been used.
77
3.2
INVESTIGATING

1 Find out about kidney dialysis, why it is needed, how often a
patient needs it and possible alternatives. Create one of the
following:
a pamphlet on the condition for patients L
a video that the doctors might give their patients to take
home
a website for Kidney Health Australia
3.2
an advertisement encouraging people to donate one of

their kidneys.
2 Design a method to separate the aluminium, steel, glass and
plastic containers that are thrown into the recycling bin.
Separate these materials. Compare your method with an
industrial method such as one a local recycler might use.
3 Examine the possibility of placing sugar and powdered milk
into a tea bag so that a cup of tea could be made even more
quickly. Design a newspaper advertisement to promote the
new product. L
Filtration
1
Aim
To filter a mixture to obtain a filtrate and a residue.
Equipment
crushed (powdered)
coloured chalk and copper
sulfate mixture
conical flask
beaker (100 mL)
funnel
filter paper
stirring rod
safety glasses
Method
1 Place the powdered mixture into the beaker, and add about
50 mL of water.
2 Use the stirring rod to mix the water and powder as best you
can.
3 Fold the filter paper as shown in Figure 3.2.11 and place it in
the funnel. Then place the funnel in the conical flask.
4 Tip the waterpowder mixture into the filter paper.
open
out
Fig 3.2.11 Method for correctly folding a filter paper
filter paper
funnel
residue
Questions
1 Contrast the size of the copper sulfate particles with that of
the chalk particles. Explain your observation.
2 Produce a magnified diagram explaining how the filtrate is
trapped by the filter paper. Use different symbols for the
solute and solvent particles.
3 Recommend a method that might recover the copper sulfate
powder from the filtrate.
78
conical flask
filtrate
Fig 3.2.12 Assembled filtering apparatus
Unit
Gravitational separation
Aim
To observe how different soils separate with gravitation
separation.
Equipment
three different soil samples from around the school or home
three conical flasks with stoppers
water
Method
1 Half fill the conical flasks with water.
2 Place equal amounts of the soil samples in each conical flask.
3 Insert a stopper into each flask and shake the soilwater

mixture.
4 Record your observations for each soil type as the soil begins
to settle.
3.2
5 Record how your mixtures look at the end of the period, after
one day and after one week.
Questions
1 Describe what happened to each of the soil samples as they
were allowed to settle.
2 What can you say about the relative sizes of the particles in
each of the soil samples? Explain how.
3 Plan how you could separate the soil and water so that you
can retain both the soil and the pure water.
Magnetic separation
plastic bag
Aim
To separate a mixture using a magnet.
Equipment
magnet
mixture of sand and iron filings

sheet of newspaper
magnet in a plastic bag
empty container for iron filings
sheet of paper
Method
1 Place the sheet of newspaper on a bench and then place a
small pile of the sandiron filings mixture on top.
paper
newspaper
Fig 3.2.13
Questions
2 Spread the mixture into a flat pile and place a sheet of paper
on top.
1 Explain why the sheet of paper was placed on top of

the mixture.
3 Use the magnet in the plastic bag to carefully separate the

mixture, placing the separated iron filings in a clean container
as you go.
2 Explain why the magnet was placed in a plastic bag.

3 Propose how a similar technique could be used in industry.
79
Unit
3.3
context
Separating soluble
substances
The soluble particles in a solution are

much smaller than the insoluble particles
in a suspension or in a colloid and so
cannot be separated using the same
methods. Industry frequently needs to
separate dissolved particles from their
solutions. The purification of water for

drinking and the production of salt from sea
water both rely on extracting the dissolved
particles. Forensics even uses some of
these techniques to work out who
committed a crime.
Fig 3.3.1 The colour in

this liquid indicates that
there is probably something
dissolved in it. Some simple
methods can retrieve it.
Methods for separating soluble

substances
A dissolved solute might be invisible in its solution, but
there are a number of simple methods for separating it
from the solvent. The main processes used are:
evaporation and crystallisation
distillation
absorption
chromatography.
Evaporation and crystallisation

A filter cannot separate the solute particles in a solution
because the particles are far too small to be trapped by
any filter. However, pure crystals of the solute
(known as residue) will be left behind if the
solvent is heated so that it evaporates and
becomes a gas. Boiling the solution speeds up
Prac 1
p. 83
the evaporation process.
Using heat
The most common methods for separating soluble
substances from solution are based on the fact that the
solvent evaporates (turning into a gas) when the
solution is heated. This leaves the solute behind as a
solid. These processes include crystallisation and
distillation.
Fig 3.3.2 In large-scale salt production, giant salt pans allow

evaporation using the heat energy from the Sun.
80
Distillation
condenser
cond
denseer
3.3
Distillation involves evaporation too, but collects the

evaporated solvent instead of letting it escape into the
atmosphere. The evaporated solvent is cooled and
condensed back into a liquid, which is
then collected. This liquid is known as
Heat causes
the distillate. As in evaporation, what
solvent to
remains in the original container is
evaporate,
turning it
known as the residue.
into vapour
Tap water is not pure because it
contains small amounts of other
substances, such as dirt, fluoride and chlorine.
Distillation is used to obtain pure or distilled water.
Distillation is also used in the production of perfume
and whisky (hence the term distillery).
Unit
Condenser is cooled
by cold water
flowing from the tap
Vapour cools in
condenser to form
liquid droplets
flask
solution
flask
lask
cold water out
cold water in
distillatee
Distillate
drips into
flask. In
normal
evaporation,
this is lost
to the air.
Fig 3.3.3 A laboratory distillation

larger rock
larger rock
apparatus. A flask containing the solution is

heated. The vapour produced then cools in
the condenser to form liquid droplets of the
distillate, which eventually make their way
into the collection flask.
Prac 2
p. 84
Prac 3
p. 85
small rock
plastic sheet
vegetation
Crude oil is made up of many different substances

called fractions. Fractional distillation uses the fact
that these substances boil at different temperatures.
This allows them to be separated into petrol and other
useful substances.
Fig 3.3.4 Life-saving distillation in the desert. This desert survival

technique produces fresh water (the distillate) using a using a sheet
of plastic to trap water evaporating from the ground or plants.
Fig 3.3.5 Crude oil is distilled, producing different fractions

(e.g. petrol, diesel etc.) at different temperatures.
crude oil
IN
090C
petroleum gases
aviation gasoline
petrol
kerosene, jet fuel
400C
heating oil
diesel fuel
lubricants, waxes
500+C
PREMIUM
MOTOR OIL
furnace oil, bitumen
81
Separating soluble substances
Staying dissolved
Other separation methods use the fact that the solute
may prefer to stick to another material rather than stay
dissolved in the solute. Absorption and chromatography
are examples of such processes.
Absorption
Absorption occurs when a material is taken in by
another. A kitchen sponge, for example, absorbs water.
Special chemicals can be used to absorb particular
substances from a mixture.
Charcoal contains many fine pores that allow it to
absorb many dangerous gases, making it useful in gas
masks and breathing filters.
Packages of food that must be kept free of moisture
sometimes contain small sachets of silica gel, which can
absorb nearly half their weight in water.
Chromatography
Chromatography is a technique that can be used to
separate colours in inks, food dyes and other mixtures
of colours. A medium, such as blotting or filter paper,
containing a spot of the mixture is placed in contact
with a solvent (e.g. water). The different
colours move throughout the medium at
different rates and so are separated along it.
Worksheet 3.4 Chromatography
Prac 4
p. 85
Fig 3.3.6 Silica gel

separates water from
materials by absorbing
the moisture.
Fig 3.3.7 Paper chromatography can be used to separate
the colours in ink.
3.3
QUESTIONS
Remembering
1 List three substances that are soluble in water.
2 State what is meant by the term fraction in distillation
3 List three substances that are insoluble in water.
Understanding
4 Describe what is a salt pan and what it is used for.
5 Describe how distillation is different from evaporation.
6 Clarify the types of mixtures that chromatography is used to
separate.
7 Explain how different colours move in chromatography.
Applying
8 Identify three examples in the home or industry for which
distillation is used.
9 Identify three different fractions and their uses from
Figure 3.3.5.
10 Identify an example of something that absorbs a:
a liquid
b gas.
11 Identify a separation technique for each of these situations.

a Joe was cooking and dropped a bag of salt into a bowl of
water. He wants to get the salt back, but not the water.
b Ranjana wants to recycle water from her washing machine
to make drinking water.
>>
82
Unit
Separation
method
Brief description
Example
Evaporating
The mixture is
boiled so that the
solvent evaporates.
This will leave
behind the solute.
Salt from sea

water
d Bilal wants to breathe clean air, not paint fumes, while

painting his house.
Analysing
12 Compare the separation methods in this unit by completing
the table to the right. L
3.3
c The police have three pens and want to find out which one
was used to write an anonymous letter.
Evaluating
13 The small silica gel packets inside various products carry a
notice saying DO NOT EAT. Propose why this warning is
present and what may happen if you did eat it.
Creating
14 Propose a sequence of steps for producing fresh water from

sea water.
15 Construct a diagram to illustrate the process of distillation.

Explain what is happening at each step.
3.3
INVESTIGATING

1 Find out how water can be described as hard or soft.
a Explain the difference between hard and soft water.
b Form a team and design an experiment that will test the
hardness of the tap water in your home.
2 Find out how you could make a solar still to be used because
you have run out of water in a desert area. Sketch the still and
list the equipment that you would require.
3 Discover why air bubbles form on the inside of a beaker when
it is heated.
c Determine whether the water tested is hard or soft.
3.3
Separation by evaporation
Method
Aim
1 Place a small amount of solution in the evaporating basin (half

to one-third full) and place it on the gauze mat, as shown here.
To use evaporation to separate the dissolved substances from

soft drink.
Fig 3.3.8
Equipment
Bunsen burner
salt solution or soft drink
bench mat
evaporating basin
tripod
gauze mat
safety glasses
evaporating basin
gauze mat
tripod
bench mat
>>
83
Separating soluble substances
2 Heat the solution, but turn off the Bunsen burner just before
the last drop of water disappears. (The heat remaining in the
basin will be more than enough to finish evaporating the water.)
3 Allow the crystals to cool. You may wish to stick a sample in
your book under a piece of contact adhesive.
Questions
1 Describe what you saw as the water evaporated.
2 Explain why it is important to stop heating when the water is
just about gone.
3 Predict where the water went.
watch-glass
A simple distillation
2
Aim
To use distillation to separate tap water so that pure water is

obtained.
flask
solution
Equipment
Bunsen burner
gauze mat
bench mat
conical flask
tripod
watch-glass
test-tube rack
salt solution
beaker
three paperclips
water
safety glasses
Method
Part A: The distillation
1 Assemble the apparatus as shown in Figure 3.3.9.
2 Use the watch-glass and beaker to collect distilled water. Save
some of the salt solution for Part B of this activity.
beaker
Fig 3.3.9
Part B: Testing the distillate

1 Unfold the paperclips.
2 Dip one paperclip into the salt solution and then hold
the dipped end of the paperclip into the blue flame of
a Bunsen burner. What colour flame is produced?
3 Dip another paperclip into plain water and repeat the
flame test.
4 Dip a third paperclip into your distillate and repeat the
flame test.
Questions
1 Explain what the flame tests tell you about the distillate.
2 Present a reason for not using the same paperclip for all
three flame tests.
84
Unit
3.3
Survival distillation
3
Aim
To distill water from the leaves of various types of plants.
Equipment
plastic bags
string
access to several types of bushes and trees
Method
1 Find a bush or tree in your local area.
2 Place a plastic bag over the leaves of a branch.
3 Tie the plastic bag in place with the string so that it is fully
sealed.
4 Repeat steps 1 to 3 for different types of plants in your local
area.
5 Leave the bag attached for two to three days.
Fig 3.3.10
Questions
1 Identify which plant produced the most water and which
produced the least.
2 Explain where the water is coming from.
3 Describe how this might be useful if you were stranded
somewhere in the Australian outback.
6 Compare the water content in each bag.
Chromatography of Textas and

Smarties
Part B: Smarties
1 Place either one or several Smarties of the same colour in the
watch-glass.
Aim
2 Place a drop of water on a Smartie to extract its colour.
To use chromatography to separate the colours in Smarties and/or

ink.
3 Use an eye dropper to collect some of the coloured liquid.
5 Compare results for different

brands of felt-tipped pens or
Smartie-type confectionery.
eye dropper/water
1
water-based Textas
Smarties of various colours
eye dropper
water
beaker
filter paper
watch-glass
4 Place a drop of dye in the centre of a piece of filter paper and

repeat steps 1 to 5 of Part A.
mL
Equipment
Method
filter paper
beaker
Part A: Textas
1 Using a water-based Texta pen, make a dot in the centre of a
piece of filter paper.
2 Place the filter paper on top of the beaker.
Fig 3.3.11
Questions
3 Using the eye dropper, place a drop of water on the dot of ink.
1 Present a list of the colours in each Texta and Smartie you

tested.
4 Repeat step 3, if necessary, to spread rings of colour from the

dot. Be patient.
2 Explain why different colours spread at different rates.
5 Try different-coloured dots.
3 Assess whether this experiment could be used to decide if a

lolly is a genuine Smartie.
85
Unit
3.4
context
Water supply and sewage
The worlds water supplies and waste

water are two mixtures that need to be
treated very carefully. Removing
unwanted impurities from drinking water
is important to our health. Removing

impurities from waste water is important to
the health of the environment.
Fig 3.4.1 Extended drought in Australia has led New South Wales,
Victoria, Western Australia and Queensland to build desalination plants
that will extract salt from sea water so that it is good enough for
drinking. In 2008, work began on a massive desalination plant in
Kurnell in Sydney, NSW. This plant will supply 15% of Sydneys water
by 2010.
Water supply
Rainwater is not a pure substance but is a mixture. Rain
is produced when water evaporates from oceans, lakes
and other bodies of water and even from plants and soil.
Because it has been in contact with substances that
dissolve in it, rainwater is a dilute mixture that must be
treated before being supplied to our homes.
Water from domestic rainwater tanks is generally not
treated, as the potential for contamination is slight.
86
Water treatment
The rainwater that we normally drink has
passed through an extensive water supply
system. However, it must be treated to ensure
it does not contain harmful levels of chemicals
or bacteria.
Prac 1
p. 91
Chlorine
Chlorine may be added in liquid or gas form to kill germs
that can cause diseases such as gastroenteritis (gastro for
short). Chlorine has a distinctive smell and taste. It is
also the chemical that is added to water in swimming
pools and spas in order to keep it free from bacteria and
algae (but is added in much greater quantities).
Unit
3.4
Fig 3.4.2 Water is stored
in reservoirs for up to five
years to allow waste to
settle out naturally before
further treatment.
Fluoride
Fluoride is added to help
prevent tooth decay in
consumers of the treated
water. However, only
about 5.7% of the worlds
population drink
fluoridated water.
The levels of fluoride
need to be monitored
carefully because too
much fluoride can have
the opposite effect,
colouring teeth with an
ugly brown stain.
Sewage
Science
Clip
Dentist in a bottle
Recently, some dentists have
called for fluoride to be added
to bottled water. Although
fluoride is routinely added to
public water supplies to prevent
tooth decay, adding fluoride to
bottled water is prohibited.
Some dentists believe that this
can be linked to an increase in
tooth decay as more people
start to drink bottled water
instead of tap water.
Lime and soda ash

The chemicals lime and soda ash may be used to ensure
that the water is at a neutral pH, like a water-balanced
swimming pool. You will learn more about acidity and
pH levels when you study acids and bases later in
Science.
Electrolytes
Electrolytes trap suspended particles by causing
them to clump together and fall to the bottom
of the tank as sediment. These clumps are
called floc, and the process is called
flocculation.
The terms sewage and sewerage are often confused.

Sewage is the waste and water mixture that humans
put down sinks, drains and toilets in their homes and
in industrial processes.
Sewerage is the word used to describe the network
of pipes into which sewage passes.
Most houses in city areas are connected to the
sewerage network that leads to treatment plants and,
eventually, to the ocean. However, some homes are
connected to a septic tank, in which sewage is broken
down by bacteria and is released into the soil, leaving a
thick sludge in the tank that must be removed
periodically. Because a septic tank depends on
bacteria, chemicals that may kill bacteria
Prac 3
should not be allowed to pass into the tank.
p. 92
Worksheet 3.5 Water use
Science
Clip
Poo-burgers
Prac 2
p. 92
A Japanese scientist once promoted hamburgers

made using treated sewage as an environmentally
friendly food. Not surprisingly, the so-called pooburgers never took off.
87

catchment area
storage reservoir
chlorination
fluoridation
pumping
station
stand
pipe
service reservoir
water mains
city
houses in high areas
industry
homes
water meter
schools
sewage
treatment
ocean
Fig 3.4.3 The flow of water from catchment to sewage treatment. The service reservoir is an artificial structure that stores
water for use during peak demand times. The stand pipe is used to provide increased pressure to high-service areas.
88
Unit
Science
Oh crap!
spouting
vent pipe
downpipe
bath
laundry
sink
storm
water
system
kitchen
toilet
gully trap
Many think that the word crap

came from Thomas Crapper
(18361910) because he
invented the flushing toilet.
Unfortunately, both facts seem
to be wrong! Although Crapper
made toilets, improved them
and even installed them in Royal
Palaces, he did not invent the
water closet (i.e. WC). The word
crap was used for poo as far
back as 1846, a little too early
for Crapper since he was only
ten years old at the time.
Instead, crap may have come
from the German word krappe,
meaning a vile and inedible fish!
3.4
Clip
sewerage system
Fig 3.4.4 Household connections to the sewerage system. Although

sinks, toilets and baths are connected directly to the sewerage system,
the downpipes are not, allowing stormwater to be run off separately.
The vent pipe and gully trap release gas that might build up in the
pipes. The gully trap also stops sewage from flowing back into your
house if there is a blockage in the pipes.
Sewage treatment plants

Blowers: pump air into
aeration tank to encourage
bacteria to grow
sewage in
Screen: removes
larger objects
Settling tank: bacteria and

other solids settle to the
bottom in a thick sludge.
Pebble filters:
suspended solids
are removed.
chemicals
added
UV lamps: UV light
and/or chlorine are
used to disinfect sewage.
ocean
pump
Aeration tank: bacteria help break

down the sewage by feeding on it.
Added chemicals convert dissolved
wastes into solids.
These fall to the bottom of the tank.
sludge
removed
Outfall: treated
sewage released
into the ocean.
Sludge removal: sludge is
removed and air dried and stored
for several years. After this, some
of it may be sold for use in soil
and fertiliser products.
Fig 3.4.5 The activated sludge process for sewage treatment.

Animati on
89
3.4
QUESTIONS
Remembering
1 State which chemical is added to water to:
a kill germs
b prevent tooth decay.
2 State the definition for the term flocculation.
3 Specify exactly what breaks down sewage in a septic tank.
4 List three items connected to the sewerage system in your
house.
5 State whether rainwater is a mixture or a pure substance.
Evaluating
16 The catchment of a reservoir is the hills, creeks and rivers
around the reservoir. Propose why it is important to look after
the catchment of a water supply.
17 Justify why it is better to wash a car on the lawn than on the
road.
18 Propose three ways that the sludge from a sewage treatment
plant could be recycled or reused.
19 Each basin, sink, shower and toilet in the house has an
S bend. Propose a reason why.
Understanding
6 Rainwater is evaporated water. Describe some places where
this water has been evaporated from.
basin
7 Account for how rainwater picks up impurities.

8 Explain how the septic tank helps separate sewage.
9 Explain why air is blown into one of the tanks at a sewage
treatment plant.
10 Explain why more chlorine is required per litre in a swimming
pool than in drinking water.
11 The forest in a catchment is often said to be like a natural
filter. Explain what you think this means.
Applying
12 Identify each separation technique used in the activated
sludge process and describe what it removes from the
sewage.
13 Identify ways in which you could save water around the home
or around the school.
Analysing
90
to sewerage system
Fig 3.4.6
Creating
14 Distinguish between sewage and sewerage.
20 Design a house that would assist people in country areas to

use their house roofs to collect and use rainwater.
15 Assess what could happen if sewage was not treated before

being released into rivers or the ocean.
21 Why should people save water? Design and present a poster

to promote reducing water waste in your home. L
Unit
INVESTIGATING

1 Compare the amount of water used in various industrial
processes (e.g. making paper, soft drinks, recycling). Present
the data as both a table and a column graph. N
how a flushing toilet works

how a toilet knows when to stop filling the tank.
Present your work in one of the following ways:
a poster
2 Find out about the history of the sewerage system and its
effects on public health.
a sales brochure from 1870 selling the new range of

Crapper toilets
3 Find out about the composting toilet and produce an

advertisement to sell this product. In your advertisement you
must:
an interview with Thomas Crapper for a current affairs

program on TV. L
a Outline how the composting toilet works.

b Discuss its advantages and benefits.
4 Find out more about Thomas Crapper and the flushing toilet.
Find:
3.4
3.4
e -xploring
To find out more about the history of water treatment
in Australia, a list of web destinations can be found on
We
b Desti nation
what he invented and did

pictures of early flushing toilets
3.4
1
Water purification
muddy water
Aim
To purify dirty water to make it fit for drinking.
Equipment
ice-cream or margarine container

sand
stones
muddy water
beakers (2 250 mL)
tripod
stirring rod
sand layer
stones layer
margarine or
ice-cream
container
small hole
in container
beaker
Method
1 Prepare the container containing sand and stones as shown in
Figure 3.4.7.
Fig 3.4.7
2 Pour half of your muddy water into the container, and keep half
for later comparison.
Questions
3 Allow the filtrate to drain into the clean beaker long enough to
collect a good sample of purified water.
1 Describe the effectiveness of the sandstones filtration.

2 Design a method that could improve the purification
(e.g. by adding stages to the basic method).
91
Testing flocculation
chemicals
Method
1 Let the muddy water stand for a few minutes to separate out
some sediment.
Aim
2 Decant some of the water into a filtering apparatus.
To identify some chemicals that cause flocculation.
3 Take the filtrate and add a few drops of one of the chemicals
to be tested, stirring briefly. Note whether any flocculation
occurs.
Equipment
250 mL beaker of muddy water

filter paper
conical flask
funnel
stirring rod
some of the following: copper sulfate, iron(II) chloride, copper
chloride, sodium carbonate, sodium bicarbonate, ammonium
sulfate, magnesium sulfate, calcium sulfate
safety glasses
Separating artificial
sewage
4 Test the other chemicals in this way.
Questions
1 Identify which chemical produced the most flocculation.
2 State which type of particles you think the chemicals that
caused flocculation reacted withthose in suspension or
those in solution. Explain why.
3 The clumped chemicals are referred to as the flocculent.
Explain how you could remove the flocculent.
Method
DYO
Aim
To separate artificial sewage.
Equipment
artificial sewage mixture provided by your teacher (containing
things like bread, chopped vegetable scraps, soil, sand,
detergent, oil, grass clippings, coffee, paper, plastic etc.)
other general science equipment, depending on your method
1 Design your own method of treating your sewage sample.

There may be several stages to your process.
2 Keep a small sample of treated and untreated sewage for
comparison.
3 Clarify your process by describing the stages and their
effectiveness.
CHAPTER REVIEW
Remembering
1 State the difference between a solution and a suspension.
6 Explain how crude oil is separated into several types of

chemicals.
2 State the correct scientific term for a:
7 Explain how rainwater can be used to pick up contamination.
a weak solution
b strong solution.
3 State what is liberation in mineral extraction.
4 State why fluoride is added to our water supply.
Understanding
5 Outline the process of:
a sieving
b filtration.
92
8 Explain why water in reservoirs is stored for several years

before further treatment.
9 Explain why blowers are used in an aeration tank at a sewage
treatment plant.
10 Describe how water may be disinfected in the final stages of
treatment.
11 Explain what happens to a soluble solid when it dissolves in a
liquid.
12 If you suspected that the contents of a bucket contained sand,

clay and salt all mixed with water, explain how you would:
a Identify the solvent and solute.
a remove all impurities in one attempt
b Clarify what happens to the solubility as the temperature is

increased.
b remove only the sand
c Account for your observation in part b.
c remove both the clay and the sand.
d Carefully construct a line graph to display these results.
13 Define the term floc. L
e Interpret your graph. If the volume of water was doubled,

predict what would happen to the amount of solute that
could dissolve at 20C. Explain your answer.
Applying
14 Identify four mixtures found in the home.
f Draw a diagram to illustrate the experimental set-up you

would use to collect the copper sulfate.
15 Paint is removed from a brush using turpentine. Identify:

a the solvent
Evaluating
b the solute.
16 Identify three substances obtained from crude oil and specify
two uses for each substance.
17 Identify the separation method used in gold panning.
24 Explain how a coffee filter separates coffee from the ground

coffee beans. Propose a method to separate the coffee from
the ground beans if you ran out of coffee filters.
25 Propose which would dissolve faster in waterone gram of
cube sugar or one gram of castor sugar. Explain your answer.
If you were performing an experiment to test this prediction,
describe which factors must be kept constant.
18 Identify three uses for a centrifuge.

19 Identify the separation method for which charcoal is used.
Describe how this technique works.
20 Define and explain chromatography. Identify how it is used in
forensic science.
21 Water is a solvent for many substances. Identify suitable
solvents for:
a oil paint
b grease
Creating
26 A mineral water company requires a scientific demonstration
to show that their water contains fewer dissolved minerals
than its closest competitor. Design an experiment that could
be shown on television.
27 Design a method by which you could check the amount of
sugar dissolved in a certain brand of cordial.
c nail polish.
Analysing
pt
23 Study the data presented in the table and answer the

questions that follow. N
on
Ch
22 Detergents are used when oil spills occur at sea. Discuss

whether the detergent really cleans the water.
er R
sti
ev i ew Q u e
Volume of water used = 100 mL

Temperature of
water (C)
20
40
60
80
100
Maximum amount of
copper sulfate that
would dissolve (g)
18
22
29
38
50
78
93
Classification

Key outcomes
Additional
Essentials
4.2, 4.8.1, 4.8.2
Living things are classified according to

their structural features.
A range of plants and animals can be

identified using simple keys.
Animals are classified first as

vertebrates and invertebrates.
Vertebrates are then classified as

mammal, bird, reptile, amphibian or
fish.
Invertebrates are then classified into the

main groupings of arthropods, worms,
molluscs or cnidarians.
Plants are classified first as vascular

plants or bryophytes.
Organisms survive by producing their

own food (autotrophic organisms) or
by eating other organisms
(heterotrophic organisms).
Organisms can be classified by

designing simple keys.
Five important kingdoms are animal,

plant, fungi, monera and protists.
Species is the most specific grouping

that an organism can belong to.
Members of the same species are so

similar that they can reproduce and
produce fertile young.
Unit
4.1
context
Why classify?
Scientists need to be able to carry out

many different tasks. One of the most
important is classification. Classification is
the organisation of different things into
groups of related types. Chemists classify
elements as metals, non-metals or
metalloids; astronomers classify the
planets as terrestrial, gas giants or dwarfs;

and geologists classify rocks as igneous,
sedimentary or metamorphic. Biologists have
the most difficult classification job of all
they need to be able to classify every living
thing, placing every organism into groups
that are similar in some way.
Classification
Classification makes life a lott Quick Quiz
easier for everyone, not just scientists.
At the supermarket, items are
organised by type or by the way they
are packaged. Canned fish is in one
aisle, pasta in another and sauces and
bread somewhere else. Canned
vegetables are in one place, the fresh
ones in another and the frozen ones
in the freezer. Classification in the
supermarket helps you find what you
want. If you need some chocolate
syrup for your ice cream, then you will
probably find it with the other dessert
toppings. Likewise, soy sauce is likely
to be found near the tomato sauce.
Fig 4.1.1 Although it may look like

something from science fiction, this Hercules
beetle is a very real living thing. Biologists
need to be able to classify all living things,
even Hercules beetles.
Libraries have their own classification system,

organising their books by types, subject and author.
Textbooks on the same subject are going to be in
roughly the same place, novels by the same author will
be grouped together, and encyclopaedias will be in their
own section.
Fig 4.1.2 Goods at the supermarket are

classified to make them easier to find.
95
Why classify?
Keys
To make their classification tasks easier, scientists use a
model called a key. Keys are simple, easy-to-follow
representations of classification systems.
Scientists use keys because they:
are easier to use than detailed descriptions of
each group
show at a glance what distinguishing
characteristics each group has
make it easier to identify objects that have
never been seen before
always give consistent answers, regardless of
who is using them. This means that all
scientists around the world will classify an
object or organism in exactly the same way.
A good key is clear, simple and easy to use. If a key
is confusing or difficult to use then it is not a good key.
Branching keys
Dichotomous keys
The most common type of branching key is a
dichotomous key. Dichotomous keys have two choices
at every branch. They start at the top with one large
group and slowly subdivide into smaller and smaller
groups until no more choices are possible.
pets
doesnt live in water
lives in water
goldfish
doesnt have big ears
has big ears
A branching key begins with one large group. A

particular feature is then used to split the group into
smaller ones. Other features are then used to split these
groups further into even smaller, more defined groups of
objects. Each branch in the key is a choice.
rabbit
doesnt breed quickly
breeds quickly
mixed lollies
mouse
Jellybeans
chocolate coated
doesnt bark
barks
cat
dog
other
Fig 4.1.4 This branching key can be used to classify household

red
yellow
other
soft lollies
Minties
Smarties
pets. The key is dichotomous because there are only two choices at
each branch.
Prac 1
p. 101
Tabular keys
Maltesers
Turkish delight
Fantales
Chocolate creams
Fig 4.1.3 This branching key can be used to classify lollies into
different categories.
96
Tabular keys are sometimes referred to as GO TO keys.

Like branching keys, the idea is to start at the top and
work your way down. Tabular keys can also be
dichotomous, having two choices at each level in
the key.
lives in water
fish
Circular keys
doesnt live in water
go to 2
has big ears
rabbit
doesnt have big ears
go to 3
breeds quickly
mouse
To use a circular key, start in the middle and work

your way outwards. Each ring represents another
choice to be made. Eventually you arrive at the rim
of the key, allowing you to identify whatever object
you are investigating.
doesnt breed quickly
go to 4
barks
dog
doesnt bark
cat
4.1
Unit
Fig 4.1.5 This tabular key gives another way of classifying

household pets. Simply follow the instructions from top to
bottom.
Prac 2
p. 101
lion
fish
Indian
elephant
African
elephant
funnel-web
spider
black
can
house
kill
spider
cant
kill
black
tarantula
body
mainly
green
whale
shark
eats le
p
peo
ea
snt
doe eople
p
bony
fish
us
ino
tilag
car fish
ish
sf
es
wl
elephant
ja
fish
hydra
coral
tiger
sabre-toothed tiger
animals
can live on both

land and water
commonly
found in
Australia
not extinct
cnidarian
jellyfish
only
extinct
lives
sea fan
medusa
polyp
box
jellyfish
sea
anemone
ater
multicoloured
nly
nw
mainly
black
tiger
shark
hairy
body
spider
red-back
spider
large
striped small
fins
fins
small
ears
lives on lan
do
flower
spider
big
ears
bream
not commonly
found in
Australia
poisonous
octopus
blue-ringed
octopus
not
poisonous
common octopus
Indian tiger
frog
salamander
Fig 4.1.6 This circular key can be used to classify different animals. Start in the middle and work outwards.
97
Why classify?
4.1
QUESTIONS
Remembering
Analysing
1 List the advantages of classifying goods in the supermarket.
6 Use the key in Figure 4.1.8 to classify the people shown.
2 State the categories normally used to organise books in a

library.
people
Understanding
3 Outline the criteria that could be used to classify:
no freckles
freckles
a the contents of your kitchen at home

b the types of shops at the local mall
female
c the fruit in a fruit shop

d the cars in a car park
e DVDs that can be rented from the local store.
no hair
hair
Eugene
Ken
Herman
no pigtails
pigtails
Louisa
Jane
4 Outline the similarities and differences between a branching

key and a dichotomous key.
A
Applying
male
5 Figure 4.1.7 shows six insects. Use the key to work out which
is which.
A
Fig 4.1.8
insects
large wings
small or no wings
butterfly
shorter
rear legs
very long
rear legs
antennae in
front of head
antennae
to the rear
mosquito
grasshopper
horned not horned
head
head
rhino beetle
98
Fig 4.1.7
small eyes
large eyes
termite soldier
beetle
Unit
cara
blip
13 Choose five different types of popular salted snack foods and

construct a dichotomous key to classify them.
disty
8 eyes
12 Construct a dichotomous branching key to classify a square,

circle, oval and octagon.
14 Construct a tabular key to classify the people in Figure 4.1.11.
4.1
7 Use the circular key in Figure 4.1.9 to classify the alien

shown. Identify the name of the alien.
2 antennae
2 eyes
yista
1 eye
1 head
2 heads
n
ante o
nna
e
xero
animals
6 legs
feep
3 heads
4 heads
yen
2
mouths
1 leg
jooby
1
mouth
4 legs
din
no
mouth
lip
zeep
Fig 4.1.9
Ro
8 The outer ring of the circular key in Figure 4.1.9 names eleven
other aliens. Draw simple sketches of what each alien might
look like, being careful to contrast one from another.
Evaluating
Jacinta
Marg
Chris
Fig 4.1.11
15 Construct a circular key to classify the drinks shown in

Figure 4.1.12
9 Four types of keys used in classification are: branching,

dichotomous branching, tabular and circular. Assess each for
ease of use and then list the keys from the one you think is
easiest to use to the one you think is the most difficult.
Creating
10 Construct a question that is:
a dichotomous
b not dichotomous.
11 Construct a dichotomous key to classify the aliens in
Figure 4.1.10.
Fig 4.1.12
Fig 4.1.10
99
Why classify?
Fig 4.1.13
water lily
wattle bush
cactus
16 Five plants are shown in

Figure 4.1.13. Construct the
following keys to classify them:
a a dichotomous key
b a tabular key
c a circular key.
17 Construct a key to classify:
a all the different Rugby League
jumpers
b different Olympic sports.
18 Construct a key that can be used
to identify the different members
of your family according to their
physical characteristics.
tree fern
100
gum tree
Unit
Making a pasta key
Aim
To construct a key to classify pasta.
Equipment
A sample of at least five different kinds of uncooked pasta (e.g.
spiral pasta, tubes, shells, bows, spaghetti etc.) in a beaker or cup.
Method
4.1
4.1
4 When you get to the point where you are at a particular type,
draw the pasta or paste a sample of it in that place on your
key.
5 Gather all the pasta together again and decide on a new set of
characteristics by which to reclassify your pasta. Once again,
construct a dichotomous key.
Questions
1 Identify the main feature of a dichotomous key.
1 Pour the contents of the beaker onto your bench.

2 As a group, decide on the characteristics (e.g. shape, size etc.)
you will use to classify your sample of pasta.
3 In your workbook, construct a dichotomous key to classify
your pasta.
2 Look at the keys designed by other groups. State whether

they used the same characteristics that you did.
3 Evaluate the different keys you constructed. Which do you
think was better? Why?
pasta
Fig 4.1.14 Start off your key like this.
Constructing keys
Aim
Method
To construct different types of keys to classify collected objects.
Safety
Some plants (e.g. oleander and rhus) are known to
Equipment
A collection of at least 10 of one of the following:
leaves collected from different trees and shrubs around the
school
pieces of common laboratory glassware and equipment
objects from a pencil case.
1 As a group, decide on the characteristics you will use to

classify your 10 objects.
2 Group the objects according to the characteristics you chose.
3 Construct a dichotomous key and a tabular key that would
allow others to classify your 10 objects in exactly the same
way as you did.
Questions
1 Outline some practical advantages of classifying different
equipment used in the laboratory.
2 Compare the dichotomous keys you constructed with your
tabular keys. Which was easiest to construct? Suggest why.
101
Unit
4.2
context
Living or non-living?
Before a biologist can classify something,

they must first decide whether it is living
or non-living. Sometimes the task is an
easy one. For example, rabbits, goldfish
and blowflies are all obviously living
things, whereas MP3 players, rocks and
pencil cases are all obviously non-living.

Pond slime is a little more difficult to classify.
Although living, it seems to be less lively
than the water in a fast-flowing river.
Biologists use a set of characteristics to help
them decide if something is living or not.
The characteristics
of life
You can tell if something is living or
not by looking at its characteristics.
Characteristics are typical qualities.
Two characteristics of kangaroos, for
example, are that they eat grass and
hop on their two hind legs.
Some characteristics are common
to all living things. All living things:
take in energy for immediate or
later use
take in and use gases from the air
or water in which they live
produce wastes (excretion)
respond to stimuli in their
environment
have the ability to move
have the ability to reproduce
grow
are made from cells.
Any individual thing that has
life is referred to as an organism.
Is it living?
Animals obviously meet all the
characteristics of living things. Plants
are living things too, although their
movement and growth can be so slow
that you often dont notice it. Some
non-living things possess a few of the
characteristics of life but will not
have them all. For something to be
classified as living it must have all
the characteristics of life.
Fig 4.2.2 An organism is an individual thing
that has life. Organisms come in all sizes
elephants and whales are massive, whereas
bacteria and amoeba are microscopic.
102
Fig 4.2.1 From a distance, coral reefs look much like non-living rock formations. On closer
inspection, they are made up of millions of tiny living things called coral polyps. A hard skeleton
is left behind when these polyps die. A typical reef has both dead coral and living polyp colonies,
which are easily destroyed if touched.
Science
Clip
The living dead!

Non-living things are not living
now and have never lived in the
past. This means that sand and
a silver bracelet are non-living.
Dead things have lived at some
time in the past. Once upon a
time, they had all the
characteristics of life. This
means that wood is dead (it
was once part of a living tree),
as is leather (it was once the
skin of a living cow). Because
of this, something that is dead
is classified as a living thing!
Unit
4.2
Animals such as humans, dogs, cows, koalas and

birds also need to eat to keep themselves warm. This is
because they are endothermic, more commonly known
as warm blooded. Each animal has their own ideal
operating temperature. For humans, that temperature is
37C and roughly two-thirds of our food is used solely
to keep us at this temperature. If your body temperature
exceeds or falls below 37C for more than a few
minutes, then you quickly become unwell.
Reptiles, such as snakes, lizards
and crocodiles, dont use the
Science
energy from food to keep
themselves warm but, instead,
Hyper and hypo
gain their warmth from sunlight.
This means that, despite their
If your core body temperature
stays higher than 37C for too
large size, crocodiles dont need
long, then you will quickly show
to eat much food. Animals like
symptoms of hyperthermia (too
this are referred to as ectotherms
much heat) or heatstroke. The
or are said to be ectothermic.
symptoms include reddened
Fig 4.2.3 Water displays only one of the characteristics of life (i.e.
movement). It meets none of the other characteristics (e.g. it doesnt
use air, reproduce or grow). Therefore, water is classified as non-living.
Living things take in and use

energy
Animals and plants take in energy, using it to move,
grow, reproduce and function properly.
Animals
Animals are heterotrophs. This means they cannot
make their own food and need to eat to survive. Food is
digested and converted into glucose, a type of sugar.
Glucose provides all the energy an animal needs. It does
this by reacting with oxygen in a chemical reaction
called cellular respiration:
glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water + energy
Clip
Plants
Animals convert the food they
eat into glucose, whereas plants
make their own glucose using a
chemical reaction called
photosynthesis. This reaction
combines carbon dioxide (taken
in from the air) and water
(absorbed from the soil by their
roots) and is powered by energy
from the Sun. Glucose and
oxygen gas are produced:
skin, headaches, a high heart

rate, low blood pressure,
dizziness and excessive
sweating (although this is likely
to stop as you become
dehydrated). Far more common
is hypothermia (not enough
heat). Symptoms are numb
hands and feet, goose bumps,
white or blue skin, poor logic,
forgetfulness, slurred speech
and intense shivering (although
this is likely to stop near death).
carbon dioxide + water + energy glucose + oxygen
Organisms that can make their own food are called

producers or autotrophs.
Like animals, plants then use cellular respiration to
convert glucose into the energy they need:
Go to
Science
Clip
Cold-blooded?
Fig 4.2.4 Animals are heterotrophsthey cannot make their own
energy, so they must gain it from what they eat.
Energy is produced, as well as carbon dioxide and

water vapour. Breathing provides oxygen for the
reaction and gets rid of the carbon dioxide and water
vapour produced by it.
Ectotherms such as lizards, snakes and crocodiles often are

mistakenly thought to have cold blood. Their blood can be cold,
but only on cloudy winter days or after a frosty night. This makes
them very sluggish and less of a threat. During summer or after a
morning sunbaking, their blood and body temperatures can be as
high as any endotherm. This gives them extra energy and so they
are far more active and much more dangerous!
103
special holes in them called stomata that allow gases to
pass in and out. The lungs of animals and the insides of
a plants leaves need to be damp so that the gases can
dissolve and move into their systems.
Go to
Science Focus 2 Units 3.2 & 4.4
Living things produce wastes
Fig 4.2.5 Plants absorb energy from sunlight and use it to make
food via a process called photosynthesis.
There are many chemical reactions constantly going on

inside organisms. Along with the useful products, these
reactions also produce wastes that become poisonous if
they are not removed.
Humans get rid of the products of cellular
respiration (carbon dioxide and water) by breathing
them out. We also get rid of excess water by urinating
and sweating.
Plants use their leaves to get rid of the
waste oxygen produced by photosynthesis, and
excess carbon dioxide from respiration.
The removal of waste products from an
Prac 1
p. 108
organism is called excretion.
Go to
Science
Clip
Carnivorous plants
Carnivorous plants, such as
the sundews and the Venus
Flytrap, dont get any energy
from the animals they trap.
Instead, they gain nitrogen,
which helps plants build the
materials they need to live
and grow. Most carnivorous
plants live in soils that are
deficient in nitrogen, getting it
instead from the insects and
small animals they trap. One
of the largest carnivorous
plants in the world, a type of
sundew known as Drosera
gigantea, which grows to
about 1 metre tall, is found in
south-west Western Australia.
Fig 4.2.6 Sundews are common

in New South Wales. Their sticky
tentacles trap and dissolve insects.
Carnivorous plants do not gain
energy from the insects they trap.
Instead they gain valuable nitrogen.
Living things
use air
Animals take in oxygen gas

and use it for respiration.
Mammals (including
humans) and birds use lungs
to take in air and the
oxygen it contains. Most
amphibians, like frogs, have
lungs, but they also use their
skin to absorb oxygen. Fish use gills to absorb oxygen
gas dissolved in the water in which they swim.
Plants take in oxygen for respiration and carbon
dioxide for photosynthesis. Plants use their leaves to
obtain the gases they need from the air. Leaves have
104
Science
Fig 4.2.7 Living things
produce wastesurine and
sweat are two obvious wastes
that animals produce. Some
animals, such as the grey wolf,
use their urine to mark out
their territory.
Clip
An ice-cold glass of
yeast urine!
Wastes from living things are
sometimes used by other
living things. A type of fungus
called yeast uses sugar as its
energy source and produces
alcohol as waste. The alcohol
is then excreted into the liquid
that the yeast lives in, making
wine, beer, whisky, vodka etc.
in the process! Drinking
alcohol is equivalent to
drinking yeast urine.
Clip
In 1676, Antoni van

Leeuwenhoek used a very
simple microscope to look
at a sample of pond water.
In it he saw tiny shapes.
They were moving and so he
decided that they were alive.
He had used one of the
characteristics of life to
decide that his new
discovery was a living thing.
4 .2
Is it living?
Unit
Science
Fig 4.2.8 As winter

approaches, temperatures
drop (the stimulus) and the
leaves of many trees change
colour (the response).
Living things respond to stimuli

Organisms react to changes in their environment. A
change like this is said to be a stimulus. It triggers a
response. If you hear a loud, unexpected noise then,
most likely, you will jump. The stimulus is the noise
and the response is you jumping.
Plants also react to change, although their responses
are far less obvious than those seen in animals. Plants
on a windowsill grow towards the light and sunflowers
follow the Sun across the sky throughout the day. In
both cases, the stimulus is sunlight. The responses are
growth and movement.
Living things move
Living things
reproduce
All living things are capable
of reproduction. This
means that they can make
new individuals that are
very similar to themselves.
Reproduction can be sexual
or asexual. Sexual
reproduction generally
requires two parents.
Asexual reproduction needs
only one parent.
Science
Clip
Male, female or both?

Many organisms have both male
and female reproductive parts. They
are said to be hermaphrodites.
Most flowering plants are
hermaphrodites, as are slugs and
snails. Barramundi is a type of fish
found in northern Australia. It
changes from being male to being
female when it reaches the age of
five! This means that all barramundi
under five years are male, and older
ones are all female.
The ability to move by itself is a basic characteristic of

life. Although the movement of an animal is usually
obvious, a plant also moves whenever it grows or
responds to light. Other characteristics of life, such as
responding to stimuli and feeding (collecting energy),
often rely on movement.
Fig 4.2.10 Living things can reproduce. Otherwise, their type will soon
become extinct.
Fig 4.2.9 Living things are able to movea composite highspeed photo of a barn owl swooping on its prey.
105
Living things grow

As living things become older they grow. This means
they get larger, more complicated or both. Some things
grow very slowly, and some grow more quickly.
As humans grow they change shape and proportions.
A childs head, for example, accounts for about onequarter of their length, whereas an adults head accounts
for about only one-tenth of their body length.
Fig 4.2.11 Living things
Living things are made from

cells
All living things are made up from at least one cell or
from materials (referred to as tissues) that are made from
cells. Cells are the building blocks of life and are so
small that they cannot be seen without a microscope.
An organism grows because it has created more cells.
Go to
Science Focus 1 Units 5.2, 5.3, 5.4
grow. Many animals, such

as snakes and some
insects, need to shed their
old skin or outer shell
(exoskeleton) in order to
grow. This dragonfly has
just emerged from the
skin of its larval stage so
that it can grow.
Prac 2
p. 109
Fig 4.2.12 All living things are made from microscopic building
blocks called cells. Onion cells are shown here.
4.2
QUESTIONS
Remembering
1 List eight characteristics of living things.
2 List five ways animals take in oxygen.
3 Name three organisms that are heterotrophs and three that
are autotrophs.
4 State the correct operating temperature for humans.
8 State the term used for the removal of wastes from an

organism.
Understanding
9 Explain why ectotherms are more active after a morning
lazing in the Sun.
5 Name the sugar that is the source of energy for both animals
and plants.
10 Plants dont seem to move much. Describe a situation in

which a plant moves under its own power.
6 Name the reaction that:
11 Describe five physical changes that happen as we get older.
a uses energy from sunlight to produce food for plants

b gives plants and animals their energy.
106
7 Recall the word equation for each reaction in Question 6.
Unit
4.2
12 During the Apollo 13 mission, the astronauts had a problem

with the device that removed carbon dioxide from the air they
were breathing. Use the equations for photosynthesis and
cellular respiration to:
a Explain where this carbon dioxide came from.
b Explain why we dont have similar problems on Earth.
Applying
13 Identify whether the following things are living or non-living.
In each case, give a reason for your choice.
a a rabbit
b a pen
c an apple
d a human
e a car
f a tree
g a donkey
Fig 4.2.13
Are robots alive?
h a rubbish bin.
14 Identify a single word that describes how big a living cell is.
15 Identify one non-living thing that displays a characteristic of a
living thing.
16 Identify the stimulus and the response for each of the
following:
a Your stomach grumbles when you smell a BBQ.
b Leaves drop from a tree in autumn.
c You get goose bumps when its cold.
d A shark goes into a feeding frenzy when it senses blood.
e A person runs up to a seagull and it flies away.
17 Although all definitely living, the following people all fail to
meet one of the characteristics of life. For each, identify the
characteristic they fail to meet and explain why they can be
still considered to be living.
a It is unlikely that Year 7 students have had a baby of their
own.
b Elderly men and women often get shorter as they age.
c A protester has been on a hunger strike for a week.
d Some people often urinate only once a day in summer.
Evaluating
18 Some robotic toys seem to behave as if they are alive. For
example, they indicate when they need feeding.
a List the characteristics of life they show and those that they
do not show.
b Evaluate whether these toys could be alive.
Creating
i
19 Imagine that you are in radio contact with an astronaut on the
Moon. She has just stood in a strange, squelchy mess and
thinks it may be alive. Design a procedure she could follow to
find out if it is alive or not.
20 This is the story about your average person. He does the
same sort of things that we all do, but there is one big
difference. Aliens from another planet are watching this
person! They are trying to make up their minds if he is alive.
This is what they see him doing one morning.
Jack wakes up when his loud alarm clock rings at 6.45 a.m.
He reaches across to the bedside table and turns it off. He
also turns on the bedside lamp. The bright light from the
lamp makes him blink.
After a short while, Jack gets out of bed and walks to the
bathroom. He goes to the toilet, takes a shower and walks
down the stairs. He can smell toast cooking in the kitchen
and he breathes in deeply to take in the wonderful smell.
After eating his breakfast, he leaves the house and walks to
the tram. The cold air makes him cough as he gets on the
ferry to go to work.
Construct a table to summarise the things that Jack did
during the morning that the aliens could use to prove he
was alive. L
21 The year is 2500 and Earth has become a favourite holiday
destination for aliens. Design a travel guide for these aliens so
that they can identify if what they are looking at is living or
non-living. All the basic Earth life forms still exist, but there
are also some very life-like robots. L
107
4.2
INVESTIGATING

1 Find what NASA scientists discovered recently that suggests
that there once used to be life on Mars. Explain how this
evidence relates to the characteristics of life.
4.2
1
Characteristics of life
Aim
To observe excretion in plants.
2 Research why space probes are usually programmed to

look for evidence of water rather than little green men
on other planets.
Safety
Some plants (e.g. oleander, rhus) are known to cause
allergic reactions in some people.
Part B
1 Smear a thin layer of petroleum jelly on both sides of a freshly
picked leaf. Use string to suspend it from a retort stand so
that air can get to both sides.
2 Do the same to an identical leaf, but this time smear only the
top side of the leaf with jelly.
3 Smear the bottom side of a third leaf with jelly.
4 After a few days, record your observations of each leaf.
Equipment
plastic bag
string
retort stand
bosshead and clamp
petroleum jelly
access to a living plant
three identical fresh leaves
Method
Part A
1 Go outside and tie a plastic bag over a branch of fresh leaves.
Make sure the leaves are still attached to the plant and that the
bag is high enough not to be tampered with.
2 Leave it overnight and record what you observe the next day.
108
Questions
1 Water was probably collected in the plastic bag set up in Part
A. Identify where the water came from.
2 Identify whether cellular respiration or photosynthesis in a
plant produces water.
3 Compare the three leaves in Part B. Which was the most
shrivelled and which retained its shape best?
4 The petroleum jelly blocks the stomata on the leaf, stopping
them from losing water. Identify which side of a leaf has the
most stomata.
5 Predict what would have happened if Parts A, B and C were
repeated using a rock and not a living thing.
Unit
1 Place about 1 centimetre of cotton wool in the bottom

of each container. Moisten it with a little water.
Mustard seeds
Aim
To observe the changes that occur during growth and
development of a living thing.
Equipment
2 Add ten mustard seeds to each cotton wool.
4.2
Method
3 Place plastic wrap over the top to stop the seeds from
drying out.
4 Use the pin to make a small airhole in each piece of plastic
wrap.
three small glass or plastic containers

cotton wool
aluminium foil
sticky tape
30 mustard seeds
cling wrap
pin
5 Cover one of the containers completely with the aluminium

foil so that no light can get in.
6 Cover another container in a similar way, but this time leave
a 1 centimetre squared window in the foil near the top of the
container.
7 Leave the containers in a safe place for several days.
hole
cling
wrap
8 Remove the foil and note any difference between the three
containers of seeds.
Questions
1 Sketch your results, labelling each container.
2 Explain what this experiment has shown.
container
mustard
seeds
moist
cotton wool
Fig 4.2.14
109
Unit
4.3
context
From kingdom to species
There are an estimated 13 to 14 million

different types of organisms currently
living on Earth. Although every organism
is unique, their similarities and
differences allow them to be classified
into groups. Similar organisms are
placed in the same group, with each group

having its own special characteristics. The
process that sorts all living things into
groups is called taxonomy. A scientist who
does this is a taxonomist.
Classifying living
things
It is usually easy to classify an
organism as either a plant or an
animal. However, to make sense of
the huge variety of plants and
animals, they need to be sorted
into much smaller groups.
Scientists use the way living
things are built to help split them
into groups. This way, organisms
that have a similar body plan or
structure will be in the same
group, whereas organisms with
different body plans or structures
will be in different groups.
All living things are first
organised into broad groupings
known as kingdoms. They are
then organised into smaller and
more specific groupings called
phylum, group, class, order, family,
genus and, finally, species. Species
is the smallest and most specific
grouping of all.
Fig 4.3.1 Although biologists believe that there are up to 14 million different types of organisms
living on Earth, only 1.7 million different species have been identified!
Kingdoms
Kingdoms are the largest groups into which organisms
are sorted. Animals make up one kingdom and plants
make up another. But there are lots of other organisms
that dont fit neatly into the animal nor plant kingdoms.
Fungi (e.g. mushrooms, toadstools and yeast) may look
like plants but are very different from them. Plants use
photosynthesis to produce their food (glucose), whereas
fungi do not. They gain their glucose by breaking down
110
living or dead matter. Hence, fungi need a kingdom all

of their own. Bacteria and seaweeds need their own
kingdoms too, since they also do not fit neatly into any
of the other kingdoms.
For this reason, all living things are classified using
five kingdomsanimal, plant, fungi, protists and
monera.
all life
Kingdoms contain lots
of different types of
organisms that share
only a few general
features.
Organism = dog
Kingdom = Animal
(it is an animal)
Phylum = Chordata
(it has a spinal cord)
kkingdom
phylum
Class = Mammalia
(it is a mammal)
Order = Carnivora
(its a meat eater)
class
order
family
genus
Species are very specific.
Each species contains only
one type of organism.
species
specie
ecie
Family = Canidae
(it is a dog)
Genus and species =
Canis familiaris
(it is a tame household pet)
all living things
fungi
plants
e.g. mushroom
e.g. rosebush
animals
e.g. kangaroo
Animals such as humans, echidnas, lizards and

salmon have spinal cords running down their
back. Others like slugs, squid and jellyfish do
not. This basic structural feature is used to split
the animal kingdom into vertebrates (with
backbones/cords) and invertebrates (no
backbones/cords). These two groupings are
referred to as phyla (singular: phylum).
In a similar way, some plants (e.g. grass,
daisies and palm trees) have transport systems
made of special cells arranged along their
trunks and stems. Other plants (e.g. mosses)
do not. This feature is used to split the plant
kingdom into two major groupsthose with
the transport systems (vascular plants) and
those without (the bryophytes).
4.3
Classification starts with

organisms being
grouped into kingdoms.
It ends with them being
grouped into species.
Unit
Phyla and major groups
Fig 4.3.2
Genus
As organisms are classified into more specific
groupings, the number of living things in each
group gets smaller. However, the organisms in
each group become more and more similar in
that they share more and more features. A
genus is a group of organisms that share many,
many features. Wolves, foxes and dingoes are
all related to each other and to pet dogsall
belong to the genus Canis.
monera
e.g. bacteria
protists
e.g. seaweed
Fig 4.3.3 All living things can be classified using

five kingdoms.
Fig 4.3.4 Pet cats, tigers, lions, cheetahs and pumas

are all different, but share many similarities. All belong
to the genus Felis.
111
From kingdom to species
Species
The final, smallest and most defined group in the
classification scheme is species. Although not identical,
all the organisms in a species closely resemble each
other. They are so similar that they can mate with each
other and produce young that can also reproduce at
some later stage. This is referred to as being fertile. A
species is a group of similar organisms that can produce
fertile young.
Humans might appear different and come from
different races, but we all belong to the species Homo
sapiens. Despite our differences, we are similar enough
to be able to reproduce; for example, a Japanese woman
and a Scottish man can have a baby together because
they are part of the same species. Likewise, two dogs of
different breeds can produce healthy and fertile puppies
because they belong to the same species, Canis
familiaris. In contrast, a tiger and a frog cannot mate
and produce young. Neither can a tiger and a cheetah.
They all belong to different species.
Science
Clip
Fig 4.3.6
Each different type
of organism is given
a different binomial
name. Organisms
belonging to the same
species have the same
binomial name.
Cygnus atratus
Genus
Species
The family
the animal
belongs to
(in this case, swans)
The specific
grouping within
the family
(in this case,
black swans)
always starts with

a capital letter
always spelt in
lower case
New animals daily!

New living species are being discovered constantly. Lost in a
snowstorm in Tibet in 1995, French and British scientists
found a species of wild horse that had previously been seen
only in prehistoric cave paintings. Although the locals knew it
existed, no-one in the outside world did! Sometimes, fossils
of previously unknown extinct species are discovered. One
recent discovery was a million-year-old, sabre-toothed cat
skull, taking the number of known species to three.
always in italics.
always in italics.
Naming species
Each species is given a unique, scientific name referred
to as its binomial name.
For example, many different species of gum trees are
found in New South Wales. Four species are:
Eucalyptus camaldulensis
Eucalyptus ovata
Eucalyptus pauciflora
Eucalyptus maculata
All gum trees belong
to the same general family
and so both belong to the
same genus Eucalyptus.
Different types of gum trees
belong to different species
and so each different type
has its own specific name.
Worksheet 4.1 Sorting
Fig 4.3.5 Despite being different species, a horse and a donkey are
similar enough to be able to interbreed. Their offspring is a mule. A
mule is not fertile but is sterile.
112
Worksheet 4.2 Naming
(the river red gum)

(the swamp gum)
(the snow gum)
(the spotted gum).
Science
Clip
The genus Homo

Humans belong to the
species Homo sapiens,
meaning intelligent man.
Other humans once
belonged to the same genus
as usthe now extinct
Homo neanderthalensis
(Neanderthal man), Homo
erectus (upright man) and
Homo habilis (handy man).
Unit
QUESTIONS
Remembering
1 State the meanings of the terms taxonomy and taxonomist.
Creating
3 State which of the groups in Question 2 has the most detailed

description of the organisms in it.
14 A mnemonic is a silly sentence that helps remind you of

something. You could, for example, remember the order in
which organisms are classified (kingdomphylumclass
orderfamilygenusspecies) by, instead, remembering
Kind people can often find green shoes! Create your own
mnemonic to represent the order of classification from
kingdom to species.
4 Organisms are grouped into five kingdoms. List them.
15 The complete classification of a human is:
2 List these groups from the one that contains the greatest
number of organisms to the group that contains the least:
family, species, phylum, kingdom, genus, order, class.
5 State the structural feature that splits animals into two phyla.
Kingdom: Animal
6 State the two major groups into which plants are classified.
Phylum: Chordata (vertebrate)
Understanding
Class: Mammalia (mammal)
7 Explain how you know a terrier and a poodle belong to the

same species.
Order: Primata (primates)
8 Explain how you know that a horse and a donkey are different
species.
Genus and species: Homo sapiens
9 Describe how the unique scientific name for every living thing
is created.
10 A subphylum represents a group smaller than a phylum but
bigger than a class. Use this information to explain what you
think a subclass represents.
Applying
11 The scientific name of the Tasmanian devil is Sarcophilus
harrisii. Identify its:
Family: Hominidae (hominids)

Use this and information from the text to construct a table
that shows the similarities between a human with a dog and
the differences between them.
16 You have just discovered a new species! You must now report
your findings to the AS4NT (The Australian Society for
Naming Things).
a Outline the characteristics of your new organism. Be
creative!
b Construct a diagram or model of your new species.
a genus
c Classify your organism by placing it in a kingdom.
b species.
d Further classify your organism by giving it a name using

the binomial naming system.
12 Identify important characteristics shared by all animals in the

genus Felis (the cat family).
4.3
4.3
Analysing
13 Four native plants found in the Blue Mountains are Banksia
ericifolia, Eucalytpus punctata, Acacia floribunda and Banksia
marginata. Analyse this information to:
a State the number of species this represents.
b Name the plants that are in the same genus.
c Predict if botanists could ever cross any of these plants to
make new seedlings.
113
Science
Focus

On each continent, indigenous peoples established their
own keys to classify the living things around them.
Many early keys were based on whether the animals or
plants were useful as a food source, a source of fur or
natural fibres that could be woven or whether they were
part of their spirituality.
Animals, for example, were sometimes classified as
wild or domesticated. Other classification keys were
based on whether the animal lived on the land or in the
sea. The term fish, for example, used to refer to
anything swimming or anything that lived in the sea.
Even today, creatures such as jellyfish, shellfish, crayfish
and starfish include fish in their names, despite them
now being classified as creatures other than fish.
Science
Clip
107 Reindeers!
Likewise, shellfish and crustaceans (maypal) have at

least ten categories. These are determined by how they
attach to rocks, how they move about and whether they
live amongst rocks or on a reef. Four distinct subgroups are:
gundapuy
attached to reefs or rocks
warranggulpuy move over the outer surface of rocks
lirrapuy
move around the edges of rocks
djinawapuy
attached beneath rocks or
inside coral.
Carl Linnaeus
In 1735, the Swedish naturalist Carolus (Carl) Linnaeus
(17071778) proposed a systematic way of grouping
and naming living things. He classified all living things
as either animal or plant. He then further divided all
animals into six classes: Mammalia (mammals), Aves
(birds), Amphibia (amphibians and reptiles), Pisces
(fish), Insecta (insects) and Vermes (all the other
invertebrates). In recognition of his pioneering work,
Linnaeus was made a noble in 1761. From then on,
he was known as Carl von Linne.
The Laps are the indigenous people of Scandinavia.

Reindeer are important to them and so they have more
than 107 different categories for them! Their native
Saami language classifies them according to their age,
condition, body shape and the shape of their antlers!
Indigenous Australian
classification
Aborigines traditionally classify animals according to
their usefulness, where they live or how they were used.
Penguins and emus, for example, are placed in the same
category as kangaroosboth are ground-dwelling
sources of meat and so they are grouped together. Other
birds are placed in the flying food source category. In
some instances, an animal has no Aboriginal name
because it was not used for anything. Some Aboriginal
tribes in northern Australia name plants according to
their uses or their locations, such as a swamp. In these
tribes, fish (guya) are also classified according to where
they live. This gives five categories:
garrwarpuy living near the surface
ngopuy
living near the bottom
mayangbuy living in rivers
raypinbuy living in freshwater
gundapuy
living among rocks and reefs.
114
Fig 4.3.7 While on a scientific expedition to the far

north of Finland in 1732, Linnaeus nearly fell into an icy
crevasse. He saved himself from near-death and went on
to discover 100 new plant species on this expedition.
Unit
4.3
Scientists still argue over how many kingdoms

there should be. Some claim that the protists should
not have their own kingdom and that, instead, they
should be split amongst the animal, plant and fungi
kingdoms. Recent research suggests that the monera
kingdom could also be split to form
Science
two new kingdoms. Although the
argument continues, most accept
that there are five basic kingdoms
Weird names!
(animal, plant, fungi, protists and
Science Focus 1 presents
monera).
nine main classes of animals,
Scientists also argue about how
but there are other obscure
many phyla and classes there are.
animals with their own
specialised classes. Sponges,
There is no hard-and-fast definition
for example, have their own
for a phylum and so scientists also
class (ponifera), whereas
argue about its definition, too,
starfish belong to another
sometimes merging the idea of class
class called echinoderms.
and phyla together. For these
Another small class is called
reasons, there may be up to 89
priapulida, otherwise known
as penis worms!
different classes.
Clip
Science
Clip
Monstrous humans!
Fig 4.3.8 Although there is no evidence
for unicorns (white horses with single
long, spiralled horns growing from their
foreheads), unicorn-like horns are found
on narwhals (rare arctic mammals that
resemble dolphins) and some seahorses.
Linnaeus originally left

room in his kingdoms
for mythical animals
such mermaids, satyrs,
unicorns and
monstrous humans.
Room was left for
Homo ferus (humans
who walked on all fours
like dogs) and Homo
caudatus (humans who
had a tail)!
Many students of Linnaeus

went on to explore the world
for new plants and animals.
One, Daniel Solander,
accompanied Captain James
Cook on his first journey (on
which he discovered the east coast of Australia in
1770). He and Joseph Banks brought back to Europe the
first ever collection of Australian plants. Botany Bay
(originally called Stingray Bay, then Botanist Bay) in
Sydney was also named by them.
Although some changes were made by the French
zoologist Georges Cuvier in the early 1800s, the basic
system as developed by Linnaeus is still used today.
Arguments in science
Linnaeus and Cuvier proposed their kingdoms and
classes based on the information they had available at
the time. The development of the microscope, however,
revealed characteristics of organisms that had never
been seen before, particularly in plants and
microorganisms such as bacteria. With this new
information, new kingdoms were needed and others
could be re-organised.
Fig 4.3.9 Until Linnaeus, common dandelions were known as naked

ladies and a variety of other names. Using his binomial system, they
became Taraxacum officinale.
115

Naming organisms
Before Linnaeus, everyone had their own names for
plants and animals. Although scientists generally used
Latin to name organisms, their naming was clumsy
and inconsistent. Some scientists, for example, knew a
common wild rose as Rosa sylvestris inodora seu canina,
whereas others knew it as Rosa sylvestris alba cum
rubore folio glabro.
Some scientists had even invented their own

binomial naming systems, but none had ever used
them consistently. Linnaeus was the first. He began
to consistently name plants using his binomial system
in 1753 and animals in
Science
1758. Still used today, his
system always gives the
same name to the same
Odd naming
organism and related
Linnaeus used his binomial
names to related
system to name over 13 000
organisms. The common
species of plants and
wild rose is now known as
animals. Much of his naming
was based on body parts
Rosa canina.
Clip
from the human

reproductive system!
4.3
STUDENT ACTIVITIES

1 Find how other indigenous groups classify the living things
around them. You might investigate how the Yolngu of
Milingimbi (Northern Territory) classify birds or find out more
about how the Laps classify their reindeer. Summarise your
findings by producing a key or by listing the main points used
in the key.
2 Research the lives and work of a taxonomist such as Carolus
Linnaeus, Georges Cuvier, Daniel Solander, John Ray,
Theophrastus, Joseph Banks, Thomas Nuttall, Caspar Wistar,
Antoine Laurent de Jussieu or Colin Groves. Find:
biographical information, such as their dates and places of
birth and death, their education and positions held
what they did and where they went to carry out their
research
their contributions to taxonomy, zoology or botany.
116
Summarise your information and produce one of the

following: L
an information card
a two-minute talk to the class
a short written entry for the book Whos Who
a short TV interview with the person.
Unit
4.4
context
Classification of animals
Animals are classified into groups

according to their structural features.
Structural features describe how the
animals are physically made up. If
animals are grouped together then it
means that they have a common
structure, sharing certain features (such as

wings or scales). The main structural feature
used to classify animals is whether they have
a backbone or not. The study of animals is
known as zoology.
Vertebrates
Vertebrates are animals that have a spinal cord running
down their backs that carries nervous messages from their
brain. This spinal cord is sometimes enclosed in a bony
structure known as a spine.
Because of this cord (technically known as a
notochord), vertebrates are also known as chordates and
are placed in the phylum chordata.
There are five major classes of vertebrates/chordates
mammals, reptiles, amphibians, birds and fish.
Fig 4.4.1 Humans have a very obvious spine. Humans are vertebrates.
Animals without spines are known as invertebrates.
animal kingdom
vertebrates
invertebrates
backbone
no backbone
fish
birds
amphibians
mammals
cnidarians
worms
arthropods
millipedes
insects
centipedes
reptiles
Fig 4.4.2 There are five different classes of animals. The study of animals is called zoology.
molluscs
crustaceans
arachnids
117
Mammals
Most of the large animals you see every day are
mammals. Your classmates and family, your pet dog or
cat, the mouse in the cupboard, and the horses, cows
and kangaroos in the paddock are all mammals.
Mammals:
feed their young on milk from mammary glands
(mamma = breast in Latin, hence the name
mammals)
have hair. Sometimes this hair is not obvious (e.g.
whales) or is obvious only on newborns (e.g.
dolphins). In other mammals, the hair takes on
another formas wool (e.g. sheep), fur (e.g. lions)
or even spikes (e.g. echidnas and porcupines)
are endotherms (i.e. warm blooded), generating their
own heat using the energy from the food they eat.
The mammals are split further into three orders
placental mammals, marsupials and monotremes.
Placental mammals
Placental mammals give birth to developed young.
Examples are humans, sheep, flying foxes, mice,
dolphins and whales.
Fig 4.4.4 Most Australian mammals are marsupials.
Marsupials
Marsupials give birth to tiny young that then continue
to grow in a pouch. Examples are kangaroos, wallabies,
koalas, wombats and possums.
Monotremes
Monotremes lay eggs that hatch after a few days. The
young then develop in a pouch.
There are only three living species of monotreme
the short-beaked echidna and platypus, which are found
in Australia, and the long-beaked echidna, which is
found only in Papua New Guinea.
Fig 4.4.3 All mammals produce milk for their young.
Science
Clip
The first platypus

When the first (dead) platypus was sent to England in 1799,
scientists thought it was a hoax because it was so different from
the animals they knew. They thought this new fake animal had
been stitched together from the body parts of other animals. The
most likely were a duck (providing the bill and webbed feet), a
mole or otter (the furry, streamlined body) and a beaver (its flat
tail)! This first platypus still exists, being stored in the Mammal
Tower in the Natural History Museum in London.
In the Aboriginal Dreaming stories, the first platypus was
born after a female duck named Daroo met a male water rat
named Bilargun. Daroo soon laid eggs that then
hatched. The babies had Daroos bill and webbed
feet and Bilarguns fur and flat tail.
Fig 4.4.5 The echidna and platypus are the only types of monotreme
mammals currently living on Earth.
118
Clip
Reptiles
Some of the most fearsome and dangerous animals are
reptiles. Snakes, crocodiles and alligators are all
reptiles. Australia has its fair share of killer reptiles. The
estuarine crocodile (sometimes incorrectly known as
the saltwater crocodile or salty) is rightly called a maneater, and snakes such as the death adder, taipan, brown
snake and tiger snakes are so venomous that they can
quickly kill. Other reptiles are far less fearedlizards,
tortoises and turtles are all reptiles too.
4.4
Science
All birds have feathers and
wings. These structural features
allow most birds to fly. Those
Ouch!
that cant (e.g. penguins, emus,
Kiwis are flightless
kiwis and ostriches) have
birds native to New
Zealand. Although the
feathers and wings that are
kiwi is only about the
adapted to better suit the
size of a chicken, it
environments in which they
lays an egg weighing
live. About 900 different species
one-quarter of its
of bird have been identified in
body weight!
Australia.
Birds:
breathe using lungs
have scales on their legs and feet
lay hard-shelled eggs, from which their chicks will
hatch
are endotherms, generating their own heat
(warm blooded).
Unit
Birds
Science
Clip
Thats big!
Fossils have been found in
Australia of a species of goanna
(a type of monitor lizard) that
was over six metres long! The
largest living monitor lizard is
the Komodo dragon, which lives
on Komodo Island in Indonesia
and is less than half its size.
Taronga Park Zoo in Sydney has
Komodo dragons on display.
Fig 4.4.7 Reptiles are

ectothermic, making
them sluggish when
cold and much more
active (and dangerous)
when warm.
Reptiles:
have dry scales
have lungs
lay soft, leathery, waterproof eggs
are ectotherms (with variable blood temperature).
Reptiles cannot generate their own heat and must
warm up by lying out in the Sun. Their body
temperatures fluctuate from cold in the morning to as
high as our own after some hours in the Sun. Unlike us,
they cannot retain this heat and quickly cool down
overnight and in cold weather.
Fig 4.4.6 All birds have wings and feathers, even if they never fly.
Penguins have wings that are shaped like flippers and slicked-down oily
feathers to repel the freezing water in which they swim in search for food.
Science
Clip
Toad frog
Toads and frogs look roughly alike but are subtly different. Frogs
prefer to live near water, have webbed feet, smoother skin and
longer back legs that allow them to jump further than toads.
Toads are usually drier, lumpier and tend to live on dry land.
Amphibians
Amphibians are unique amongst the vertebrates in
that they have two stages to their lifemany live their
early life completely underwater and the rest of their
lives breathing above water. Frogs and toads are
amphibians. Both start life as a tadpole with gills and
slowly change into an adult frog with lungs.
119
Fig 4.4.8 Like all amphibians, frogs live a two-stage life. After
hatching, they first live as a tadpole, slowly changing into a frog.
Amphibians:
hatch from eggs and then live a two-stage life
have a thin skin that would dry out if they did not
live in a damp area
need to go back to water to reproduce because their
eggs do not have a waterproof coating
are able to breathe through their skin, as well as
with their lungs
are ectotherms (absorbing their heat from their
surroundings).
Cartilaginous fish
These fish do not have bones. Instead, their skeleton is
made from firm, rubber-like cartilage (the same material
that makes up the squashy part of the tip of your nose).
Like bony fish, cartilaginous fish have paired finsif
there is a fin on the right side of their body, then there
will be a matching fin on the left side. Sharks and
stingrays are examples of cartilaginous fish.
Fish
All fish have gills and are ectotherms. Most lay eggs.
There are many thousands of different species of fish.
They can be divided further into three groupsbony,
cartilaginous and jawless fish.
Bony fish
These fish have a skeleton of bone. Most fish fall into
this class, which includes barramundi, bream, clownfish,
trout and goldfish.
Fig 4.4.10 The great white shark is a cartilaginous fish. Cartilage

forms its skeleton.
Jawless fish
These fish also have a skeleton of cartilage, but
do not have any paired fins. There are about
only 45 species of this type of fish. An example
is the lamprey.
120
Fig 4.4.9 Most of the fish sold in a fish shop are bony fish.
Prac 1
p. 125
vertebrates
(mammals)
vertebrates (fish, birds,

amphibians, reptiles)
Science
Clip
Thats deadly!
Although the funnel-web spider
is found throughout New South
Wales, one of the most deadly
species lives within 100
kilometres of Sydney. Females
can live for 20 years, spending
most of that time in their web
in the ground or in stumps or
tree trunks. The males are
some of the most poisonous
animals on Earth and have
caused numerous deathsone
two-year-old child dying within
15 minutes of the bite. Luckily,
there is now an effective antivenom medication.
4.4
Arachnids
Spiders, scorpions, mites
The great majority of animals on Earth have no backbones.
and ticks are all arachnids.
They tend to be small and numerous, and include insects,
Most arachnids live on
spiders, crabs, snails and jellyfish. Animals without
land but some can live in
backbones are known as invertebrates. The invertebrates
the water.
are then split into many different phyla. The main ones
Arachnids have:
are the arthropods, cnidarians, molluscs and worms.
no antennae
Fig 4.4.11 There are far
only two body
more invertebrates than
segments
vertebrates on Earth.
have four pairs of legs
invertebrates
(eight in total)
no jaws.
Unit
Invertebrates
Arthropods
About 75 per cent of all known animals are arthropods.
They form the largest animal phylum and are found
everywhereon land, in the air, and in all water systems.
All have segmented bodies, paired jointed legs and an
exoskeleton. An exoskeleton is a hard, outer covering
that acts as an external skeleton.
The arthropods form the largest of the animal phyla.
The arthropods are split into five major classesinsects,
arachnids, crustaceans, centipedes and millipedes.
Fig 4.4.13 When disturbed, funnel-webs attack on sight and their

fangs are incredibly strong, easily piercing leather gloves. Like all
spiders, funnel-webs are arachnids.
Insects
There are close to one million different species of known
Crustaceans
insects and many more are likely to be found in the future. Crabs, prawns, shrimp, yabbies and lobsters are
There are more species of insects than any other living
examples of crustaceans.
thing. Flies, mosquitoes, cockroaches and fleas are
Crustaceans:
examples of insects.
mostly live in the water
Insects have:
have two pairs of antennae
one pair of antennae
breathe through gills.
bodies divided into three sectionsthe head, thorax
and abdomen
three pairs of legs (six in total) on their thorax.
abdomen
head thorax
hind leg
foreleg
midleg
Fig 4.4.12 All arthropods have segmented bodies. Insects have

three segments.
Fig 4.4.14 A yabby is a crustacean. Its segmented body is clear

in this photo.
121
Centipedes and millipedes
Centipedes and millipedes live on land, have segments
along their whole body and have legs attached to each
segment. Although they might look similar, some key
structural features can be used to tell them apart.
Centipede
Millipede
Body shape
Flattened
More rounded
Legs
One pair (two

legs) per
segment
Two pairs (four

legs) on most
segments
Antennae
One long pair
One short pair
Molluscs
The molluscs make up the second largest phylum in
the animal kingdom. Most molluscs live in the water
(e.g. octopuses and squids), but a few types live only on
land (e.g. snails and slugs).
Molluscs:
have soft bodies, sometimes covered with a
shell
have well-developed internal organs
have a large, muscular foot or fleshy tentacles that
are used for movement.
Fig 4.4.15 Centipedes have flattened bodies, long antennae and

one pair of legs per body segment.
Fig 4.4.17 An octopus is a mollusc.
Cnidarians
Fig 4.4.16 Millipedes have two pairs of legs on each segment of

their bodies. This is the African giant millipede, which can grow to
lengths of over 30 centimetres.
122
Cnidarians live mostly in the sea, but some are found

in freshwater. All cnidarians have a bag-like body with
only one opening through which they take in food and
release their body wastes. This opening is surrounded by
tentacles, which are covered in stinging cells that can
be used to kill prey. About 10 000 different species of
cnidarians have been identified so far.
Cnidarians (pronounced nid-air-ee-ans) can be split
further into two groupspolyps and medusas.
Worms
There are three different groups of wormsroundworms,
flatworms and segmented worms.
Roundworms
Roundworms have long cylindrical bodies that are in
one piece without segments. They have a digestive tube
with a mouth and anus. Some roundworms are
parasitic, living off (and weakening) other living
animals. Others live free in water or damp soil.
Examples of roundworms are threadworms, hookworms
and the parasitic roundworms found in the intestines of
humans, dogs, pigs and horses.
4.4
Fig 4.4.18 Coral polyps are living things called cnidarians.
Unit
Polyps
Polyps are cnidarians that attach themselves to
something like a rock. Corals and anemones are
examples of polyps.
Flatworms
Flatworms are similar to roundworms in that they also
can be parasitic or free. They differ in that they have
flat bodies instead of round ones. If they have a
digestive system, it has only one opening, which acts as
both mouth and anus. Flukes and tapeworms are
examples of flatworms.
opening acts
as both mouth
and anus
Medusas
Medusas are cnidarians that can swim about freely.
Jellyfish are medusas. Many are harmless, whereas some,
like the box jellyfish, can kill. The stinging cells of
others, such as bluebottles, inject a mix of chemicals
that leave painful, raised red welts wherever they touch
the skin.
hooks anchor the

worm to the
internal wall of
the gut
Fig 4.4.20 An image obtained by a scanning electron

microscope (SEM) of the head of a dogs parasitic tapeworm.
Segmented worms
Also known as annelids, segmented worms can be
found both on land and in water. They have welldeveloped body systems and bodies with multiple
segments. Examples are leeches and earthworms.
Science
Clip
What do I do?
soaked for about
in a bath). The traditional
vinegar solution does little
since the bluebottle injects
a chemical irritant that is
neither acid nor base.
Fig 4.4.19 Jellyfish are

medusas, a type of cnidarian.
Worksheet 4.3 Classifying
Fig 4.4.21 The segments are clear on the body of this leech.
Some leeches are used in medicine to suck out blood from
clots and to encourage blood flow into newly attached limbs
after microsurgery.
Prac 2
p. 126
123
4.4
QUESTIONS
Remembering
1 State the name used for the study of animals.
c are ectotherms.
2 State the main feature biologists use to classify animals.
Analysing
3 State the phylum to which vertebrates belong.
15 Classify the following animals as vertebrates or invertebrates:
4 List the main phyla of the invertebrates.
a hamster
5 State how many species of insects are known and how many
that scientists think probably exist.
b snail
6 List three characteristics of each of the following classes:

a amphibians
b birds
c fish
d mammals.
7 State:
a the two types of cnidarians
b the largest animal phylum
c an example of a mollusc
d two invertebrates that live on land and two that live in the
water.
Understanding
8 Clarify what is meant by the term parasitic.
9 You have just discovered a new species of reptile. Predict
what features it would have.
c mouse
d dung beetle
e grey nurse shark
f rabbit
g earthworm.
16 Contrast the following by listing their main differences:
a the three types of worms
b bony and cartilaginous fish
c centipedes and millipedes
d reptiles and amphibians
e arachnids and insects
f monotremes and marsupials.
17 Jimbia are animals with hair and lay eggs. Their young then
develop in a pouch. Use this information to classify the
jimbia.
10 Millipedes have many more legs than centipedes, despite often

being about the same length. Explain why.
18 Figure 4.4.1 shows that humans are vertebrates; however,

there is something wrong with this human. Carefully analyse
the photo and suggest what it is.
Applying
Evaluating
11 You have discovered a new organism. It has the same

classification as an animal with six legs and wings. Identify
the other features you would expect the new organism to
have. Explain your answer.
19 Scientists predict that there are far more types of animals and
plants yet to be identified. Justify their predictions by listing
reasons why different types of organisms may not yet have
been found.
12 You are watching an animal and it lays an egg.
20 There are almost no fossil remains of invertebrates,

particularly ones like jellyfish, flatworms and octopus.
Propose a reason why.
a Identify into which groups it could be classified.

b Explain what other information you would need to place it
in the correct group.
13 Identify the class of animals that:
a breathe through their lungs and skin
b have stinging cells
c feed their young milk
d breathe through gills
e lay soft, leathery eggs.
14 Identify three classes of vertebrates that:
a lay eggs
124
b have scales
Creating
21 The first European settlers in Australia were very surprised by
some of the animals they foundkangaroos, koalas,
wombats, Tasmanian tigers and devils, echidnas and platypus
looked weird to people who had never seen them before!
Imagine you are one of those first settlers. You have just seen
an Australian animal for the first time. Write a letter
describing the animal to someone in England who has never
seen it. Note that you cannot use its real name since it has
not yet been named. L
Unit
INVESTIGATING

1 Find information about the system used to classify books in
the school library. Propose what code number would be given
to this textbook if it were in the library.
4.4
4.4
e -xploring
We
b
Desti nat
To find out more about the classification of the animal
kingdom (and others), a list of web destinations can be found
on Science Focus 1 Second Edition Student Lounge.
ion
2 Gather images of examples of animals that belong to each of

the animal groups mentioned in this unit. Present your
images as a poster or PowerPoint presentation, making it
clear to which kingdom and phyla they belong. L
4.4
1
Fish dissection
Aim
anus
cut
To investigate the internal structure of a vertebrate.
Safety
1 Wear safety goggles, plastic gloves and an apron
or laboratory coat.
2 Dissecting equipment (scalpels, scissors and
tweezers) is extremely sharp and can cause
serious cuts and eye injuries.
Start your cut at the anus.

cut here to expose
the internal organs
ribs
dorsal fins
caudal fin
3 Only pick up the scalpel when you are ready to

make a cut and put it back down as soon as you
are finished.
kidney
vertebral
column
dder stomach
air bla
gonad
one perch (or similar fish; e.g. mackeral, bream)

dissecting instruments
dissecting board
newspaper
apron or laboratory coat
plastic gloves
safety goggles
live
heart
anal fin
anus
Fig 4.4.22
pectoral fin
intestine
bladder
Equipment
gall
bladder
cranium
4 Wash all equipment, the board and bench

according to your teachers instructions.
5 Wash your hands thoroughly after the prac.
oesophagus
pelvic fin
pelvic girdle
Method
1 Cover your workbench completely in newspaper and place the
dissecting board on top.
2 Put your protective clothing on and get your dissecting
instruments ready, placing them neatly on one side of the
board.
>>
125
3 Place your fish on the board and make careful observations of
its exterior (e.g. How many fins does it have and where are
they placed?)
4 Turn your fish over and identify the anus. As shown in Figure
4.4.22, make a shallow cut along the belly of the fish, starting
at the anus and working towards the head. (You may need to
scale some sections first.) Be careful not to disturb the
arrangement of its inner organs. Gradually make the cut
deeper.
Questions
1 Classify this fish as bony, cartilaginous or jawless.
2 The air bladder can inflate and deflate. Explain how this helps
the fish.
3 Were any organs difficult to identify?
4 Describe the features of the fish that make it suited for life in
the water.
5 Use Figure 4.4.22 to identify as many of the fishs organs as

possible. Leave the head until last.
Preserved invertebrates
Aim
To examine various preserved invertebrates, noting their
characteristics.
Safety
Do not use any specimens that are preserved in
formalin.
Equipment
preserved invertebrate specimens
126
Method
Sketch at least three specimens and list the characteristics of each
organism underneath its sketch.
Questions
1 Did any of the animals you studied have an exoskeleton?
List any that did.
2 Use information from this unit to identify as many
invertebrates as possible. Try to identify the class and order
to which each belongs (e.g. spider = arthropod, arachnid).
Unit
4.5
context
Plants and other kingdoms
Not all organisms fit into the animal

kingdom. Other kingdoms are needed for
plants, fungi, seaweeds and microscopic
organisms, such as bacteria. The study of

plants is called botany.
Classification of plants
Plants are classified according to several
characteristicstheir physical features and how they
feed and reproduce. The animal kingdom is split into
two groupsvertebrates and invertebrates. The plant
kingdom is also split into two groupsvascular plants
and bryophytes.
Vascular plants
Vascular plants contain vascular bundles, which
are cylindrical arrangements of specialised cells that
transport liquids and nutrients around the plant.
Most plants are vascular, the main classes
being the flowering plants, conifers, cycads,
ginkgos and ferns.
Go to
Prac 1
p. 133
Fig 4.5.2 The study of plants is called botany.
Flowering plants
Fig 4.5.1 Most plants have well-defined transport systems to carry

around water and nutrients. These plants are known as vascular plants.
The flowering plants (referred to as angiosperms) make

up the largest class of vascular plants by far. The flowers
of angiosperms range from large, brightly coloured
blooms to small, dull ones that dont really look like
flowers at all. Seeds develop inside these flowers and,
some time later, a part of the flower itself develops into
fruit. Hence, fruit contain the seeds needed for an
angiosperm to reproduce. Daisies, gum trees, wattles
and fruit trees (such as apples and pears) are all
examples of angiosperms.
127

Male
anther
filament
petal
Conifers
stamen
Female
stigma
pistil style
ovary
receptacle
ovule
sepal
Fig 4.5.3 Most flowers contain reproductive organs of both the male
(the stamen) and the female (pistil and ovule).
Conifers also produce seeds,

but not in flowers or fruit.
Instead, they produce seeds
on the scales of a woody cone.
Conifers generally prefer
cooler climates and so only a
few species occur naturally in
Australia, the main species
being the huon, kauri pine,
bunya and hoop pines.
Cycads
Unlike conifers, cycads thrive
in tropical environments.
Cycads produce seeds in
cones. Although Australian
Fig 4.5.6 Cones contain
the seeds of a conifer. Their
cycads look something like
leaves look like needles.
palm trees, they are a very
different plant. Palms are not
cycads but angiosperms
dates and coconuts being
examples of their fruit.
Fig 4.5.4 Angiosperms are flowering plants. Seeds

are held in flowers, which gradually change into fruit.
Science
Clip
A whopper gum tree!

In 2008, a 350-year-old,
101 metre tall gum tree was
discovered in the remote
forests of southern
Tasmania. Nicknamed
Centurion, the gum tree
takes the titles of worlds
oldest gum tree, tallest
hardwood tree and tallest
flowering plant. Centurion
belongs to the species
Eucalyptus regnans, a name
that literally means King of
the trees. Regnans regularly
grow to incredible heights
since they are able to
muscle-out other trees for
valuable soil and light.
128
Fig 4.5.7 Cycads look like palm trees. Like conifers, they too
produce seed-containing cones.
Science
Clip
Aboriginal food
Fig 4.5.5 Regnans can grow so

tall that they could reach threequarters of the way to the top of
the Sydney Harbour Bridge!
The Aborigines have used many poisonous substances as food

after careful treatment. One example is Cycas media, a type of
cycad. Its seeds are extremely poisonous but can be eaten after
roasting or other treatment. The Aborigines didnt always share
their secrets with the early European settlers,
many of whom were poisoned after they ate
plants, fruit and seeds found in the bush.
Other kingdoms: Fungi

Fungi are not plants because they are not capable of
photosynthesis and so cannot make their own food.
Fungi include mushrooms, toadstools and moulds. Some
fungi are very usefulmushrooms can be edible, and
the mould penicillium is the source of the antibiotic
penicillin. Other fungi are the cause of infections, such
as tinea, ringworm and thrush.
Fungi are similar to animals in that they are
heterotrophs; that is, they feed on other plants and
animals to survive. They are similar to ferns in that
they reproduce by spores.
4.5
Ginkgo biloba is the only ginkgo known to exist and so

has a class all of its own. It bears its seeds in cones but,
unlike other cone-bearing plants, it sheds its leaves in
winter.
Unit
Ginkgos
Fig 4.5.8 Originally a native plant of China, Ginkgo biloba is now

cultivated throughout the world and sold as a natural cure for
circulatory problems. Ginkgo is Japanese for maidenhair tree.
Ferns
Ferns have no seeds and reproduce through spores,
instead. Spore cases grow on their fronds (leaves).
When ready, the cases open and release their spores.
Science
Clip
Fig 4.5.10 Eat a death cap mushroom

and you die! For this reason, you should
never eat mushrooms collected from
the field or bush.
Go to

Other kingdoms:
Monera
Fig 4.5.9 The reproductive spores of ferns are usually easy to see
under their fronds.
Bryophytes
The bryophytes are small plants that do not
have a well-developed vascular system or true
roots. They are found in moist environments
and generally prefer cooler places. Mosses and
liverworts are examples of bryophytes.
Prac 2
p. 134
Poisonous mushrooms
Prac 3
p. 134
The most dangerous

mushroom is Amanita
phalloides, commonly
known as the death cap.
Normally a Northern
Hemisphere plant, it has
been found in Australia
around Canberra and
Melbourne. It has a
yellowish to olive-green
cap and is the cause of up
to 95 per cent of all fatal
mushroom poisonings. It
doesnt kill straight away
and there are usually no
symptoms until about 10
hours after it has been
eaten. Death can take up to
four days.
All bacteria belong to the kingdom

monera. Bacteria are microscopic
organisms that are found absolutely
everywherein the soil, on your
computer keyboard and mouse, on
your skin and in your intestines.
Bacteria are normally associated with
bad breath, pimples and infections,
and diseases such as salmonella,
meningitis and gonorrhoea. Yet,
bacteria can be useful, too. Your intestines contain up
to 1.5 kilograms of bacteria that help you digest food.
Other types of good bacteria are used to produce foods
such as cheese and yoghurt.
129
Other kingdoms: Protists

Lots of organisms dont fit into any of the other kingdoms
and so another kingdom, the protists, is needed for them.
Protists live in water or inside the damp bodies of other
organisms. Some protists are plant-like, using
photosynthesis to make their own food. Others are
animal-like, needing to feed on other organisms to survive.
Protists include seaweeds, slime moulds and amoeba.
Fig 4.5.11 This infection is called impetigo. It is highly infectious

and caused by the Staphylococcus bacteria.
Science
Clip
Poo on your toothbrush!

Always flush the toilet with the lid down. Studies have shown
that flushing stirs up bacteria in the toilet, which then float into
the room if the lid is not down. They can then stay in the air for
about one hour before they settle.maybe onto your toothbrush!
Fig 4.5.12 Seaweed is a plant-like protist.
Summary: The classification of living things

Kingdom
Animal
130
Major group
Vertebrates
(chordates)
Class
Examples
Characteristics
Mammals
Placental
e.g. horses, whales
Hair, mammary glands, live

young, endothermic
Mammals
Marsupials
e.g. kangaroos, koalas
As above, but with pouch
Mammals
Monotremes
e.g. echidna, platypus
As above, but lays eggs
Birds
Rosellas, magpies, emus
Feathers, wings, scales on legs,

egg-laying, endothermic
Reptiles
Snakes, lizards, crocodiles
Scales, egg-laying, ectothermic
Amphibians
Frogs, toads
Two-stage life, egg-laying,

ectothermic
Fish
Bony
e.g. salmon, goldfish
Gills, bony skeleton, lay eggs,

ectothermic
Fish
Cartilaginous
e.g. sharks, stingrays
As above, but with skeleton

made of cartilage
Fish
Jawless
e.g. lampreys
As above, but jawless
Kingdom
Invertebrates
Major group
Phylum
Examples
Arthropods
Insects
e.g. flies, grasshoppers
Exoskeleton, antennae, three body

segments, six legs
Arthropods
Arachnids
e.g. spiders, scorpions
Segmented body, no antennae, eight

legs, no jaws
Arthropods
Crustaceans
e.g. crabs, prawns
Segmented body, two pairs of

antennae, most live in water
Arthropods
Centipedes
Long antennae, segmented body, two

legs per segment
Arthropods
Millipedes
Short antennae, segmented body, four

legs per segment
Molluscs
Snails, octopus
Soft bodies, large muscular foot or

tentacles
Cnidarians
Polyps
e.g. coral
Hollow body, tentacles, stinging cells,

are fixed
Cnidarians
Medusas
e.g. jellyfish
As above, but are not fixed
Worms
Roundworms
e.g. hookworms
Unsegmented cylindrical body, mouth,

anus
Worms
Flatworms
e.g. tapeworms
Unsegmented body, one opening
Worms
Segmented
e.g. earthworms, leeches
Segmented body
Class
Examples
Characteristics
Flowering
Wattle trees, roses
Transport system, seeds in flowers,

fruit or nuts
Conifers
Pine trees, firs
As above, but seeds in cones, found

in cold climates
Cycads
Cycads
As above, but found in tropical

climates, palm-like
Ginkgo
Ginkgo biloba
Only one species exists, seeds in

cones, loses leaves
Ferns
Tree ferns, stag ferns
Transport system, spores
Mosses, liverworts
No transport system, small, live in

moist environments
Mushrooms, moulds, yeast
Feed on other organisms
Bacteria
Anthrax, Streptococcus
Microscopic
Algae
Seaweed
Plant-like
Protozoa
Amoeba, paramecium
Animal-like
Vascular
Plants
Bryophytes
Fungi
Monera
Characteristics
4.5
Animal
Major group
Unit
Kingdom
Protists
131
4.5
QUESTIONS
Remembering
1 State what the study of plants is called.
2 State alternative names for:
a flowering plants
b monera.
3 State the type of environment in which these plants live best:
a cycads
14 Angiosperms produce seeds, which are found in their flowers

and fruit. Hence, all fruit have seeds. On this basis, classify
the following as fruit or vegetable:
a potatoes
b watermelon
c strawberries
d tomatoes.
b conifers
Evaluating
c protists
15 Propose reasons why these following people did not inform

the first European settlers about what Australian plants, seeds
and fruit could and could not be eaten:
d bryophytes.
4 List four different conifers that occur naturally in Australia.
5 List three characteristics of bryophytes.
Understanding
6 Identify the part of the flower that contains the seeds in an
angiosperm.
7 The ginkgo is an incredibly special plant. Explain why.
8 Explain how ferns reproduce.
9 Explain how fungi are like animals.
10 Identify two beneficial effects of bacteria and two less
desirable effects.
11 Most flowering plants are both male and female, making them
hermaphrodites.
a Explain how this can occur.
b Use this information to define the term hermaphrodite.
Analysing
12 Classify these plants as flowering, conifer, cycad, ginkgo, fern
or bryophyte:
a a type of palm tree that produces coconuts
b my name is Japanese for maidenhair tree
a scientists back in England before the settlers began their

voyage
b Aborigines living nearby when the settlers arrived.
Creating
16 Using the table on page 136, construct two pie charts
showing the proportions of organisms in each kingdom. One
pie chart is to show the numbers of species that have been
discovered. The other is to show the numbers thought to
exist. Construct your pie charts using one of the two methods
below.
Method 1: Computer spreadsheet
a Input all your information into a spreadsheet such as Excel.
b Use the graph drawing function to generate the required
pie charts.
Method 2: Protractor N
a Trace around a circular protractor.
b Mark the centre of the circle and draw a straight line from
it to anywhere on the perimeter.
c Use the protractor to carefully measure the angles shown
in the table below.
c a type of moss
d a tree that has needles for leaves and cones.
13 Compare the following by listing their similarities and
differences:
132
Animals
Number of species
discovered
Total number
thought to exist
271
268
a ferns and fungi
Plants
56
b fungi and bacteria
Fungi
15
40
c cycads and conifers.
Monera
27
Protists
17
16
Unit
INVESTIGATING

Find out about common fungal infections of the body (such as
tinea, thrush and ringworm).
Find information about a rare but extremely deadly fungal

infection called mucormycosis. Many fell ill with this infection
after the Boxing Day tsunami that hit many Asian countries in
2004.
4.5
4.5
Summarise the information you find and display it as a pamphlet

for a doctors surgery. L
4.5
1
Vascular plants
Aim
To investigate the transport mechanisms in vascular plants.
Equipment
lead pencil
three test tubes
test-tube rack
two eyedroppers
two colours of food dye
collection of fresh leaves
three similar fresh flowers
Method
Part A
Construct images of the underside of each leaf you collected by
placing it upside down under a page in your workbook and using a
lead pencil to shade over it. A good imprint of the leaf and its veins
should be produced.
Part B
1 Nearly fill three test tubes with water and place in a test-tube
rack.
2 Use an eyedropper to place three or four drops of one food
dye colour into one test tube.
3 Use another eyedropper to place three or four drops of the
other food dye colour into a second test tube.
4 Do not add any food colour to the third test tube.
5 Place a freshly cut flower in each test tube.
6 Record your observations the next day.
Questions
1 The presence of veins in a leaf suggests that the plant it was
taken from was a vascular plant. Identify how.
2 The original colours of two of the flowers in Part B should
have changed colour overnight. Explain how this shows that
the flowers have a vascular system.
3 Identify the purpose of the flower in the test tube with
uncoloured water.
133
Dichotomous key of plants
Aim
To construct a dichotomous key for plants from the local area.
Safety
1 Some plants (e.g. oleander and rhus) are known to
2 The sap of some plants (e.g. agapanthus) may
cause skin irritation in some people.
Method
1 Examine your plants carefully and note some of their
characteristics.
2 Create a dichotomous key to identify the different plants.
Include sketches of the plant specimens. If you dont know
their names, just label them A, B, C etc.
Questions
1 Give your key and samples to a classmate. Assess whether
they could successfully use your key to identify the plants.
2 Evaluate your key. How could your key be improved?
Equipment
Plant specimens collected from home or around the school, under
supervision.
Growing a fungus
Aim
To grow mould, a type of fungi.
Method
1 Wet each piece of food and place them all in the Petri dish so
that they touch each other.
2 Place the lid on the Petri dish and seal it with sticky tape.
Safety
3 Place the dish in a place where it wont be disturbed.
1 Do not eat or taste any of the bread, fruit,

vegetables or cheese samples.
4 Without removing the sticky tape, record your observations

over the next week.
2 Once the Petri dish is sealed with sticky tape, do

not open it again.
5 At the end of the week, dispose of the Petri dish according to

your teachers instructions.
Questions
Equipment
Petri dish and lid
sticky tape
small pieces of bread, fruit, vegetables and cheese
134
1 Fungus is a mould. Compare its structure with the leaves

found on vascular plants such as gum trees.
2 Explain how fungi such as mould are important in recycling
material in the environment.
CHAPTER REVIEW
Remembering
1 List three examples of each of the following:
a organisms
b vertebrates
c invertebrates
d endotherms
e ectotherms
f angiosperms
g conifers
h fungi
i protists.
2 State:
a the five main classes of vertebrates
b the three main orders of mammals
c the four main phyla of invertebrates
d the five main classes of arthropods
e the five main classes of vascular plants.
Understanding
3 Explain why scientists classify things.
4 Cells were unknown before the invention of the microscope.
Explain why.
5 Clarify the meanings of the following terms:
a respiration
b excretion
c stimulus
d response
e taxonomy
f species
8 You watch somebody run across a field being chased by a

hungry lion. Identify which characteristics of life are shown
by:
a the person
b the lion.
9 Identify whether the following pairs of animals belong to the
same species:
a a Lebanese man and a Chinese woman
b a tiger and a gorilla
c a greyhound and a poodle
d a lizard and a crocodile
e a donkey and a horse.
10 You are standing by a campfire, listening to the rustle of the
possums in the bushes, the crackle of the fire and the laughter
of your friends. Identify whether all of the things mentioned in
this sentence are alive. Do any of the non-living things show
any of the characteristics of life? Explain.
11 Electronic music storage systems such as iTunes classify the
music they contain in a number of different ways (e.g. by
artist).
a Identify some of the other ways in which they classify the
music.
b Explain the advantages of using different keys to classify
the same music.
12 Acacia gunnii and Acacia mearnsii are both wattle trees found
in New South Wales. Both are very tall and have fluffy creamywhite flowers. Identify:
a two characteristics that both trees share
b the genus of each
c the species of each.
g vertebrate
Analysing
h exoskeleton
13 Until recently, it was thought that dinosaurs were reptiles.
i heterotroph.
6 Plants and animals both use cellular respiration for energy.
Explain why only plants can undergo photosynthesis.
Applying
7 Identify whether the following questions are dichotomous:
a Does the animal have a backbone?
b What colour is your T-shirt?
a If this was correct, list the kind of features you would

expect dinosaurs to have.
b Recent research has indicated that many (if not all)
dinosaurs were warm blooded and that birds may have
evolved from them. Use this information to classify
dinosaurs, placing them in the correct animal kingdom.
c Identify a feature of birds that resembles a feature of those
long-extinct dinosaurs.
c Did you feed the dog?

d What type of animal is that?
135
14 Classify the following as angiosperm, conifer, fern or

bryophyte:
a pine
b tree fern
c apple tree
d liverwort.
15 Classify these animals, stating whether they are a vertebrate
or invertebrate, their class (e.g. mammal, fish) and any further
group they belong to (e.g. placental mammal, bony fish):
Evaluating
16 European scientists had to change their system of
classification as more and more of the world was explored
during the 1700s and 1800s. Propose reasons why.
17 Although many animals, plants and other organisms have
been found and named, scientists believe that there are still
many more to be discovered. The table below indicates how
many species in each kingdom have been named and how
many are thought to exist on Earth.
a grey nurse shark

b red-back spider
Kingdom
Number of species
currently named
c platypus
d kangaroo
Animals
e Murray cod
f yabbie
g sperm whale
h leech
i mosquito.
Estimated number
of species thought
to exist
1 300 000
10 000 000
Plant
270 000
320 000
Fungi
72 000
1 500 000
Monera
4 000
1 000 000
Protists
80 000
600 000
a Propose reasons why:

i Almost all plants species thought to exist have already
been found.
ii Only a few of the monera (bacteria etc.) thought to exist
have been discovered so far.
b Animals are much more obvious than monera and protists,
most of which need a microscope to be seen. Despite this,
only 13 per cent of animals have been discovered so far.
Propose which classes of animals have lots of species yet
to be discovered. Justify your answer.
136
on
Ch
pt

er R
sti
ev i ew Q u e
Cells
Prescribed focus areas:

Current issues, research and developments in science
Key outcomes
4.1, 4.5, 4.8.1, 4.8.3, 4.8.4, 4.8.5
New scientific knowledge has changed

our understanding of the world.
All living things are made up of

microscopic building blocks called
cells.
Cells have internal structures

(organelles) such as the nucleus,
chloroplasts, cytoplasm, cell membrane
and wall, where each organelle has its
own defined function.
Reactions within the cell require a

constant flow of chemicals and
nutrients in and out of the cell.
Bacteria and single-celled organisms

carry out all the functions of life in one
cell.
Larger organisms contain many

different cells, where each cell is
specialised to carry out a particular job.
Living cells need glucose and oxygen to

carry out cellular respiration.
Diffusion and osmosis move chemicals

and nutrients across the cell
membrane.
Additional
The development of microscopes led to

the discovery of cells and microscopic
life.
Essentials
Unit
5.1
context
Cells and the microscope
Cells are the building blocks that make

up all living things. Cells make up insects
and iguanas, germs and gum trees,
platypus and pond slime, daisies and
dolphins. Cells are microscopicthis
means that they can be seen only using a
microscope. The story of cells, therefore, is

closely connected to the development of the
microscope. The microscope has also
allowed scientists to discover
microorganisms, their structure, weaknesses
and the diseases they cause.
The discovery
of cells
Fig 5.1.1 Modern microscopes allow us to observe organisms and details that are
impossible to see with the naked eye. This image is of a wasps head. It was taken
with an electron microscope called an SEM (a scanning electron microscope).
Fig 5.1.2 Cork is bark from a tree. Although thicker, it

resembles the paper-like bark of meleleucas often found in
parks and school grounds. Hookes original sketch of cork cells
(top) compares well with an SEM image of similar bark (right).
138
Quick Quiz
Cells are so tiny that hundreds would fit on

a full stop. They are far too small to be seen
with the naked eye and can be seen only
using a microscope. One consequence of
this is that no-one knew cells existed before
its invention.
In 1665, the English scientist Robert
Hooke used his newly invented microscope
to discover cells in cork, the special bark
sometimes used to stopper wine bottles.
Hooke had been using his microscope to
study all sorts of things, including feathers,
the stinger of a bee and the foot of a fly.
When Hooke placed a thin strip of cork
under his microscope, he saw box-like
shapes that he imagined looked like the
small rooms occupied by monks of the time.
These rooms were called cells and so he
named the boxes cells. Hooke had found
that cells were the basic blocks from which
plant materials, such as bark, were built.
Unit
5.1
Science
Clip
Who discovered the microscope?

Different people often invent and discover the same things at
exactly the same time even though they are working in different
cities or countries and have had no communication with each
other. This was the case with the compound microscope. Hans
Jannsen and his son Zacharias invented it somewhere between
1590 and 1607 and so did Hans Lippershey. The Jannsens and
Lippershey were working in Holland but they were based in
different cities and there was no contact between them. The
microscopes commonly used in schools today most resemble a
type of microscope invented by Robert Hooke in 1665.
Science
Fact File
People in science:
Robert Hooke (16351703)
Robert Hooke was one of the greatest experimental scientists of
the seventeenth century and achieved much in the scientific fields
of physics, chemistry, astronomy, as well as non-scientific fields
such as architecture. Amongst his major works and discoveries,
Hooke:
constructed an air pump for fellow scientist Robert Boyle
(1655)
discovered the law of elasticity, which explains why balls
bounce and rubber bands stretch (1660)
published the book Micrographia (meaning small drawings),
in which he first used the word cell for the microscopic blocks
he had seen in samples of cork (1665)
found that all matter expands when heated
found that air is made up of particles widely separated from
each other
was chief assistant to the great architect Christopher Wren,
helping to rebuild London after much of it was burnt down in
the Great Fire of 1666.
constructed one of the first Gregorian reflecting telescopes,
using it to make detailed sketches of Mars. These sketches
were still being used 200 years later to help investigate its
motion!
was the first to suggest that the planet Jupiter rotated on its
axis like Earth did.
In 1678, Hooke formulated a law that described how the planets
moved. Fellow scientist Isaac Newton (16431727) later used
Hookes law in a modified form. This led to a bitter and on-going
feud with Newton since Hooke thought he was not being given
enough credit for the law.
Fig 5.1.3 A model of Hookes microscope
In 1673, the Dutch amateur scientist Anton van

Leeuwenhoek made amazing discoveries with simple,
hand-held, single-lens microscopes. Whereas other
microscopes of the time could only magnify objects so
that they appeared 50 times bigger, his microscope was
able to magnify objects up to 300 times. This allowed
van Leeuwenhoek to observe things that had not been
seen previously with earlier microscopes. He saw that
muscle fibre was made of cells, that blood contained red
blood cells and that animal sperm was made of
individual sperm cells (which he named animalcules).
Van Leeuwenhoeks studies revealed that the animalmaterials he had studied were made up of cells, just like
Hooke had with plants.
One year later, van Leeuwenhoek used his
microscope to become the first person ever to see
single-celled organisms called protists. Then, in 1683,
he discovered bacteria, which were even smaller. Van
Leeuwenhoek had shown that some living things
needed only a single cell, making them far too small to
be seen by the naked eye (or by microscopes of lesser
magnification than his).
139

Science
Fact File
People in science:
Anton van Leeuwenhoek (16321723)
Anton (also known as Antoni or Antonie) van
Leeuwenhoek had little formal education and even less
experience in science. Despite this, he constructed
microscopes with magnifications far exceeding others
of his time. Whereas other microscopes took the form
of Robert Hookes, van Leeuwenhoeks microscope
looked more like a weird magnifying glass. It was
hand-held (others were on a stand) and contained only
one lens (others had multiple lenses). Nevertheless,
this single lens was of such high quality that it
produced much clearer images than those from other
microscopes in which poor-quality lenses produced
blurred images that often had colour distortions.
Van Leeuwenhoek studied all sorts of things, not just
cells. In one investigation, he closely (too closely)
investigated the properties of gunpowder, nearly
blinding himself with the resultant explosion!
Science
Clip
Sperm people!
Fig 5.1.5 Scientists in the

seventeenth century
commonly thought that
either human sperm or eggs
contained tiny immature
people called homunculi.
Microscopes have proven
this to be a fantasy.
Fig 5.1.4 Van Leeuwenhoeks simple

single-lens microscopes were able to magnify
objects so that they appeared 300 times
larger. Amazingly, van Leeuwenhoek made a
new microscope for each new experiment!
140
Inspired by van Leeuwenhoek,

Nicolas Hartsoeker (16561725),
another Dutch scientist, also
used a microscope to study
sperm cells. In his drawings of
sperm cells, he included tiny
undeveloped people that he
called homunculi. Although
Hartsoeker never claimed he saw
homunculi, he used them to
support a view, commonly held
at that time, that all animals were
formed from miniature sperm
versions of themselves. These
scientists were known as
spermists. A rival camp of
scientists, known as the ovists,
argued instead that the
homunculi existed inside the egg.
As microscopes and
their magnifications
improved, more
discoveries were made. In
1831, for example, the
Scottish botanist Robert Brown (17731858) used a
microscope to discover a cell nucleus. He went on to
find that all plant cells contained a nucleus. Likewise,
Rudolph Kolliker (18171905), a Swiss anatomist,
found in 1857 that muscle cells contained even smaller
parts called mitochondria.
Robert Brown again!
The cell theory

of life
Although cells had been

discovered in plants, animals
and microscopic protists and
bacteria, no-one had yet
realised that cells made up
everything that is living.
Then, in 1839, the German
biologists Theodor Schwann
and Matthias Schleiden
proposed the cell theory of
life. Their theory stated that:
All living things are made up of cells.
New cells are created when old cells divide in two.
All cells are similar to each other, but are not
identical.
It took a while for scientists to be convinced of cell
theory since most thought that cells could appear
spontaneously from anywhere. In 1855, however, the
German physician Rudolph Virchow (18211902)
proved once and for all that cells could only form by
other cells reproducing by splitting.
Brown didnt use his

microscope to just study
cells. In 1827, he found that
microscopic grains of pollen
continuously jiggled when in
water. It was as if the grains
were constantly being hit in
different directions by
something in the water. This
erratic motion is referred to
as Brownian motion.
Light microscopes
A light microscope passes light through the object or

reflects light off it.
A magnifying glass is an example of a simple
microscope. It contains a single lens and uses light to
give magnified images of small
Science
objects like ants.
The microscopes you are likely
to use at school are compound
People in science:
microscopes. These use two or
Matthias Schleiden
more lenses and come in two
(18041881)
forms: monocular and stereo. Each Matthias Schleiden practised law
form has its own advantages and
before developing his hobby of
botany into a full-time job. He
disadvantages.
Monocular microscopes have used the microscope to study the
structure of plants and found that
only one eyepiece. They form
different parts were composed of
flattened, two-dimensional images cells or from material made of
by focusing light that passes
cells. Schleiden recognised that
through a thin slice of the object.
the nucleus was involved in cell
Stereo microscopes have two reproduction and, along with
Theodor Schwann (18101882),
eyepieces and are generally more
laid down the basics of cell theory.
expensive than monocular
Schleiden was one of the first
microscopes. They focus
German biologists to accept
light that reflects off the
Darwins theory of evolution
through natural selection.
specimen to form realistic Prac 1
p. 146
three-dimensional images.
Fact File
Monocular
microscope
Fig 5.1.6 Microscopes have proven that all living matter is made of
cells. This image shows red blood cells in a small artery.
Stereo microscope
Number of
eyepieces
One
Two
Specimen type
Thin slices
Anything, no need
to slice
Ideal for
investigating
Inner structures
of cells,
bacteria and
single-celled
organisms
Crystal structures
of rocks and
crystals, fine
details of insects
and plants
What light
does
Light passes
through
Light reflects off

surface
Images
Flattened, twodimensional
view
Realistic, threedimensional view
Colour
Coloured
images
Coloured images
The microscope
A microscope is any instrument that gives magnified
images of small objects. If an object can be seen only
using a microscope, then it is referred to as being
microscopic. Microscopes fall into two main categories:
light microscopes and electron microscopes.
5.1
Clip
Unit
Science
141

Eyepiece or ocular lens.
Objective lens: each has a

different magnification. Always
start with the lowest magnification.
Arm
Clips: hold microscope slide in place.
Stage: holds the microscope slide.

Light passes through a thin slice of
the specimen.
Course focusing knob: used

first to bring the image into
rough focus.
Diaphragm: used to control light

passing through the specimen.
Fine focusing knob: used next to

bring the image into clear focus.
Lamp: shines light through the

specimen. Some older microscopes
will have a mirror located here.
Base
Fig 5.1.7 Parts of a monocular microscope. This

microscope has its own in-built lamp. Some older styles
do not. They need a separate lamp, using a mirror to
reflect its light up through the specimen.
D ra
The flattened image formed

by a monocular microscope
g - a n d - d ro p
Specimen and image

What you place under a microscope is called a
specimen. What you see when you look through the
eyepiece is called the image.
Magnification compares the size of the image with
the size of the specimen. A magnification of 100, for
example, means that the image appears one hundred
times larger than the specimen. Each lens in a
compound microscope has its own magnification. To
obtain the total magnification, you need to multiply the
magnifications of each lens used. Compound
microscopes commonly magnify up to 1500 times their
original size.
Eyepiece
magnification
Objective lens
magnification
Total
magnification
10
20
(10) (20) = 200
20
15
(20) (15) = 300
Prac 2
p. 147
142
Prac 3
p. 148
Stereo microscopes
produce more
realistic 3D images
Fig 5.1.8 Each type

of compound
microscope produces a
different kind of image.
An image of human cheek cells,
magnified 100 times.
A sketch of the same cells
Fig 5.1.9 The area that you see through the eyepiece is called the
field of view. Only sketch a simplified drawing of what you see,
without shading and concentrating only on the main lines and features.
Unit
5.1
The electron microscope

Electron microscopes are more powerful than light
microscopes and use tiny negatively-charged particles
called electrons to form their images. There are two
types of electron microscopes, which are called TEM
and SEM.
The transmission electron microscope (TEM)
passes a beam of electrons through a thin slice of the
specimen. An image is then produced and projected
onto a screen for viewing. The transmission electron
microscope can magnify up to a million times, making it
possible for scientists to investigate the delicate internal
structure of specimens such as cells.
Fig 5.1.10 A transmission electron microscope (TEM) in use.
Image of Giardia protozoa, magnified 1200, as produced by a
transmission electron microscope (TEM). Giardia can be found in
contaminated water and can make you extremely ill.
The image is extremely detailed but flattened and two-dimensional.
The scanning electron microscope (SEM) reflects

a beam of electrons off the surface of the specimen. It
then constructs a black-and-white image that shows fine
surface detail. Computer programs can then falsecolour the image to make details even more obvious.
Another image of Giardia protozoa, as produced by a scanning

electron microscope (SEM).
The image is realistic and appears more three-dimensional.

Many of the impressive super-magnified images seen in
science magazines are obtained using an SEM.
Fig 5.1.11 Each type of electron microscope produces a

different kind of image.
TEM
SEM
Specimen type
Thin slices
Anything, no need to slice
What electrons do
Electrons pass through
Electrons reflect off surface
Images
Provides view of inner structure of cells
Gives super-magnified views of

specimens such as insects
Colour
Coloured images
Black and white. Can be false-coloured,

using a computer.
History
First invented 1930. Commercially available from 1938 to

study metals. Then used to study cells once it became
obvious that electrons did not destroy them.
First invented 1942. Not commercially

available until 1965 due to problems with
the electron beam.
143
5.1
QUESTIONS
Remembering
1 State who:
Applying
12 Identify the parts labelled A to H in Figure 5.1.12.
a are thought to have invented the first microscope (multiple

names are needed)
b invented the form of microscope most similar to the ones
used today
c developed the cell theory of life

d proved that cells reproduced and didnt just appear from
nowhere.
2 State who saw the first:
F
a cells
B
b animal cells
c bacteria
d cell nucleus
e cell mitochondria.
H
3 List the three main points of cell theory.

4 State another name for the eyepiece.
5 State what TEM and SEM stand for.
Understanding
6 Explain why cells were not known about before the invention
of the microscope.
7 Explain why Hooke named the boxes he saw in cork cells.
8 Define the following terms: L
a microscopic
b specimen
c image
d field of view.
9 Use one word to clarify how big a cell is.
10 Explain what a magnification of 10 means in terms of
specimen and image.
11 The objective lens should never be moved downwards while
looking through the eyepiece. Propose a reason why.
Fig 5.1.12
13 Copy the table below and calculate the missing values. N

Eyepiece
magnification
Objective lens
magnification
10
10
100
20
40
100
30
Total
magnification
300
600
14 A specimen is 0.2 mm long. Calculate the length of its image

if it is magnified by 1000 times. N
144
Unit
15 The image shown in Figure 5.1.13 is of a specimen obtained

using a magnification of 50.
19 Analyse the important details of the images shown in Figure

5.1.15 and sketch them simply and clearly. Do not shade or
colour them or include too many details.
a Measure its length and width.
5.1
Analysing
b Calculate how long it would appear if viewed with a

magnification of 200.
c Accurately draw what it would look like under this new
magnification. N
50
Fig 5.1.13
16 Classify the following as either a simple microscope or a

compound microscope:
a reading glasses
b magnifying glass
c monocular microscope
d stereo microscope.
17 Compare the following types of microscopes by listing their
similarities and differences:
a a monocular microscope and a stereo microscope
b a TEM and an SEM
c a monocular microscope and a TEM.
18 Deduce whether the image in Figure 5.1.14 was produced by
a magnifying glass, TEM, SEM or a monocular or a stereo
microscope. Give reasons for your choice.
Fig 5.1.15
Evaluating
20 Bubbles are a nuisance when looking through a microscope.
21 Assess whether a monocular or a stereo microscope is most
similar to an SEM.
Creating
22 Create a mini-poster, PowerPoint presentation, video, podcast
or vodcast that shows how to use the microscope. L
Fig 5.1.14
145
5.1
INVESTIGATING

1 Find the dates of key discoveries relating to the microscope
and cells. Include those covered in this chapter and others
that you research. Construct a scaled time line, using this
information. N
3 Find out what is a micrometer. Describe how it is used.

4 Specify the units that are used when measuring small lengths.
Identify their symbols.
5 Find out how an electron microscope (either a TEM or SEM)
works. Summarise your information as a poster.
2 Find information on key people involved in the use and

development of early microscopes. Summarise the
information you find and prepare a brief presentation about
their lives and achievements. Choose from the following
people: Galileo Galilei, Antoni van Leeuwenhoek, Giovanni
Amici, Robert Brown, Matthias Schleiden and Theodor
Schwann.
5.1
1
Constructing a simple
microscope
7 Slide the outer part of the matchbox to focus and produce an

image of the object.
8 Experiment with different sizes of water drops.
Aim
To construct a simple single-lens microscope using junk materials.
drop of
water
Equipment
empty matchbox
piece of thin plastic (e.g. cut from an overhead transparency)
toothpick
sticky tape
scissors
petroleum jelly
eyedropper
plastic
ring of
petroleum jelly
sticky tape
object
matchbox
sleeve
Method
1 Cut a window in one end and one large face of the matchbox,
as shown in Figure 5.1.16.
2 Tape a piece of clear plastic over the window in the end.
3 Assemble the matchbox as shown.
4 Use the toothpick to construct a ring of petroleum jelly to hold
a drop of water.
5 Use the eyedropper to place a drop of water inside the ring of
petroleum jelly.
6 Place a small object (such as an insect) onto the matchbox
tray.
matchbox tray
Fig 5.1.16
146
>>
Unit
Questions
a lens
Fact File
b stage
Using a microscope
c focus adjustment.
1 Place the prepared slide on the stage and secure

it using the clip.
2 Describe any problems you encountered.
5.1
Science
1 Identify which part of your apparatus acts as the:
2 Adjust the mirror or diaphragm to maximise the

light passing through the slide.
3 Explain why this microscope is a simple microscope and not a

compound microscope.
4 Explain why raindrops on spectacles cause problems for the wearer.
3 Choose the objective lens with the lowest

magnification and rotate it into place.
4 While looking at the microscope from its side (not
through the eyepiece), adjust the coarse focusing
knob to bring the stage and objective lens as
close as possible to each other.
Science
Fact File
Preparing a wet mount

2 Use an eyedropper to place a drop of water or stain onto the
specimen.
5 While viewing through the eyepiece, turn the

coarse focusing knob so that the stage and
objective lens move further apart. Keep doing this
until the specimen is roughly in focus.
3 Gently lower a thin glass cover slip onto it, as shown in

Figure 5.1.17.
6 Adjust the fine focusing knob to bring the

specimen further into focus.
4 Soak up any excess water or stain with a piece of filter paper

or tissue.
7 Adjust the mirror or diaphragm to change the

amount of light so that the clearest image is
produced.
1 Place the specimen on a glass microscope slide.
sample
drop of water
Fig 5.1.17 Preparing a wet mount
Method
Focus on the news
Aim
To make a wet mount and view it using a light microscope.
Equipment
monocular microscope
lamp, if not fitted
section of newspaper containing small print
eyedropper
cover slip
1 Tear out a small scrap of newspaper filled with small print.

2 Prepare a wet mount of the small scrap of newspaper.
3 Obtain a focused image of the newsprint.
4 Sketch the image formed. Count how many letters fit into the
field of view.
5 Slowly move the slide containing the newsprint to the left,
noting which way the image appears to move.
6 Determine how the image moves when the slide is moved
right, away from and towards you.
7 Now obtain images using higher magnifications.
Questions
1 State how many letters fitted into the field of view at each
magnification.
2 Compare the movement of the image with that of the actual
specimen.
147
Observing everyday objects
Aim
To observe common objects at various magnifications.
Equipment
access to monocular microscope and a stereo microscope

lamps, if not fitted
glass microscope slides
cover slips
eyedropper
small samples suitable for viewing under a microscope (e.g. a
sugar crystal, salt, copper sulfate, hair, clothing fibres, leaves,
flowers, insects, a sample of writing etc.)
Method
1 Observe each specimen under both the monocular microscope
and the stereo microscope. A wet mount may need to be
prepared for some specimens.
2 If a stereo microscope is not available, shine a lamp onto the
specimen from above and view it as usual using the
monocular microscope.
3 Construct a table, with one column describing the images
formed by the monocular microscope and another column for
those formed by the stereo microscope.
148
Questions
1 Compare the images formed by the monocular and the stereo
microscopes.
2 Classify the specimens into those that were viewed best using
a monocular microscope and those that were viewed best
using a stereo microscope.
Unit
5.2
context
Plant cells
The first ever cells to be seen were plant

cells, specifically the cells making up the
bark called cork. Cells are the building
blocks that make up every part of a plant,
regardless of whether the plant is a tiny
and insignificant moss or a towering gum
tree. Like all living things, plants use energy

and gases, grow and reproduce. They draw
water from the soil, release valuable oxygen
gas and produce seeds or spores for
reproduction. Each of these tasks needs a
specific type of cell.
Fig 5.2.1 Cells are the building blocks that make

up all plants.
Structure of a plant cell

Like all living things, plants are made up
of microscopic structures called cells.
However, not all cells are the same. Cells
are specialised to carry out different tasks
in the plant. Despite their variety, all
plant cells share many features.
Cytoplasm: this jelly-like liquid is where energy is released
and new substances are made. The cytoplasm can be
thought of as the chemical factory of the cell.
Cell wall: this must be rigid enough to
support the plant. It contains a tough
fibrous material called cellulose.
Chloroplasts: these contain a

green chemical called chlorophyll.
Chlorophyll traps the light energy
needed for photosynthesis.
Vacuole: In plants, vacuoles are large

and filled with sap. They contain air,
water, wastes and food particles.
Cell nucleus: this controls all chemical

reactions in a cell and how the cell
develops and reproduces. The nucleus
is the control room of the cell.
Fig 5.2.2 Plant cells are made

up of parts called organelles.
Each organelle does a specific
job inside the cell.
Cell membrane: this controls

what goes in and out of the
cell. It lines the inner cell wall.
A mitochondrion: mitochondria are energy

capsules that contain glucose (a plants food) and
oxygen. Mitochondria are so small they cannot
usually be seen using a light microscope.
Prac 1
p. 153
D ra
g - a n d - d ro p
149
Plant cells
Food for plants
Diffusion and osmosis
Animals get their energy from the food they eat. Plants
dont eat and instead make their own food in a process
known as photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is a chemical
reaction that uses energy from sunlight to combine
carbon dioxide with water. A sugar called glucose is
produced, as is oxygen gas. The photosynthesis reaction
is best shown as the equation:
Once a plant has made its food in the form of glucose, it

then needs to use it. This happens within the plants
cells. Cells need energy to carry out their required
functions, such as reproduction. They obtain this energy
by burning the glucose in a chemical reaction known
as cellular respiration. Respiration requires glucose
and a supply of oxygen gas. The glucose is formed by
photosynthesis and the oxygen is drawn into the leaves.
Carbon dioxide, water and energy are its products. This
reaction is best shown as:
carbon dioxide + water + sunlight glucose + oxygen
A plant obtains its carbon dioxide by drawing it in

from the air through specialised cells, which are located
mainly under its leaves. Water is drawn from the soil
using different specialised cells in the plants roots. The
glucose a plant produces is used directly as food or
stored for later use. The oxygen a plant produces is
released back into the air. Specialised cells are needed to
draw in the different materials that photosynthesis
requires. Other specialised cells will transport these
materials to where they are needed, and other cells will
actually carry out the photosynthesis reaction.
Go to
Fig 5.2.3 The box-like structure of pondweed cells

is obvious when they are viewed under a microscope.
The green dots are the chlorophyll-filled chloroplasts.
150
For this reaction to occur, glucose and oxygen must

flow into the cells (along with some other nutrients and
minerals) and carbon dioxide and water flow out of
them (along with some other wastes). The cell
membrane is therefore not a solid wall but a porous
screen that allows some chemicals through while
blocking others.
Chemicals move across the cell membrane in two
different ways:
diffusion (where oxygen, carbon dioxide
and water move from a region of high
concentration to a region of lower
concentration)
osmosis (where water moves to dilute the
concentrations of larger chemicals and nutrients).
Unit
5.2
Specialised plant cells

There are millions of cells in a plant and different types
of cells perform different jobs. Each cell type has its own
specialised structure and is located in a position on the
plant that maximises its performance.
Photosynthetic cells: These make up a layer near the

top surface of a leaf. They have many chlorophyll-filled
chloroplasts which make the leaf green. Most
photosynthesis happens here.
chloroplasts
nucleus
underside
of leaf
Conducting cells: These are found in the stems and

branches of the plant. They form tubes that transport
water and nutrients to all parts of the plant.
water-conducting
tube
guard
cells
stoma
in open
position
cell magnified
wilted
leaf
sieve
food-conducting
tube
straight
guard
cells
closed
stoma
cell magnified
Root hair cells: Photosynthesis needs water, which is
absorbed through the roots of the plant. Root hairs
increase water absorption by increasing the total
surface area of the root.
root hair
Stomata: small openings, mostly on

the underside of leaves. The plant takes
in carbon dioxide and gives out oxygen
though these openings. Guard cells
open and close to reduce the amount
of water lost through the stomata.
cell in root
nucleus
soil
Prac 2
p. 154
Fig 5.2.4 Plant cells are specialised so that they can perform
their specific job.
Go to
151
Plant cells
5.2
QUESTIONS
7 Photosynthesis is how green plants make their own food.
Identify:
Remembering
1 State the type of specialised plant cell that:
a the chemicals (reactants) the plant needs to carry out the

reaction
a carries out photosynthesis

b transports water and nutrients
b the chemicals (products) the reaction produces
c absorbs water from the soil

d controls the opening and shutting of the holes, called
stomata.
d from where the reaction gets its energy.
Evaluating
Understanding
8 Propose what would happen to a plant without:
2 Define the term organelle. L
a guard cells
3 Describe the function in the cell of:
b cellulose
a its nucleus
c chlorophyll.
b cell wall
9 Propose a likely reason for each of the following:
c chloroplasts.
a Most plants are green.
4 Explain the purpose of chlorophyll in a plant.
b Plant cells have thicker walls than animal cells.
Applying
c Photosynthetic cells are usually found only on the upper

surface of a leaf.
5 Identify which type of specialised plant cell is:

a hairy
d There are two different types of conducting cells forming

two different pathways in the plant.
b the gatekeeper
c a transporter.
6 From the clues given, identify these substances found in a
plant. Explain the function of each.
10 There are far more types of animal cells than plant cells.
a Im green.
11 Propose a reason why animals do not need to be able to

carry out photosynthesis like plants do.
b Im found in the cell wall.
Creating
c Im found in the vacuole.
12 Construct a 2D or 3D edible model of a plant or animal cell

using biscuits, icing sugar and/or assorted lollies.
5.2
INVESTIGATING
INVESTIGATING
e -xploring
W
The confocal microscope is currently being developed eb Destination

by an Australian company. Investigate this new type of
microscope and how it may be used to observe skin cells without
the removal of skin from the body. To find out more, a list of web
destinations can be found on Science Focus 1 Second Edition
Student Lounge.
152
c the name of the sugar that is used by plants as food
Unit
Onion, rhubarb and banana

cells
5.2
5.2
Questions
1 Explain why stain was recommended when viewing banana
cells, but not for onion or rhubarb cells.
Aim
2 Identify which cells were easier to observe.
To observe and draw plant cells.
3 Compare the cells of the onion, rhubarb and banana by listing

some of their similarities and differences.
Safety
1 Do not eat any of the plant or fruit samples.
Science
2 Onion and rhubarb juice may irritate the skin or

eyes.
Preparing a wet mount
Fact File
1 Place the specimen on a glass microscope slide.
Equipment
lamp, if not fitted
potassium iodide stain
filter paper
eyedropper
cover slip
samples of onion skin
rhubarb stems and banana
2 Use an eyedropper to place a drop of water or stain onto

the specimen.
3 Gently lower a thin glass cover slip onto it, as shown in
Figure 5.2.5.
4 Soak up any excess water or stain with a piece of filter paper
or tissue.
sample
Method
1 Peel a thin layer, one cell thick, of skin from an onion.
drop of water
Fig 5.2.5 Preparing a wet mount
2 Prepare a wet mount of the onion skin.

3 Obtain a clear image with the microscope and sketch the
shape and main feature of onion cells you see.
4 Observe the specimen with two higher magnifications.
5 Peel some of the outer layer from a piece of rhubarb stem.
6 Prepare a wet mount and observe the rhubarb cells under the
microscope. Once again, repeat with two higher
magnifications.
7 Sketch the images produced.
8 Smear a thin layer of banana onto a clean glass microscope
slide.
9 Stain the banana by placing a drop of iodine stain on the
specimen.
10 Carefully place a cover slip on top of the banana specimen.
11 Obtain a clear image using the microscope and draw what
you see.
Science
Fact File
Using a microscope
1 Place the prepared slide on the stage and secure it using
the clip.
2 Adjust the mirror or diaphragm to maximise the light
passing through the slide.
3 Choose the objective lens with the lowest magnification and
rotate it into place.
4 While looking at the microscope from its side (not through
the eyepiece), adjust the coarse focusing knob to bring the
stage and objective lens as close as possible to each other.
5 While viewing through the eyepiece, turn the coarse focusing
knob so that the stage and objective lens move further apart.
Keep doing this until the specimen is roughly in focus.
6 Adjust the fine focusing knob to bring the specimen further
into focus.
7 Adjust the mirror or diaphragm to change the amount of
light so that the clearest image is produced.
153
Plant cells
Searching for stomata
Aim
To produce an image of stomata and observe them under the
microscope.
Safety
1 Vapours from nail polish may cause an asthmatic
reaction or some other reaction.
2 Ensure there is plenty of ventilation when using
nail polish.
Equipment
microscope lamp, if needed
fresh green leaves (agapanthus are ideal)
clear nail polish
clear sticky tape
Method
1 Paint a thin layer of clear nail polish in a strip about one
centimetre wide on the underside of a leaf.
2 Repeat on the top of the same leaf or a leaf from the same
type of plant.
3 When the nail polish is dry or nearly dry, gently press a strip
of sticky tape onto each strip of nail polish. If the layer of nail
polish is thick, press harder.
4 Gently rub the top of each piece of sticky tape.
5 Carefully peel the sticky tape from the leaf. Much of the nail
polish should peel off with it. An image of the stomata should
be imprinted in the nail polish.
6 Place the sticky tape onto a microscope slide and use the
microscope to look carefully for evidence of stomata.
Questions
1 Describe any stomata you see.
2 Explain the purpose of stomata.
3 Compare the number of stomata stripped from the top of the
leaf to its underside. Explain why one side would have more
stomata than the other.
154
Unit
5.3
context
Animal cells
Like plants, animals are living things

made up of cells. Animals are far more
complex than plants, however, and so
many more different types of cells are found

in animals than are found in plants.
Animal cells
All animal cells, whether they are brain, blood or
muscle cells or from a human, pig or frog, have
several common features. Some of these features
(called organelles) are also found in plant cells.
Fig 5.3.2 Cells are the basic building blocks of all animals, including
this orangutan.
A mitochondrion: Mitochondria are

energy capsules that contain glucose
(from the digestion of food) and oxygen.
Mitochondria are so small they cannot
usually be seen using a light microscope.
Fig 5.3.1 Animal cells are not like the boxes normally found in
plants. These cells are human cheek cells.
Cell membrane: This thin outer layer
holds the cell together and controls what
goes in and out. Animals are supported
by their skeletons and do not need the
thickk cell walls of plants.
Vacuole: These storage areas

contain air, water, wastes and food
particles. Animal cells often contain
several small vacuoles.
Fig 5.3.3 Animal cells are made up of parts called organelles. Each
organelle does a separate job inside the cell.
Cell nucleus: controls all chemical

reactions in a cell and how the cell
develops and reproduces. The nucleus
is the control room of the cell.
Cytoplasm: This jelly-like liquid is where energy

is released and new substances are made. The
cytoplasm can be thought of as the chemical
factory of the cell.
Worksheet 5.1 Cell diagrams

D ra
g - a n d - d ro p
155
Animal cells
Specialised animal cells

Animals are complex organisms and different cells are
needed to carry out the different functions that allow
them to live, move about and
Science
reproduce. Specialised heart cells
make up the heart, liver cells make
up the liver, skin cells make up skin
You look dead!
and so on. Blood cells carry food and
All your visible skin cells are
oxygen around the body; nerve cells
dead! Luckily, however, the
dead cells are constantly
send messages from the brain to the
flaking off and being
muscles; bone cells help support the
replaced by new skin cells
body and protect the internal organs;
forming underneath. At any
fat cells insulate the body and store
time, your dead skin
energy; and sperm and eggs cells can
accounts for up to two
kilograms of your mass!
combine to produce a new animal.
Clip
Cells are constantly dying but most are being

replaced by new ones being made at roughly the same
rate. Remove enough of one type of cell, however, and
death is likely to occur since the body cannot rebuild
them quickly enough. Serious burns, for example,
destroy most of the skin cells required to keep water in
the body and infection out of it. After a few days, many
serious burns victims die due to dehydration (water
loss) and infection.
The larger the animal, the more cells, and more
types of cells, it contains. The human body, for
example, is made up of over one hundred
million million cells, of which there are about
Prac 1
two hundred different, specialised types.
p. 157
Nerve cells: send messages

from the brain to the
muscles and back from
nerve receptors to the brain.
Involuntary muscle cells:

make the heart muscle beat
and the diaphragm move.
Bone cells: help support

the body and protect its
internal organs.
White blood cell: helps the

body fight off infection
from bacteria and viruses.
Red blood cells:
carry oxygen around
the body.
Fat cells: insulate
the body and store
energy.
Fig 5.3.4 Every animal cell has its own specific job.
These are just a few types of specialised animal cells.
5.3
QUESTIONS
Remembering
4 State the type of human cells that:
1 Specify how many cells our bodies are thought to contain.
a help keep out infection
2 State approximately how many different types of specialised

cells there are in the human body.
b send messages from the brain to muscle
3 State an example in which a loss of one type of cells can

quickly lead to death.
d assist with movement
c carry oxygen
e help fight bacteria and viruses
f store energy and help insulate the body.
156
11 Identify the part of an animal cell that could be called:

a the control room
6 Muscle cells contain large numbers of mitochondria. Discuss

why this might be.
b the chemical factory
7 Predict what would happen to a human if they were not

producing enough:
d the powerhouse
a red blood cells

b white blood cells.
c the gatekeeper
e the walls.
Evaluating
8 Multiple sclerosis is a disease that attacks nerve cells. Predict

the likely symptoms of this disease.
12 Humans produce some cells only after they reach puberty.

Propose what type of cells they are.
9 Stroke restricts the amount of blood being fed to the brain. As

a result, brain cells die. The more the restriction, the more
brain cells that die. Predict the likely symptoms of a stroke.
13 The digestive systems of sheep, cows and rabbits contain

special bacteria that help break down a substance found in the
cell walls of grass. Humans, however, are unable to break it
down. Propose what this substance might be.
10 Predict what humans would look like if they contained

chloroplasts full of green chlorophyll in their skin cells.
5.3
1
PRACTICAL ACTIVITY
Viewing prepared slides
Aim
To observe prepared slides of different specialised plant and animal
cells.
5.3
5 Plant cells need strong cellulose-filled walls, whereas animal

cells do not. Explain why.
Applying
Unit
Understanding
Safety
Only use commercially prepared slides of animal
products to minimise the risk of blood-borne diseases.
Equipment
microscope lamp, if needed
selection of prepared slides of different animal cells
Method
1 Obtain a focused image for each of the prepared slides.
2 Sketch each image, labelling what it is, the magnification used
and whether the cell is a plant or animal cell.
Questions
1 Compare the cells you observed, listing any differences and
similarities.
2 Students were once allowed to prepare their own slides using a

sample of their own blood. Propose a reason why this is not
allowed now.
3 Propose other advantages of students using prepared slides
instead of obtaining their own specimens.
Science
Fact File
Using a microscope
1 Place the prepared slide on the stage and secure it using
the clip.
2 Adjust the mirror or diaphragm to maximise the light
passing through the slide.
3 Choose the objective lens with the lowest magnification
and rotate it into place.
4 While looking at the microscope from its side (not
through the eyepiece), adjust the coarse focusing knob to
bring the stage and objective lens as close as possible to
each other.
5 While viewing through the eyepiece, turn the coarse
focusing knob so that the stage and objective lens move
further apart. Keep doing this until the specimen is
roughly in focus.
6 Adjust the fine focusing knob to bring the specimen
further into focus.
7 Adjust the mirror or diaphragm to change the amount of
light so that the clearest image is produced.
157
Unit
5.4
context
Single cells, groups of cells
The first living things on Earth had only

one cell. Bacteria are the simplest cells
found on Earth today and still only have
one cell. That single cell does everything
needed to keep the organism alive. In
more complicated organisms, cells are

grouped together in specialised colonies,
according to their type. Each colony of cells
does their own particular joba job that
could not be done by single cells living alone.
Protists
Fig 5.4.1 Single-celled organisms are often called germs and are the
cause of many infections and diseases. This finger is so badly infected
with bacteria that it has developed gangrene. The black on the finger is
dead tissue and will need to be amputated. Smoking increases your
risk of gangrene.
Single-celled organisms
Sometimes organisms are so small and simple that they
need only a single cell to carry out all of their required
functions such as movement, reproduction and taking in
food. These single-celled organisms are unicellular,
meaning they are one celled. Unicellular organisms can
be seen only using a microscope. For this reason, they
are also known as microorganisms or microbes.
Other unicellular organisms, known as protists, are

found living in most samples of water. You are likely to
see them if you view a drop of pond water under a
microscope. Protists are given their own kingdom since
they do not fit neatly into either the animal or plant
kingdomssome protists are animal-like in that they
feed on other organisms, whereas others are plant-like,
having chloroplasts that contain the green pigment
chlorophyll.
There are four different types of protists: flagellates,
ciliates, amoebas and sporozoans. Sporozoans are the
only protist that do not move about on their own.
Instead, they live in other cells, getting carried around
with them. The potentially deadly disease malaria is
caused by a sporozoan that lives in the blood cells of
infected people. The disease can be transferred when a
mosquito passes on malaria-infected blood. Although
many of the protists cause disease, many others are
important parts of the food chain.
Go to
Bacteria
Bacteria are unicellular organisms and are the simplest
type of cell. Bacteria are everywherethey are found in
their millions in the soil, in the air, in your gut and on
your skin. Some types of bacteria are said to be good
since they help the gut digest food. Others are used in
the production of foods such as yoghurt and cheese.
Bacteria also break down dead plants, animals and
faeces, returning their nutrients to the soil. Other
bacteria (commonly called germs) are less nice. They
cause bad breath, body odour, pimples and infections.
Greenish-yellow pus is a sign of a bacterial infection.
158
Fig 5.4.2 Each of these golden spheres is a bacterium cell called

Staphylococcus aureus. They cause the pus in a pimple.
nucleus
flagellum
cell wall
Euglena
Fig 5.4.3 An SEM image of euglena. Euglena is an example of a

flagellate protist. Flagellates have one, maybe two, long whip-like tails
(called flagellum) that help them move. Flagellates most resemble
plants since they contain chloroplasts filled with green chlorophyll.
cilia
cytoplasm
5.4
chloroplast
Unit
Multi-celled organisms
gullet
eye spot
Although microorganisms only have one cell, plants

and animals need many more since they are much
larger and much more complex. They require a range of
specialised cells, each type carrying out a specific task,
such as carrying oxygen in the blood or carrying
electrical messages from the brain to the muscles. These
different specialised cells are then arranged into groups
that help them work more effectively. Its a bit like
people working on a big project. One person working
alone needs to cover all the required tasks, whereas a
group can split the project according to what each
member is best at. In a caf, for example, some people
will be the cooks, some will be cleaners, some will be
waiters and others will make up the bills and deal with
money. In this way, a group can perform more complex
tasks than one person alone or a group with everyone
trying to do everything. Cells
Science
are organised in a similar way
colonies of specialised cells do
Please boil the water
particular jobs that could not be
For two months in 1998, the
done by single cells living alone
residents of Sydney were
or by identical cells trying to do
required to boil all their
everything the organism needs.
drinking water. Large quantities
Having different types of cells
of two types of microscopic
makes doing these jobs more
single-celled organisms,
efficient, as cells can focus on one
Cryptosporidium and Giardia,
had been found in the water
main thing at a time. Animals
supply. These flagellate protists
and plants that are made up of
cause severe gastro-intestinal
lots of cells working together are
problems if taken in and boiling
said to be multicellular, meaning
is one way of killing them.
many cells.
Clip
oral groove
nucleus
Paramecium
Fig 5.4.4 Paramecium is an example of a ciliate protist. Ciliates have

tiny hairs arranged around them. These beat in waves, allowing the
organism to move about. Ciliates most resemble animals since they
feed on other microorganisms.
pseudopodium
cytoplasm
nucleus
Amoeba
Fig 5.4.5 Amoebas have the ability to change their shapes and move
by flowing. Amoebas are animal-like in that they surround other
microorganisms and consume them.
Worksheet 5.2 Protists
Prac 1
p. 162
Fig 5.4.6 Although small, this mouse is huge compared to a bacterium

or a protist. Mice are examples of multicellular organisms, as are humans
and gum trees. Even microscopic bed lice are multicellular.
159

Cells, tissues and organs
Groups of similar cells make up tissue. Skin tissue, for
example, is made from skin cells, liver tissue is made
from liver cells and brain tissue is made from brain cells.
Tissues can then group together to form organs. Liver
tissue makes up the liver, kidney tissue makes up
kidneys; and skin tissue makes up the skin.
heart muscle cells
heart tissue
heart (organ)
Fig 5.4.7 Cells make up tissue and tissue makes up organs.
Systems
A group of organs that work together is called a system.
An organism is formed when several systems work
together. In animals, for example, groups of muscles
form the muscular system.
Human body systems
We humans are relatively large and complex organisms
and so have numerous body systems to allow us to
function. Some of these systems are the:
digestive system, which allows the processing of
food, releasing its energy into the body
circulatory system, which pumps blood around the
body, carrying vital oxygen and nutrients to the cells
and carbon dioxide and wastes away from them
respiratory system, which draws vital oxygen into
the bloodstream and expels carbon dioxide from it
skeletal system (the skeleton), which protects the
organs and allows the body to move
excretory system, which rids the body of wastes,
particularly urine.
Go to
Endocrine
system
Nervous
system
Fig 5.4.8 Three of the many human body systems
Plant systems
The cells in plants also group together to form tissue,
organs and systems.
Leaf cells, for example, group to form an organ
called a leaf. Several leaves then form the plants foodmaking system.
Fig 5.4.9
Compared to
animals, plants are
relatively simple
and so have fewer
systems.
Flower: a plants
reproductive system.
Stem and trunk: a food

and water transport system
consisting of a network of veins.
Leaves: use
photosynthesis to
produce food
(glucose) for the
plant.
Roots: secure the plant in the

ground and draw water and
nutrients from the soil.
Go to
160
Lymph
system
Bulb: a food storage

system in the form
of a bulb.
Unit
QUESTIONS
Remembering
1 State which type of cell is the simplest.
2 List:
a some benefits that bacteria bring
b some bad effects that bacteria cause.
3 State the correct term for a single-celled organism.
4 List four types of single-celled organisms.
5 Name a disease caused by a unicellular organism.
6 Name four different organs.
Understanding
Evaluating
16 There are benefits and disadvantages of having specialised
cells doing different jobs.
a List some advantages and disadvantages of having
specialised cells.
b List some advantages and disadvantages of having one cell
doing all jobs in a living thing.
c Evaluate whether it is better to be a single-celled organism
or to be made up of lots of specialised cells.
17 If a cell is represented by a circle (shown in diagram A),
select the diagram (from B, C, D or E) that best represents:
7 Describe the four different methods that single-celled

organisms use to get around.
a tissue
8 In complex organisms, cells are specialised to carry out a

specific task. Explain the advantages of this arrangement.
c a body system.
9 Describe what components make up the following:
5.4
5.4
b an organ
a tissue
b organ
c body system.
10 Predict which human body system could be referred to as the
locomotion system.
Applying
11 a Identify which single-celled organisms are plant-like
and which are animal-like.
b Identify how each type displays their plant- or animal-like
characteristics.
12 Identify which body system is the main one involved in each
of the following situations:
a Your face goes red after you run for one kilometre.
b Your leg moves up after you are tapped on the knee.
c You need to go to the toilet.
d You feel full after a meal.
e You gasp for air after swimming under water.
Analysing
13 Compare the following by ordering from smallest to largest:
organ, cell, tissue, system.
Fig 5.4.10
18 When bushwalking, water from flowing creeks will be

relatively safe to drink. In contrast, still water (referred to as
stagnant) may make you ill.
a Predict the type of organisms in this water that will make
you ill.
b Propose a way of cleansing stagnant water, making it safe
to drink.
c Propose a reason why flowing water is safer than stagnant
water.
19 Select which system best matches the body parts stated
below.
14 Compare flagellates, ciliates and amoebas by listing their

similarities and differences.
flower
transport system
stems
food storage system
15 Cells contain organelles, whereas human body systems

contain organs. Compare an organelle in a cell with an organ
in the human body by listing their similarities and differences.
leaves
water absorption system
roots
food-making system
bulb
reproductive system.
161
5.4
INVESTIGATING
e -xploring
W
n
eb D
esti natio
To find out more about body systems, a list of web
destinations can be found on Science Focus 1 Second Edition
Student Lounge. Choose a body system and examine in more
detail how it works. Produce a PowerPoint presentation or poster
to show your findings. L
5.4
PRACTICAL ACTIVITY
Questions
Life in a drop of water
Aim
To observe any single-celled organisms that might be in pond
water and draw them.
Safety
Do not squirt or drink pond water, as it contains live
organisms that may cause infection.
Equipment
sample of pond water or other water containing single-celled
organisms (e.g. a hay infusion)
lamp, if needed
cover slip
eyedropper
Method
1 Place a drop of pond water onto the glass microscope slide
and cover it with a cover slip.
2 Use the microscope to view any life within the drop of water.
3 Sketch as many different organisms as you can.
162
1 Describe the size and shape of the different organisms you

saw.
2 Explain how they appeared to move (i.e. by whip-like tails,
beating hairs or flowing).
3 If possible, identify each as either a flagellate, ciliate or
amoeba.
Science
Fact File
Using a microscope
1 Place the prepared slide on the stage and secure it using the clip.
2 Adjust the mirror or diaphragm to maximise the light passing
through the slide.
3 Choose the objective lens with the lowest magnification and
rotate it into place.
4 While looking at the microscope from its side (not through the
eyepiece), adjust the coarse focusing knob to bring the stage and
objective lens as close as possible to each other.
5 While viewing through the eyepiece, turn the coarse focusing
knob so that the stage and objective lens move further apart.
Keep doing this until the specimen is roughly in focus.
6 Adjust the fine focusing knob to bring the specimen further into
focus.
7 Adjust the mirror or diaphragm to change the amount of light so
that the clearest image is produced.

Current issues in research and
development
Many scientists are researching special types of cells
called stem cells. Stem cells offer a way of treating many
diseases and conditions that currently have no cure.
Stem cells can come from two sourcesadults and
embryos (the earliest form of life). Although some
success has come from adult stem cell research, more
success has come from research involving embryonic
stem cells. Extracting the stem cells, however, destroys
the embryo and so a potential human life is lost. It is
little wonder, then, that there is much heated debate
over the issue of stem cell research.
Adult stem cells

The number of stem cells in our bodies decreases
rapidly after we are born. Adults are left with some stem
cells, but these only grow into a specific type of cell.
These adult stem cells allow the body to repair minor
injuries such as bruises, cuts and broken bones. Since
the body has finished growing, these adult stem cells
cannot develop into new nerve or brain cells. This
means that the body cannot repair any injury to the
nerves, brain or spinal cord. This leaves many stroke
and accident victims permanently paralysed with
limited brain function. It also means that the scarring
associated with degenerative nervous conditions such as
Multiple sclerosis (MS), motor neuron disease and
Parkinsons disease cannot be stopped or repaired, nor
can the loss of function be reversed.
5.4
Stem cells
Unit
Science
Focus
Embryonic stem cells

We all start as a single cell called a zygote, formed when
a single sperm cell (from a male) fertilises a single egg or
ovum (from a female). This zygote cell then divides to
form two identical new cells. These then divide again to
form four cells, which then divide to become eight, then
16, 32 and so on. All these cells are identical and are
known as embryonic stem cells. After about three
weeks, however, the stem cells start to develop into the
two hundred types of specialised cells needed for the
human body to live and function. Each cell soon
becomes so specialised that it can carry out only the
specific task within the body it has been assigned.
Some become the cells that make up heart tissue.
Others develop into brain cells, skin cells, red blood
cells, nerve cells or some other specialised cell that the
body needs. This process of specialisation is referred to
as differentiation.
Fig 5.4.12 Christopher Reeve (19522004) played the hero in four

Superman movies. He became a quadriplegic after a horse-riding accident
and became a strong supporter of embryonic stem cell research.
Embryonic stem cell research

Embryonic stem cells contain in their nucleus all the
information on how to build the two hundred or so
different types of specialised cells that a human needs.
This fact has encouraged researchers to harvest
embryonic stem cells and develop methods that direct
them to change into the cell types needed for a specific
medical purpose.
Fig 5.4.11 The stem cells in this eight-week-old foetus have clearly begun
to differentiate into skin cells, brain cells, retina cells and blood cells.
163
Stem cells
Fig 5.4.13 Embryonic stem cells have the ability to form any other
type of cell.
The case for

Scientists working on mice have already shown that a
cut spinal cord can be repaired by injecting embryonic
stem cells into the broken ends of the spinal cord. This
gives hope, for example, to anyone who has severed or
crushed their spinal cord in a diving, bike or car
accident. A damaged spinal cord can result in
paraplegia or quadriplegia (more properly known as
tetraplegia). Paraplegia is the loss of use of the legs,
whereas quadriplegia is the loss of use of legs and arms.
There are currently no successful treatments for these
injuries. Embryonic stem cells could potentially be

cultivated to form new nerve cells. These might then
replace the broken ones in the victims spinal cord,
hopefully allowing them to walk again.
Researchers in 2008 successfully cultivated
pancreatic cells from human embryonic stem cells.
Diabetics have a faulty pancreas that does not produce
sufficient insulin. Therefore, they need to supplement
their insulin with regular injections. This research will
potentially lead to a permanent cure for diabetes.
In the future, embryonic stem cells may also be
cultivated to develop into:
growing new organs for someone who needs
a transplant
growing new body parts to replace those lost in
an accident
repairing damage to the brain from conditions
such as stroke and accidents
repairing damage to the brain and nervous
system caused by MS or Parkinsons disease
repairing damaged heart muscle after a heart
attack, allowing patients to once again take up
physical activity
growing new skin for burns victims, stopping
dehydration and infection and allowing
relatively scar-free recovery.
Foetus: The stem cells in the blastocyst naturally start to differentiate into all
the different cells a human body needs for its tissues, organs and systems.
Zygote: the first cell of

the new human being.
human
The cells continue

to divide.
sperm
muscle cells
nerve cells
egg
Blastocyst: the first cell has
divided and divided into a
ball of identical cells.
Inner cells can be collected

from the blastocyst.
Fig 5.4.14 Stem cells in the blastocyst will develop into all the cells required to make up a new
human. In embryonic stem cell research, the blastocyst is harvested to remove their stem cells.
164
Stem cells are

placed in a
growth medium.
Worksheet 5.3 Cloning
skin cells
Unit
Adult stem cell research

The stem cells that adults retain cannot repair damage
to nerves or the brain. Some researchers have, however,
successfully changed these stem cells into other cells.
This gives hope that they might be able to be cultivated
into whatever cells are required to repair damage.
The big advantage of using adult stem cells is that
no human embryo needs to be destroyed. There are,
therefore, no moral objections to their use. Adult stem
cells, however, seem less likely to provide a potential
cure than embryonic stem cells.
STUDENT
S
TUDENT A
ACTIVITIES
CTIVITIES
1 a Use the Internet and newspapers to gather reports on
some experiments being carried out with stem cells.
b Use the information collected to outline what is being
studied.
2 Create a poster or cartoon strip to explain to people what
embryonic stem cell research is about. L
3 To find out more about the stem cell debate,
a list of web destinations can be found on
We
n
Science Focus 1 Second Edition Student Lounge. b Destinatio
Use the available websites and any other material to answer
the following questions:
a List the advantages and disadvantages of stem cell
research.
b Investigate why some in the community are concerned
about stem cell research.
c Produce a survey to analyse public opinion about stem
cell research. Test your survey on your classmates, parents
5.4
The case against

Healthy
Embryonic stem cells are removed from a form of the
Adult stem cells taken
normal
embryo called a blastocyst. This occurs within six to
Patient
cell taken
eight days of fertilisation. Although the blastocyst
Stem cells
cannot survive on its own and bears no resemblance
DNA of cell
placed in
Cell types
transferred
culture
to a human, it is the start of a new human life. Many
injected
into
an
egg
argue that it is immoral to destroy human life, regardless
into patient
of its age or stage of development. For this reason,
many argue against embryonic stem cell research.
Specific cell
One potential source of embryos are those left over
types grown
Embryo grown
from IVF (in vitro fertilisation). Although these frozen
into blastocyst
embryos are unlikely ever to be implanted to form a baby,
Stem cells placed in culture
they are still the first stages of life. For this reason, many
believe they, too, are too precious for scientific research.
Fig 5.4.15 How adult stem cells might be used to repair
tissue. There is no risk of rejection in the use of adult stem
cells since the cells come from the patient themselves.
Whats your opinion?

There are reasons for and against
embryonic stem cell research and,
until recently, it was forbidden in
Australia. In 2007, the New South
Wales government passed legislation
allowing embryonic stem cell research
in the State. As a future voter, you
will need to decide on scientific and
moral issues such as this one. What
do you think should happen?
Science
Clip
Belly button stem cells!

The umbilical cord connects
the baby to its mother for the
nine months of pregnancy
and a little blood remains in
it immediately after birth.
Some researchers are now
collecting this umbilical blood
and are attempting to remove
any stem cells it may contain.
Isolation and growth of these
cells, however, has proven to
be extremely difficult.
or the community, and write a brief summary of your

results.
d Evaluate the information you have collected and make a
decision. Do you support embryonic stem cell research?
Give reasons for your answer.
4 Although adults have some remaining stem cells that can be
used for research, there is strong support amongst scientists
for using embryonic stem cells instead.
a Investigate and list the advantages of using embryonic
stem cells over adult stem cells.
b It might be better for a person who has a particular
medical problem to use their own stem cells rather than
embryonic stem cells. Do some research to explain this
idea.
5 Hold a class debate on the topic: Research into embryonic
stem cells can provide enormous benefits and should
continue.
165
CHAPTER REVIEW
Remembering
12 Identify whether tissue, organs or body systems contain:
1 State the type of material Robert Hooke was looking at when

he discovered cells.
a the most cells

b the least cells.
2 Sketch a plant cell and label its parts (organelles). Specify

what each organelle does.
Analysing
3 Name three types of plant cells and three of animal cells.

State the job of each cell.
13 Compare plant and animal cells by constructing a table like

that below to show their features.
4 Name two specific protists, and state which type of protist

each one is.
Feature
Plant cell
Animal cell
5 State whether a protist is a multicellular or unicellular

organism.
Understanding
6 Copy and complete the following table to summarise the
history of cells. Include as many scientists as you can find
throughout this chapter. L
Date
1609
Scientist
Hans Janssen
and his son
Discovery
Invented the
compound
microscope
14 Compare simple microscopes, compound microscopes and

electron microscopes by listing their similarities and
differences.
Evaluating
15 Propose reasons why different types of microscopes are
needed.
a List the advantages and disadvantages of an organism
being multicellular.
b List the advantages and disadvantages of an organism
being unicellular.
c Evaluate whether unicellular or multicellular organisms
have a greater advantage in terms of survival.
d Identify whether humans are unicellular or multicellular.
Explain your answer.
b Animal cells need more mitochondria than plant cells.

8 Explain what a specialised cell is and the advantages
specialised cells bring to an organism.
16 Assess the value of van Leeuwenhoeks discoveries to society

and science. Give reasons to support your answer.
Ch
Applying
10 Identify the contents of a vacuole if it is in:

a a plant cell
b an animal cell.
11 Identify the type of protist
shown in Figure 5.5.1.
Fig 5.5.1
166
pt
9 Calculate the overall magnification for a microscope with a

20 eyepiece and a 50 objective lens. N
a There are more types of animal cells than plant cells.
on
7 Explain why:
er R
sti
ev i ew Q u e
Heat, light and

sound
Key outcomes
4.3, 4.6.1, 4.6.4, 4.6.5, 4.6.6, 4.12
Energy cannot be destroyedit can be

changed only from one form into
another.
Heat is a form of energy that can be

transmitted by conduction, convection
or radiation.
Light is a form of energy that can travel

through a vacuum.
Sound needs a material to travel

through.
A variety of energy transformations

occur in everyday devices.
The gain and loss of heat can be

controlled using insulation, of which air
is an excellent example.
Potential energies store energy,

whereas kinetic energy is the energy of
movement.
Additional
Energy exists in many different forms.
Essentials
Unit
6.1
context
Energy
Energy is one of the topics you hear a lot

about in the media. Headlines about
rising petrol prices, green energy and
global warming are common in
newspapers, on TV and on news
websites. The worlds energy demand is
increasing dramatically and an energy
crisis seems just around the corner. For
this reason, scientists and engineers are

searching for alternative energy sources.
Many difficult decisions will need to be made
soon about energy. As a future voter, you will
need to help make those decisions.
Therefore, an understanding of energy, what
it is and what it does is vital for any citizen of
our world.
Energy is a very difficult thing to define as there are

many different ways of describing it. Different scientists
describe energy in different ways, depending on the area
of science they work in. This is because energy comes
in many different forms. All scientists would agree on
one thing, thoughenergy is what makes things happen.
Forms of energy
Two important types of energy are kinetic energy and
potential energy.
Kinetic energy
Kinetic energy is the energy of movement. All moving
things have kinetic energy. You have kinetic energy
every time you play handball, train for netball or you
walk to class.
Kinetic energy
is the energy
that an object
has when it is
moving. The
faster the object
moves, the
more kinetic
energy it has.
Fig 6.1.1 Heat and light are two different forms of energy.
What is energy?
Quick Quiz
Without energy, there would be no life, no
movement, no light, no heat and no sound. Everything
that happens on Earth is powered by energy. It lights
and warms the Earth and it powers the chemical
reactions that happen in the body and in test tubes. It
powers photosynthesis in plants and it powers the TV
and the car. It can be stored and it can be wasted.
168
Fig 6.1.2 Kinetic energy is the energy of motion.
Unit
Other forms of energy
Potential energy is stored energy. It is energy that has

the potential to do something. When released, it turns
into other forms of energy, such as heat, sound, light or
the energy of movement, which is known as kinetic
energy. Food, petrol, a battery and a stretched rubber
band all store potential energy in some form within
their materials. Anything that is held above the ground
has potential energy because gravity is trying to pull it
down. Potential energy can take many different forms.
Although potential and kinetic energies are important,

there are other forms of energy.
Chemical energy is stored

energy that is waiting to be
released. Petrol and LPG
store chemical energy and
release it so quickly that it
may explode. Food releases
its energy more slowly.
Heat energy can come

from a flame, the Sun,
chemical reactions,
electricity and nuclear
explosions. It can burn,
boil water, melt plastic, dry
clothes and increase the
temperature.
Electrical energy can come

from a battery, power point
or thunderbolt. It can
power an iPod, TV, Wii or a
PlayStation. It can kill if
handled carelessly.
Nuclear energy is energy

stored in the nucleus of the
atom. It can be released in
radioactive decay or in a
nuclear explosion. Nuclear
explosions are continually
happening in the Sun and
in the stars and are the
source of the light, heat
and radiation they emit.
Elastic potential energy is

the energy stored in a
stretched spring or elastic
band. Compressed springs
store elastic potential
energy too.
Gravitational potential
energy is the energy that
an object has when it is at
a height above the ground.
The higher an object is, the
more gravitational potential
energy the object has.
6.1
Potential energy
Sound energy can come

from a radio, guitar, drum
or an explosion. It can
vibrate speakers, the floor
and eardrums.
Work is energy. Work is

done whenever a force
moves an object. A
crumpled car has had work
done on its panels: sheets
of steel have been forced to
shift into new positions.
Light energy can come from

a light bulb, glow-worm or a
fire. Solar energy is simply
light energy from the Sun.
Fig 6.1.3 Potential energy is stored energy. When released it converts

into other forms of energy.
Fig 6.1.4 Other forms of energy.
169
Energy
Energy and its units

All forms of energy are measured with the same units.
Scientists use a unit called joule (abbreviated as J) to
measure energy. Another unit, kilojoule (kJ) is
commonly seen on food packaging. One kilojoule is the
same as 1000 joules (1 kJ = 1000 J). Another older unit
for energy is calorie (1 calorie = 4.2 kilojoules).
Energy conversions
Energy can be changed or converted from one kind of
energy into another. All machines and appliances
operate because they are able to change energy into
another type, and then use this energy to make
something happen.
When a match is struck it is moving and so it has
kinetic energy. This kinetic energy is turned into heat as
the match head scrapes across the box. This heat energy
releases the chemical energy stored in the match head
and wood. It has been converted into light and heat
energy.
Food stores chemical energy, too. Thats why
animals, including humans, eat it. Humans use this store
of energy to do things. It allows our bodies to keep
functioning and allows us to dance, ride bikes and run
the 100 metre sprint. In these cases, chemical energy
has been converted into the kinetic energy of
movement. Climbing to the top of a diving board or the
top of a mountain converts chemical energy into
gravitational potential energy.
A light bulb converts electrical energy into useful
light energy and not-so-useful heat energy. Some of the
electrical energy has been wasted.
Energy
conservation
Science
Energy can never be

created or destroyed. It
can be changed only from
one form to another. This
is the law of
conservation of energy.
Sometimes it appears that
energy is lost, but when
you look closer you find
that the energy has just
been converted into lessuseful forms, such as
sound, heat or light.
People in science:
James Joule (18181889)
Poor conversions
Fact File
James Joule was a British

physicist who found that, rather
than energy being lost or
destroyed (which was the
common belief at that time),
various forms of energy are
changed from one form to
another. This is the law of
conservation of energy. In 1838
he began experimenting in a
laboratory equipped at his own
expense at his family brewery.
In 1843 he determined the
amount of work required to
produce one unit of heat, now
known as the joule.
Efficient things waste

very little energy,
converting its energy into
useful forms, generally making them cheaper to run.
Most things are inefficient, converting a lot of energy
into useless forms (usually heat and sound). Cars, for
example, are very inefficientonly 25 per cent of the
chemical energy in petrol actually goes into movement.
The rest is wasted as heat and sound. There is so much
waste heat that a car can quickly overheat. Thats why
cars need radiators. Likewise, a cyclist wastes about
85 per cent of their energy. Only 15 per cent of their
energy goes into moving the bike. The rest is just
making them hot and bothered. This is why they sweat.
chemical energy
(petrol)
heat/sound 75%
Prac 1
p. 174
kinetic 25%
chemical energy
(food)
heat/sound 85%
kinetic 15%
Fig 6.1.5 Most

everyday actions involve
energy converting from
one form into another.
170
Fig 6.1.6 Most energy conversions are

inefficient, with a lot of energy being wasted.
Prac 2
p. 174
Prac 3
p. 175
Unit
6.1
The source of energy

Energy from the Sun
Most of the energy we use on Earth originally came
from the Sun.
Plants use photosynthesis to capture the Suns
energy to make their own fooda type of sugar called
glucose. Glucose is a store of chemical energy for the
plant to be converted whenever the plant needs it.
Animals cannot make their own energy and so must eat
plants or other animals to gain the energy they need for
keeping warm, moving about and reproducing.
Herbivores eat the plants directly and carnivores gain
their energy by eating herbivores or other carnivores.
Fig 6.1.8 Fossil fuels are the remains of prehistoric plants and
animals that died millions of years ago. It is very likely that little bits
of dinosaur are in the petrol pumped into every car!
Sunlight is also absorbed by non-living objects,

such as rocks, and later released as heat. Of course,
without the Suns light energy we would always be in
the dark. Solar cells turn the Suns light energy directly
into electricity.
Prac 4
p. 175
Energy from the nucleus
Fig 6.1.7 The Sun is the source of most of our energy on Earth.
The energy absorbed by plants sometimes ends up in

the fossil fuels (e.g. petrol, oil and diesel) we use for
transport and in the wood we use for making paper. This
energy is then released once more when these materials
are burnt in a car engine or a fire.
The Sun gets its energy from nuclear explosions on its

surface. The first nuclear explosion on Earth happened
in 1945, releasing a huge amount of energy as heat,
light and sound. Since that first detonation, many
similar explosions have happened on Earth. Whereas
bombs and the Sun release their energy in an
uncontrolled manner, nuclear reactors can control the
release of nuclear energy. The tamed nuclear energy
can then be used for other purposes, such as the
production of radioactive medicines and the generation
of electricity.
Worksheet 6.1 Energy
171
Energy
6.1
QUESTIONS
Remembering
13 Clarify what is really meant when we say that energy is lost.
1 Although there are many different descriptions of energy, all

scientists agree on one description. State what that is.
2 State what types of energy could be called potential energies.
Give an example of each.
14 Describe the energy transformations that take place in the

situations given below. Remember: The energy may be
transformed more than once, and to more than one type or
form of energy.
3 State what sorts of things have kinetic energy.
a toaster
4 List all the forms of energy shown in Figure 6.1.9.
b light globe
c DVD player
d car engine.
Applying
15 Identify the energy transformations that take place when an
atomic bomb explodes.
Fig 6.1.9
16 Solar panels capture the Suns energy and turn it into

electricity. Demonstrate how solar panels are similar to
plants.
Analysing
17 For each of the energy transformations listed in the table,
match the situation to which it belongs.
5 Energy has to come from somewhere. State the two main
sources of energy on Earth.
Situation
A Chemical potential heat

and light
Jack in the box
B Light heat
Torch
C Chemical potential
electrical + light and heat
Cup falling off the

bench
D Chemical potential
kinetic and heat
Car braking
E Gravitational potential
kinetic + sound (and heat)
Person running
F Chemical potential kinetic

+ gravitational potential
Solar hot-water heater
10 Explain what is meant by the law of conservation of energy.
G Elastic potential kinetic
11 A herbivorous animal eats only plants. Give an example of a

herbivorous animal and explain how it gets energy from the
Sun through its food.
Crane lifting steel

girders
H Kinetic heat and sound
Burning wood in a fire
6 State how humans use the Suns energy:

a directly
b indirectly.
7 Petrol is burnt in a car engine to get the car moving. A lot of
energy, however, is wasted. Specify two forms of energy into
which this lost energy is converted.
Understanding
8 Lifting something up gives it potential energy.
a Explain how.
b State what type of potential energy it has.
9 Clarify what is meant by the term energy transformation.
12 Carnivorous animals only eat other animals or insects and do

not eat plants directly. Give an example of a carnivorous
animal and explain how their energy also can be traced back
to the Sun.
172
Energy transformation
Unit
Water stored in dam high up in mountains

(gravitational potential)
Water falls down pipes (kinetic)
Water turns turbine (kinetic)
Turbine produces electricity (electrical)

a Not all the energy that is stored in the water at the start is
turned into electricity at the end. Some people could say
that energy is lost at each stage of making electricity.
Explain where this lost energy may go at each stage of the
process above.
b Identify a better term to replace the word lost.

c Describe the energy changes that could occur as a person
at home turns on the television and uses the electrical
energy.
6.1
18 The energy transformations below occur in a hydro power

station. Analyse each stage of the process and answer the
questions that follow.
Evaluating
19 Energy-efficient light bulbs are more expensive than normal
incandescent light bulbs.
Justify, then, why we should all use energy efficient bulbs
despite their cost.
Creating
20 Construct a flow chart to summarise the energy changes in
each of the following situations:
a a match is lit
b a person parachuting out of a plane
c a person doing a bungee jump
d a student riding a bicycle, starting from rest.
6.1
INVESTIGATING
Investigate your local resources (e.g. textbooks, encyclopaedias,

Internet etc.) to find out how the following produce energy: L
hydro, coal, tidal or nuclear power stations used to generate
electricity
mini-electrical generators, such as dynamos on a bike
batteriestheir different types and the chemicals used in
them
ways of using the Sun to generate electricity
natural gashow it was made originally and how it is tapped
for use
e -xploring
We
b Desti nation
To find out about renewable and non-renewable energy

sources,a list of web destinations can be found on Science Focus 1
a Construct a table to show the advantages and disadvantages
of each energy source.
b Evaluate each energy source and decide whether it is suitable to
use in the future. Give reasons to support your decisions. L
LPGits production and uses

petrolwhere it comes from and how it is refined.
Present your work in one of the following ways:
a flow chart showing the main steps in producing the energy
a cartoon strip showing the main stages
a set of instructions of how to make the energy
a pamphlet for tourists to a plant where that energy is
produced
a set of photos showing the main stages.
173
Energy
6.1
Method
Relighting candles
When a candle burns, the wax vaporises and catches alight,

releasing heat energy and light energy. If it is blown out, the
vapour does not burn but appears as smoke. It also can be used to
relight the candle!
1 Light a candle, then gently blow it out.

2 Lower a lit match towards the candle, following the smoke
trail.
3 The candle should relight.
4 Estimate how far the flame jumps.
Questions
Aim
To investigate how energy changes the state of wax.
Equipment
candle
matches
1 Identify the energies that are being emitted by the burning

candle.
2 Explain where these energies came from.
Fig 6.1.10
3 Heat the saucepan slowly, constantly moving it in the flame.
Popcorn
2
Aim
To use heat energy to change the stored energy in corn into sound
and motion.
4 Continue heating and, without lifting the lid, note any changes
that have occurred.
5 Place the hot saucepan on the bench mat and remove the lid.
Observe any changes.
Equipment
popping corn
small saucepan with lid
Bunsen burner
cooking oil
bench mat
saucepan
Method
Bunsen
burner
1 Place a small amount of cooking oil in the saucepan.

2 Cover the bottom of the pan with popping corn.
Fig 6.1.11
174
>>
a was being provided to the popcorn

b you heard
3 Compare the unpopped corn with the popped corn and

suggest what happened to the grains.
c was in the popcorn as it was flying about the inside of the

saucepan.
3 Chemical energy
Aim
To release chemical energy and change it into other forms.
Equipment
test tubes
test-tube rack
two 50 mL beakers
measuring cylinder
sodium hydrogen carbonate (i.e. bicarb soda)
hydrochloric acid (1 M)
acetic acid (i.e. vinegar) (1M)
Method
3 Use a measuring cylinder to measure 10 mL of the acetic acid

(i.e. vinegar) in a beaker.
4 Carefully pour the acid into the test tube.
5 Observe any energy released during the reaction. There may
be more than one type of energy released, so use your senses
of sight and hearing to examine the reaction carefully.
6 Repeat steps 1 to 5 using the hydrochloric acid.
Questions
1 Describe the energy transformations that took place in this
reaction.
2 Describe any difference in the amount of bubbles formed by
each acid.
3 Identify which acid:
1 Place a spatula of sodium hydrogen carbonate (i.e. bicarb

soda) into a test tube.
a released energy the fastest. Explain how you could tell.
2 Place the test tube in a test-tube rack.
c had more chemical potential energy stored in it.
6.1
1 Identify what form of energy:
2 List the energy changes that occurred during the heating of

the corn.
Unit
Questions
b released the most energy. Explain how you could tell.
Light energy
Aim
To perform an energy transformation.
Equipment
source of light
radiometer or light sensor
Method
1 Place the radiometer or light sensor in a dark room. Observe
any energy changes.
2 Place the radiometer or light sensor in the light. Observe any
energy changes.
Questions
1 Describe the energy transformation that took place.
2 Draw a flow chart to identify the energy changes.
3 Predict what would happen if the light source was brighter.
Fig 6.1.12 A radiometer measures light intensity.
175
Unit
6.2
context
Heat
In summer you can feel the warming heat

of the Sun. You sweat and fan yourself
and need to take off layers of clothing to
stay cool. In winter you put on extra
clothing to stop you from cooling down too

much. Heat warms, dries, cooks, melts and
burns. Heat is a form of energy that affects
us every day.
Fig 6.2.1 Heat is a form of energy that can cook and warm us. It can also destroy.
Heat and temperature

Heat something and the extra energy will raise its
temperature or change its state. Temperature depends on
heat but is very different to itheat is a form of energy,
but temperature is not.
To understand the difference, consider two Bunsen
burners set on a blue flame. One heats a beaker halffilled with water and the other heats a beaker filled with
water. After one minute, both beakers have been
supplied the same amount of heat energy, but the full
beaker will be at a lower temperature.
When an object gets hotter, its particles vibrate more
rapidly. Cool it and the particles vibrate slower.
Temperature measures how much these particles are
vibrating.
176
beaker A
The smaller
amount of
water
increases its
temperature
the most.
800
400
The same
amount of heat
has to be
spread over
more particles.
Each particle
gets less heat
energy and so
the temperature
is less.
beaker B
Both beakers receive the

same amount of heat energy.
Fig 6.2.2 Heat is not the same as temperature.
800
400
Symbol
degrees
Celsius
degrees
Fahrenheit
kelvin
Inventor
Water
freezes at
Water
boils at
Commonly used
by
100C
Most countries
for weather
Anders Celsius
(1742)
0C
Gabriel
Fahrenheit
(1717)
32F
212F
USA for
weather
William
Thomson
(later known
as Lord Kelvin)
(1848)
273 K
373 K
Scientists only
Prac 1
p. 183
Worksheet 6.2 Temperature
Science
Fact File
Scientists
6.2
Temperature
scale
Unit
Temperature is commonly
measured in degrees Celsius (C).
As shown in the table, other
temperature scales are also used in
different parts of the world and by
different people.
Heat moves from one area to
any other area that is at a lower
temperature. Heat can move in
three waysby conduction,
convection or radiation.
Conduction occurs when the particles in one part

are heated, causing them to vibrate more. These
vibrations are then passed on from particle to particle
through the object. The particles do not actually move
along the length of the objectthey just pass along the
more increased vibrations.
People in science:
Anders Celsius (17011744)
Anders Celsius was born in Uppsala, Sweden, in 1701 into a
family of scientists. One grandfather was a mathematician and the
other an astronomer, as was his father. Anders himself became a
professor of astronomy at the age of 29. He went on several
geographical expeditions, including some to polar regions and the
equator to compare the length of a degree along a line of
longitude in both places. His measurements confirmed Isaac
Newtons opinion that the Earth was slightly flattened at the Poles
compared to a perfect sphere.
This expedition helped make Celsius famous, and enabled him
to raise funds to build the Uppsala Observatory, where he became
director.
Celsius is most famous for inventing the Celsius temperature
scale, in which he made the boiling point of water zero degrees,
and freezing point 100 degrees (the opposite of todays scale). In
1745 Carolus Linnaeus reversed this to the scale we use today.
Celsius contributed to astronomy by making many
observations, including measuring the brightness of 300 stars. To
do this, he tested how many glass plates were needed to stop light
from each star getting through. It took 25 glass plates to stop light
from the brightest star in the sky, Sirius, from getting through.
Conduction
You may have experienced conduction if you have
touched a metal tap that has had hot water running
from it, or felt the handle of a metal spoon that has
been left in a cup of hot water.
heat conducted in this direction
Fig 6.2.3 Conductionvibrations pass along from particle to particle

away from the heat source.
Conductors
Different substances conduct heat at different rates.
Metals are good conductors of heat, whereas non-metals
like paper, wood and plastics are not. Among the
metals, copper and gold are particularly good
conductors. Solids are better conductors than liquids,
which are better conductors than gases. The particles in
a solid are packed closer together and so any increased
vibration causes a particle to bump into its neighbours.
The particles in liquids are a little more spread out than
the particles in a solid, so any bump is less likely to be
passed on. Gases are very poor conductors because their
particles are spread out even more. Gases are less
efficient conductors than liquids, as the particles in a
gas are spread out much more.
177
Heat
Science
When you walk barefoot across a tiled floor, it feels

colder than one that is carpeted, even though they are
both at roughly the same temperature as the rest of the
room. Meanwhile, the rest of your body doesnt feel
cold. The reason is that the tiled floor is a better
conductor than carpet and the air surrounding the rest
of your body. The tiles conduct heat away from your
feet, leaving the particles in them vibrating less and
feeling cold. In contrast, the carpet and air keep the
heat where it should be, in your feet and skin, keeping
them warm.
Science
Clip
metal rod
good
conductor
Fig 6.2.4 Firewalkers do not get burnt

because the coals are porous and do not
hold much heat.
Prac 2
p. 184
Esky
H2O
poor conductors
gas
very poor
conductor
Fig 6.2.5 Different substances, different conducting abilities.
178
Clip
Cool pools
Poor conductors are known as
When you jump into a
insulators. Insulators are
swimming pool, the
particularly useful in the
water gives you a chill,
kitchen, being used for
even if it is at the same
saucepan handles, oven mitts
temperature as the
and pot stands to prevent
surrounding air.
burns to people or surfaces.
Water is a much
better conductor of heat
The reason many
than air, so although
substances are insulators is
you may be comfortable
that they contain trapped air.
in air at 20C, water at
Air is a gas and is an
the same temperature
extremely poor conductor of
conducts heat away from
your body more rapidly,
heat. Anything that traps air
leaving you feeling colder
is likely to provide good
for a while.
insulation from the heat and
cold.
Many animals make use
of the poor conducting
Science
ability of air by having
thick fur coats or feathers
Insulation can mean
that trap air and insulate
life or death
them against harsh, cold
The lower surface of the
conditions. Birds fluff up
space shuttle is protected
on cold days to trap more
by tiles made of an
air under their feathers
insulating material that
and some animals grow a
stops the incredible heat
thicker winter coat.
of re-entry from getting
inside the shuttle and
Jumpers and blankets are
melting it. In 2003, the
made from fluffy fibres,
space shuttle Columbia
like wool or Polartec,
broke up on re-entry,
which trap air and
killing all seven astronauts
insulate against the cold.
on board. When Columbia
was launched a week
Sleeping bags, ski-parkas
earlier, a small piece of
and doonas have fluffy
foam had broken off and
padding wedged between
punched a hole in those
two layers of smooth
life-saving tiles!
fabric. Doonas become
less effective as they are
crushed and occasionally need to be fluffed up again
to trap more air.
Normally, windows only have one sheet of glass.
Double-glazed windows have two layers of glass with
an insulating layer of air trapped in between them.
This limits the heat entering a building on hot days
and exiting on a cold one.
Walls and ceilings often contain fibreglass
insulation batts that trap air within
fibreglass fibres. They stop heat from
flowing in or out of a building, keeping it
Prac 3
p. 184
cooler in summer and warmer in winter.
Clip
Firewalking
Firewalking is not
magic. Only a thin outer
layer of the charcoal is
on fire and only a small
amount of heat needs
to be conducted out of
the burning coals into
the foot for the coal to
stop burning. Pure
charcoal coals are
porous, containing
many small holes. The
coal would need to be
in contact for about a
second to harm the
foot. At normal walking
pace each foot is in
ground contact for only
half a second, so there
is plenty of time for a
firewalker to cross a
few metres of hot coals.
Insulators
Unit
6.2
Fig 6.2.6 Fur and feathers provide good insulation by trapping air.
oven mitt
insulated
handle
Convection
saucepan
pot stand
More heat is transferred in liquids and gases by

convection than by conduction. Whereas the particles
in a solid have fixed positions and can only vibrate, the
particles in liquids and gases can move about. They can
easily carry their heat energy with them, spreading the
heat to other parts of the substance. The spread of heat
due to the movement of particles in liquids and gases is
called convection.
Fig 6.2.7 In the kitchen, burns would happen without insulation.
R ratings
Insulation batts are often given R ratings. The R stands
for resistance to heat flow.
Material
R rating (for a 2.5 cm

thickness of the material)
Polystyrene foam
4.5
Insulation batt
4.0
Wood
2.3
Chipboard
2.0
Window (double glazing)
1.6
Window (single glazing)
0.9
Prac 4
p. 185
Hot air rises

Hot air rises because its particles are spread out more
than in cold air. This makes hot air less dense than cold
air and so it will rise to get on top of it. The same
happens to liquidshot liquids rise because they are
less dense than cold liquids. As they rise, the hot gases
and liquids take their heat energy with them, spreading
it throughout the container.
Convection explains why:
Hot-air balloons rise.
Smoke rises from a fire.
It is hotter near the ceiling than near the floor.
Central heating vents are usually fitted in the floor,
allowing hot air to rise from them.
Hot-water systems have their heating elements
or flames at the bottom of the tank so that the
heated water will rise and mix with the cold water
in the tank.
Fig 6.2.8 Insulation batts can be used to insulate roofs, floors and walls.
179
Heat
radiation
from sun
to hot water taps
cold water
warmed water
rises
roof
Fig 6.2.11 A solar hot-water system also makes use of convection.

Fig 6.2.9 Gliders and hang-gliders use convection currents in the air
to stay aloft much longer than would be possible otherwise.
to hot taps
hot water rises
convection current
cold water
cold water sinks
Winds
Hot air rises and cold air drops. This results in
convection currents. In the atmosphere, these currents
are felt as wind. Wind is caused by hot air in one region
rising and its place being taken by colder air coming in
from another region. For example, air at the equator is
hotter than air at the Poles, causing global winds.
A sea breeze occurs during the day because the land
warms up more quickly than the sea. As warm air rises
above land, cooler air moves in from just above the sea
to replace it. The opposite occurs at night, when the
land loses heat more quickly than the sea.
warm air rises
boiler
air cools
and drops
cool air rushes in to fill
space left by warm air
Fig 6.2.10 A hot-water system showing the movement of water

by convection.
Cold air drops

Cold air drops because its particles are packed together
more tightly than in hot air. The same happens in
liquids. Cold liquids are denser than hot liquids and so
will drop to the bottom of their container.
This is why:
Air conditioning vents are often in the ceiling.
There is a flow of cold air onto your feet when you
open an upright freezers door.
Tub type supermarket freezers do not need a lid
since the cold air cannot escape easily.
If caught in a fire, the safest place to be is close to
the floor.
180
cooler sea
warmer land
A sea breeze during the day
air cools
and drops
warm
air rises
cool air rushes in to fill

space left by warm air
cooler land
warmer sea
A land breeze at night
Fig 6.2.12 Land and sea breezes are convection currents at work.
Absorption, reflection and

transmission
6.2
When you step outside into bright sunlight, you feel the
warmth of the Sun on your skin.
Heat from the Sun cannot reach you by conduction
or convection because space is a vacuum. There are no
particles between the Sun and Earth to pass along
vibrations or move in convection currents. The heat
transfer from the Sun to the Earth is called radiation.
Radiation is the transfer of heat energy by invisible
waves that do not need a material to travel through.
Heat radiation is sometimes referred to as infra-red
radiation. Infra-red radiation travels at the speed of
light and is a type of electromagnetic wave. Visible
light, X-rays and the waves that send signals to radios
and the TV are other types of electromagnetic waves.
Unit
Radiation
When infra-red radiation hits something, it can be:

absorbed into the object, warming it up or changing
its state
reflected off the object
Science
transmitted through the object.
Usually a combination of all three
Killer heat
happens, although the amounts depend
In bushfires, it is often
on each object.
radiant heat that is
Black and dark colours are good
deadlyit can kill well
absorbers of radiation, whereas white,
before flames actually
silver and light colours are good at
reach the victims.
reflecting it. This is the reason why:
The plastic coils commonly placed
on the roof to heat swimming pools are black.
Black cars tend to heat up more than lightercoloured ones.
Light-coloured clothing stays cooler than dark
colours.
Clip
Dark colours absorb

radiated heat
absorption
Light colours reflect
radiated heat
Clear materials, such as glass,

transmit radiated heat
Fig 6.2.13 A radiator and red-hot coals emit a great deal of radiation.
All objects give out heat radiationthe hotter the

object, the more heat it radiates. Dark objects tend to
radiate more heat than shiny or light-coloured ones at
the same temperature.
The red-hot coals of an open fire radiate a
great deal of heat. If someone stands between
you and the glowing embers, you notice the
loss of radiated heat immediately! An electric
Prac 5
p. 185
radiator gives the same effect.
reflection
transmission
Fig 6.2.14 Heat radiation can be absorbed,

reflected or transmitted.
Prac 6
p. 186
Prac 7
p. 187
181
Heat
The thermos flask
The thermos flask is constructed to minimise all
three possible ways of losing heat.
stopper
polythene
vacuum
The walls of the flask are made of
two thin layers of glass with a
vacuum between to prevent heat
loss due to conduction and convection
can
hot
liquid
Shiny silvered coating to

reduce emitted radiation
Fig 6.2.15 A vacuum flask reduces heat loss by conduction,

convection and radiation.
6.2
QUESTIONS
Remembering
1 List three sources of heat.
2 List the following in order from best to worst conductor
of heat:
water, air, copper, outer space.
3 State another name for a poor conductor. Give an example.
4 List the three ways that heat can move from one place to
another.
Understanding
5 Explain the difference between temperature and heat.
6 Explain conduction in terms of what is happening to the
particles involved.
Applying
15 Draw a particle diagram to demonstrate conduction in a
metal rod.
16 Draw a diagram to demonstrate convection currents in a
beaker of water being heated from underneath by a Bunsen
burner.
17 Draw a diagram to demonstrate how a sea breeze works.
18 Identify the type of heat transfer that applies in each case
below.
a No material is required.
b Particles vibrate.
c Particles move through a material.
7 For heat to conduct from one solid to another, two things

must happen. Explain what are these two requirements.
19 Identify a household device that gives out both light and

radiated heat.
8 Explain how a fur coat insulates the person who wears it.
20 Identify the correct statement and copy it into your workbook.
9 Describe what double glazing is and when it is used.

10 There are many differences between convection and
conduction. Explain some of these.
11 Explain why cloudy nights are usually not as cold as nights
when the sky is clear.
12 Explain how some supermarket freezers can be open at the
top without losing too much cold air.
13 Some central-heating systems release hot air into a house
through vents near the ceiling. Explain why this is a poor
design.
14 Explain why heat cannot reach the Earth from the Sun by
conduction or convection.
182
polythene
A Black objects are better emitters but poorer absorbers of

heat than white objects.
B Black objects are better emitters and better absorbers of
C Black objects are worse emitters and better absorbers of
D Black objects are worse emitters and worse absorbers of
E The colour of an object does not affect how it emits or
absorbs heat.
>>
25 Some hairdos keep the head warmer than others. Propose:
22 A saucepan full of water is heated on an electric hotplate.

Analyse the situation and explain the different types of heat
transfer happening.
23 Enclosed wood heaters are better heaters than open fires.
Discuss this statement, listing the good and bad points of
each.
a which would be the warmest

b which would be coolest.
26 Propose the best colour for the things below (and explain
each choice you have made).
a solar heating panels
b the outside of a house in a hot country
c a car radiator, where heat is required to be lost
d a fire-fighting uniform.
Evaluating
Creating
24 Propose a reason why you often feel a draft when someone

leaves a door open on a cold night.
27 Construct a column graph to display the R values for the table

on page 179. N
6.2
INVESTIGATING

encyclopaedias, Internet etc.) to find out:
how radiation is involved in the enhanced greenhouse effect and
global warming
6.2
1
6.2
21 Analyse how a thermos keeps food hot. Outline its main

features and explain how these reduce all three types of heat
loss.
Unit
Analysing
how dinosaurs, such as the dimetrodon, were able to absorb

and emit heat. Are there animals today that use similar
methods to absorb and emit heat?
Feeling the heat
Aim
To find out if our senses can detect temperature accurately.
Equipment
three large beakers or tubs
hot (not scalding) water
ice
800
800
800
400
400
400
Method
1 Fill three beakers or tubs with waterone with hot (not
scalding) water, one with lukewarm water and one with icycold water.
2 Place one hand in the hot water (beaker 1) and the other hand
in icy-cold water (beaker 3) for one minute.
3 Now place both hands in the lukewarm water. Record any
differences you feel.
hot water
lukewarm water
cold water
Fig 6.2.16
Questions
1 State what each hand feels when placed in lukewarm water.
2 Explain what happened in terms of movement of heat to each
hand.
183
Heat
blob of wax
Conduction in metal rods
Aim
To compare the heat conductivity of different metals.
Equipment
three rods made of different metals (e.g. iron, copper, brass)

candle or wax drops
tripod
Bunsen burner
bench mat
timer
Method
1 Assemble the apparatus as shown in Figure 6.2.17. Melt a
piece of candle wax or place wax drops at regular intervals
along each rod. (Alternatively, use a temperature probe to
monitor the temperature at the end of each rod for a given
time.)
tripod
Bunsen
burner
Fig 6.2.17
bench mat
Questions
1 List the rods in order from best to worst conductor.
2 Present your results as a graph. N
2 Begin heating the non-waxed ends of each rod, and time how
long it takes each blob of wax to melt.
3 Stop heating after five minutes, if not before.
Insulators
3 Place a thermometer or temperature probe in the cans and

record the temperature every minute for 10 minutes.
Aim
To compare the insulating properties of different materials.
Equipment
two soft drink cans or small metal containers
insulating materials (e.g. cloth, cotton wool, foam, rubber,
newspaper, carpet scraps, fibreglass insulation)
thermometer or temperature probe
hot water
measuring cylinder
timer
Method
1 Surround one can or container with a
layer of one of the insulating
materials. Leave the other can
uncovered. This can is referred to as
the control.
2 Use a measuring cylinder to measure
a certain amount (e.g. 100 mL) of
hot water into each can. (Note: You
will need hot water of the same
temperature later in this experiment.)
184
thermometer
4 Repeat steps 1 to 3 for each of the other insulating materials,

making sure the hot water is at the same temperature as that
used previously.
Extension
5 Try different thicknesses (number of layers) of a particular
material.
6 Repeat the experiment but, instead of using hot water, use
cold water, and attempt to heat the containers using sunlight
or other suitable heating sources.
Questions
1 Present your results in a table.
insulating
material
2 Construct a line graph for each container on the same set of

axes. Put time along the horizontal or x-axis. Label each
graph. N
3 Identify which material is the:
a best insulator
b worst insulator.
Fig 6.2.18
4 Explain why one container was left uncovered.
Unit
6.2
Convection currents
Aim
beaker
To observe convection currents in water.
water
Equipment
large beaker (e.g. 500 mL or 1 L)

dried beans (e.g. borlotti beans or chickpeas)
Bunsen burner
tripod
gauze mat
bench mat
gauze mat
beans
tripod
place Bunsen burner

off-centre
bench mat
Method
1 Assemble the apparatus as shown in Figure 6.2.19.
2 Add enough dried beans to cover the base of the beaker.
Most should sink to the bottom.
Fig 6.2.19
3 Heat the beaker and carefully observe what happens.
Questions
1 Sketch the pattern formed by the moving beans.
2 Explain why the particles moved in the path they did.
3 Identify where you would find similar convection currents
in the home or industry.
Radiation emission
thermometer
thermometer
Aim
To find what colour best radiates heat energy.
Equipment
two cans (one black and one silver or white)

measuring cylinder or beaker
two thermometers or temperature probes
hot water
beaker
timer
Method
Fig 6.2.20
Questions
1 Fill each can with an equal amount of hot water at the same
temperature.
1 Construct a line graph for each container on the one set

of axes. N
2 Place a thermometer (or a temperature probe) in each

container and record the temperature every minute for
20 minutes.
2 Identify which material is the:
3 Record your results in a table.
a better emitter of heat

b worse emitter of heat.
3 It was important that the water in each can was at the same
temperature at the start. Explain why.
185
Heat
Radiation absorption
Aim
To find what colour best absorbs radiated heat energy.
Equipment
two thermometers or temperature probes

black card
white card
two retort stands with clamps
100 W light globe
bench mat
Method
1 Attach the black card to the bulb of one thermometer and the
white card to the other, as shown. (Alternatively, use a
temperature probe and study one surface at a time.)
Ensure the cards are the same size.
2 Clamp the thermometers and place them on either side of the
light globe.
3 Measure and record the distance between the globe and the
card. Ensure the globe is placed at an equal distance between
the two thermometers.
4 Connect the light globe to a power point and switch on.
Fig 6.2.21
Questions
1 Identify which colour card absorbed radiation the best.
2 In this experiment, the light globe must not be closer to one
thermometer than the other. Explain why.
3 Explain why the same-sized card should be used on each
thermometer.
4 State what happened to the temperature when the cards were
twice the distance away. Propose a reason for this
observation.
5 Record the temperature on each thermometer in a table like

the one below.
Time (minutes)
Temperature
(C) (black)
Temperature
(C) (white)
6 Repeat steps 3 to 5, but with the cards placed twice the

distance from the light globe.
186
10
Unit
thread
Heat machines
Aim
To construct a heat motor, candle snuffer or chimney machine.
Equipment
6.2
aluminium, not
paper or cardboard
stand
Materials to construct the machines shown in Figure 6.2.22.
Method
Construct either of the three heat machines, as shown
in Figure 6.2.22. Note that the spiral must be made
from aluminiumnot paper or cardboard.
?
DYO
flame from match

or Bunsen burner
match
(lit)
coil of
copper
wire
smoke
candle
Fig 6.2.22
187
Unit
6.3
context
Light
The world would be a very dark place

without light since the sense of sight
depends on light entering your eye. Light
is a form of energy. The energy it carries
warms the Earth, fades fabric and powers

photosynthesis, the process by which plants
make their food.
Science
Clip
Moonshine
At night, the Moon and stars
shine down brightly. Their
light is very obvious. Stars
produce their own light (and
heat) in the same way as the
Sun-nuclear explosions.
Stars and the Sun are both
luminous and incandescent.
The Moon, however, is just
rock. It produces no light or
heat of its own. Instead, it
acts like a giant mirror in the
sky, reflecting sunlight onto
Earth. The Moon is nonluminous. So are the other
moons and planets in the
solar system.
Fig 6.3.1 Crisp images form when light is reflected off smooth
surfaces, such as mirrors and still water.
Luminous and non-luminous

Sight depends on light entering the eyes to form images
on their retinas. The energy carried by the light then
triggers electrical impulses that travel along the optic
nerve to the brain, which interprets what is being seen.
This light comes directly from luminous objects or
via reflection off non-luminous objects. Luminous
objects, such as the Sun and light globes, make their
own light and are easy to see. Non-luminous objects do
not make their own light but can still be seen because
they reflect the light coming from something else. Most
objects that you see are non-luminous.
188
Fig 6.3.2 Non-luminous

objects do not make their
own light. They can be seen
only because they reflect the
light from other sources. If
there is no light, they cant
be seen.
Unit
Angler fish, glow-worms

and fireflies are luminous,
generating and emitting
their own light to attract
prey. No heat is generated.
Animals that do this are
termed bioluminescent.
6.3
Many luminous objects

also give out heat. These
objects can be further
classified as incandescent.
One of three things can happen

when light falls on a substance:
If the light travels through the
substance, then the substance is
termed transparent. Glass,
Perspex, diamond, water and air
are all transparent substances.
If the light is scattered as it passes
through, then the substance is
considered to be translucent.
Tissue paper, milk and the frosted
glass you find in bathrooms are all
translucent materials.
If the light is blocked by the
substance and cannot get through
it, then the substance is
considered to be opaque. Wood,
bricks and rock are all opaque
materials.
Fig 6.3.3 Luminous objects make their own light.
Speed of light
Light travels faster than anything else on Earth or
in the universe. Light is also the fastest known way
of transmitting energy. It travels at roughly 300 000
kilometres per second and does not need a material
to travel through. This means that it can
travel through the vacuum of space. At this
speed, light takes only about 8.5 minutes to
travel the 150 million kilometres from the
Prac 1
p. 193
Sun to the Earth.
Transparent materials let

light pass straight through.
Opaque materials block

and reflect light.
How light travels

Light can be thought of as
travelling in thin beams or rays.
A source of light sends out rays
in all directions in straight lines.
A light source appears brighter
when you are close to it because
there the rays are spaced closely
together. As you move away, the
light from the source
seems to become less
bright because the rays
Fig 6.3.4 Light spreads out
Prac 2
as it travels from a candle.
are spread out more.
p. 193
Fig 6.3.5 Light does different things

when it hits different substances.
Translucent materials scatter

light as it passes through it.
Prac 3
p. 194
189
Light
Shadows
Shadows are formed when an object blocks the light
aimed at a surface. You can predict the position and
type of shadow (sharp or fuzzy) using the fact that light
travels in a straight line. The term umbra is used to
describe a dark, full, sharp shadow. When a larger light
source is used, two types of shadow are formed. In the
centre will be a small, dark, full shadow (umbra).
Around it will a much larger and fainter partial shadow
called a penumbra.
small
light
source
rough surfaces, such as concrete or rough wood.

Sometimes you can get both regular and diffuse
reflections off the one surface. On a still morning the
flat surface of a lake produces clear crisp images
regular reflection is happening. Wind will cause the
surface to get choppy and all images are lost. The waves
are causing diffuse reflection to happen.
Regular reflection occurs from very
smooth surfaces, such as mirrors,
the surface of a lake on a still
morning or from highly polished
wood or metal. Regular reflection
forms clear, sharp images.
A small light source (often called

a point source) produces a sharp,
dark shadow called an umbra.
object
Fig 6.3.8 Regular reflection

Diffuse reflection occurs from rough
surfaces. Reflection occurs but no
clear image is formed. Many surfaces
appear to be smooth but are rough
compared to a mirror.
screen
Fig 6.3.6 Small light sources tend to form crisp, dark shadows.
A larger light source produces a fuzzier,
partial shadow called a penumbra.
larger
light
source
Fig 6.3.9 Diffuse reflection
The law of reflection

Reflection changes the direction of light. The angle a
light ray makes is the same before and after reflection.
This is best summarised by the law of reflection, which
states that:
object
Angle of the incoming ray = Angle of the reflected ray

i=r
These angles are measured from an imaginary line

called the normal, which is drawn at right angles to the
surface of the mirror.
full shadow (umbra)

screen
incident ray
Fig 6.3.7 Larger light sources tend to form both a crisp, dark shadow
(umbra) and a fuzzier, partial shadow (penumbra).
Reflection
190
angle of
incidence
i
angle of
reflection
r
Reflection happens when a light ray bounces off a

surface. Reflection can be classified as either regular
or diffuse.
Regular reflections occur off smooth surfaces, such as
a mirror or a highly polished table, and can form crisp
images of whatever is nearby. Diffuse reflections do not
form an image since the light is being bounced off in all
directions. Diffuse reflections occur when light falls onto
mirror
normal
reflected ray
Fig 6.3.10 Reflection off a flat mirror.
Prac 4
p. 195
Uses of plane mirrors

Plane mirrors do not distort the image in any way,
making them very useful in bathrooms, bedrooms and
in clothes shops. The image is always the same distance
from a plane mirror as the object. This allows drivers to
accurately predict the distances of cars behind them.
mirror
6.3
Flat mirrors (more properly called plane mirrors) form

images that are almost identical to whatever is in front
of the mirrorthe image appears to be the same size
and to be in exactly the same position as the object
facing it. The image is not exactly the same, however.
When you write on a piece of paper and hold it up to a
mirror, the image of writing will appear to be the wrong
way around. This effect is known as lateral inversion.
Lateral inversion turns left into right and right into left.
Unit
Plane mirrors
1m
2m
1m
Fig 6.3.12 You do not need a mirror the same size as yourself to see
your whole body. If placed correctly, the mirror needs to be only half
your height.
Worksheet 6.3 Laser light
Fig 6.3.11 Emergency vehicles, such as ambulances and fire

engines, often have their names written back-to-front so that they
are easily read in rear-view mirrors.
6.3
QUESTIONS
Remembering
1 Recall the difference between a luminous and a non-luminous
object.
2 List three incandescent objects.
3 Name a bioluminescent creature.
4 List four uses of plane mirrors.
Understanding
7 Explain how a shadow is formed.

8 Describe how a shadow changes when an object moves
towards a screen. Assume that the light source is small.
9 The Sun is a very large and wide source of light. If, instead, it
was a tiny but bright point source of light, describe how the
shadows on Earth would be different.
5 Describe the evidence that suggests that light does not need a
material through which to travel.
6 Explain how you can see a basketball even though it does not
produce its own light.
>>
191
Light
E
C
Fig 6.3.13
Applying
18 Calculate the angles x, y and z in Figure 6.3.14. N
10 Identify five examples that have not been mentioned in the

text of:
a luminous objects
b non-luminous objects.
11 Identify two translucent materials.
al
norm
60
12 Calculate how far light could travel in: N

a 2 seconds
b 60 seconds
c 1 hour.
13 Use your knowledge of reflection in a plane mirror to write
the words EMERGENCY VEHICLE so that they would appear
correctly when viewed in the mirror.
14 In a clothes shop, a plane mirror is needed that allows people
up to 180 cm tall to see themselves in it from head to foot.
Calculate what length the mirror should be. N
15 Identify which of the labels (A, B, C, D and E) in Figure 6.3.13
represent the:
a normal
b angle of reflection
c angle of incidence
d incident ray
e reflected ray.
Analysing
16 Compare:
a an umbra and a penumbra
b a transparent and an opaque substance.
17 Classify the following substances as transparent, translucent
or opaque:
plastic cling wrap, baking paper, glass, cardboard, freezer
bags, frosted glass, muddy water, smoggy air.
192
Fig 6.3.14
Evaluating
19 a Identify four devices that use light to perform a task.
b Evaluate the importance of each device to society.
Creating
20 Design a new device that uses a plane mirror(s) to help solve
a problem or make a job easier.
a Describe the problem you are trying to solve.
b Describe how your device will overcome the problem.
c Draw a labelled diagram of your device. Include rays to
demonstrate where the light will be reflected.
d Design an advertisement to sell your device to the public. L
Unit
INVESTIGATING

6.3
6.3
1 Find out what is meant by both a solar and a lunar eclipse.

Draw diagrams to explain the differences.
2 Research how a kaleidoscope works.
6.3
Teacher Demonstration
Light energy
1
Aim
light
sensor
air removed
To investigate if light travels in a vacuum.
Equipment
small torch
bell jar
vacuum pump
Method
Fig 6.3.15
vacuum pump
Questions
1 Turn on the torch and place it in the bell jar.
1 Outline what happens to the light as the air is removed.
2 Attach the vacuum pump to the bell jar and remove the air.
2 Light does not require a medium to travel through. Clarify this

statement.
3 Observe the intensity of the torch as the air is removed.
The pinhole camera
Aim
3 Make a small hole in the centre of the foil using a compass

point or similar small point.
4 Place a lit candle about 30 cm in front of the pinhole/foil end
of the box.
To show that light travels in a straight line.

tape to join sections
Equipment
small cardboard box (e.g. a shoebox)

aluminium foil
tracing paper
masking tape
a candle
scissors
foil
Method
1 Remove one end of the box and replace it with foil. Cut a
2 cm viewing hole in the other end of the box.
2 Cut the box in half and cover the cut end with tracing paper.
Seal all gaps with masking tape.
candle
pinhole
screen (tracing paper)
Fig 6.3.16 Pinhole camera
viewing
hole
>>
193
Light
5 Make sure the room is as dark as possible. Observe the image
formed at the tracing paper end of the box.
6 Investigate the effect of moving the candle different distances
from the pinhole.
7 Investigate the effect of increasing the size of the pinhole.
Questions
candle
pinhole
1 Compare the pinhole camera with an old-fashioned

film-loaded camera. What section represents the film?
2 Copy and complete Figure 6.3.17. State which way up the
image is.
tracing paper
Fig 6.3.17 Formation of the image
3 Explain what happens to the image when:

a the candle is moved further away from the camera
b the hole is made larger.
3 Copy and complete the table below.
Transmission of light
Transparent
Translucent
Opaque
Aim
To investigate the transmission of light through different
substances.
Equipment
aluminium foil
greaseproof paper
glass
acetate sheet
baking paper
brown paper bag
tissue paper
candle or light globe
Method
1 Light the candle or switch on the light globe.
2 Look at the light source through each of the substances and
record your observations.
eye
test substance
light source
Fig 6.3.18
Questions
1 State which substances are transparent.
2 Describe how light behaves when it strikes various objects.
3 Compare the images produced by a transparent and a
translucent substance.
194
Unit
Law of reflection
Aim
to power supply
(12 V)
mark reflecting
surface
mirror
To investigate the law of reflection, i = r.
Safety
The bulb of the light box can get very hot, so allow it
to cool before packing it away.
normal
mark each
ray with
two dots
Equipment
6.3
light box and power supply

ruler
mirror
protractor or Mathomat
plain paper
Method
Fig 6.3.19
Questions
1 Assemble the equipment as shown in Figure 6.3.19, marking

the position of the back of the mirror and the normal.
1 Propose a reason why the back of the mirror marked and not
the front. (Hint: Check where the mirror foil is.)
2 Mark the position of the incident and reflected rays.
2 Write a conclusion about the angles of the incoming and

reflected rays. N
3 Measure the angle of incidence and angle of reflection and

record your results in a table.
3 List any similar examples of reflection in real life.
4 Repeat steps 1 to 3 for several different angles of incidence.
195
Unit
6.4
context
Sound
Sound, like light and heat, is a form of

energy. Sound is used to communicate in
medical and industrial applications and
for entertainment. Sound can be the
annoying scream of an emergency siren
or can be your favourite music tracks

downloaded onto your iPod. Unlike light,
sound needs something to travel through.
It cannot travel through a vacuum and so
cannot travel through outer space.
Science
Clip
In space, no-one hears

you scream!
Sound is caused by vibrations,
and so there needs to be
something to vibrate. Since
space is a vacuum, there is
nothing to vibrate. There is no
air and no particles, and so any
sound in space stops at its
source. A bell jar can be used
to show that sound cannot
travel through a vacuum.
Fig 6.4.1 Sound starts as a series of vibrations that eventually end up

in your ear.
Making sound
air in jar
no air in jar
(vaccuum)
196
sound detected
no sound detected
Fig 6.4.2 Sound needs something to travel through. If the air is

removed from the bell jar, then no sound is detected.
Sound is produced whenever an object vibrates and passes

these vibrations into whatever material is surrounding the
object. Usually, the material is air, but it can be water or a
solid like the wood that makes up the body of a guitar.
These vibrations could come from your vocal cords when
you speak or your nose and throat when snoring. Musical
instruments use vibrations to make their music. Vibrations
could come from the strings of a guitar, violin or piano
when plucked or struck; the reed of a clarinet or oboe
when air is blown over it; or the skin of a drum that is hit.
Speakers and headphones use vibrations to send out their
sounds. Often, you can see the vibrations on the stings of a
guitar or in the prongs of a tuning fork. Sometimes you
can even feel the vibrations, especially when you are
standing in front of speakers and the music is really loud!
The sounds then need to get to your ear. In air, layers
of air particles vibrate in turn, passing the sound energy
through the air in a series of rarefactions and
compressions that are known as a sound wave.
Unit
Science
Fact File
air particles
Thunder and lightning
compression
rarefaction
speaker producing
a rarefaction
Fig 6.4.3 Sounds transmit as a series of compressions and
Lightning is produced by a build-up of static electricity.

It superheats the surrounding air, causing it to expand
at a tremendous rate. This expansion produces shock
waves in the air that we hear as the sound we call
thunder.
You can calculate how far away a storm is by:
counting the number of seconds after a lightning
flash before you hear the thunder
multiplying the number of seconds by 300. (Sound
travels at about 300 metres per second in air.)
The result tells you how many metres away the
storm is.
For example, if you hear thunder 5 seconds after
seeing lightning, the storm is about
5 300 = 1500 metres or 1.5 kilometres away.
6.4
vibrating speaker
producing a
compression
rarefactions.
push then
pull repeatedly
compressions
Science
Clip
rarefactions
Sneaky birds
coil movements
wave direction
Fig 6.4.4 Sound waves transmit as longitudinal waves through air, water and other materials. These types
of waves can be modelled using a slinky by scrunching up some of the spring and letting it go. The particles
vibrate in the same direction as that of the sound.
Some birds will hop around

on the ground, trying to
create vibrations in the
ground that are similar to
those produced by rain.
Worms under the ground
are tricked into coming to
the surface to escape being
drowned.
wave direction
coil movement
Fig 6.4.5 Another type of wave is a transverse wave. These can be modelled in a slinky by shaking the
slinky sideways. The particles vibrate at right angles to the direction of the wave. Water waves transmit as
transverse waves.
The speed of sound

Sound travels at about 340 metres per second (i.e.
1224 kilometres per hour) in air at 20C. This is much,
much slower than the speed of light, which travels at
roughly 300 000 kilometres per second! This dramatic
difference in speeds often causes you to see something
before you hear it. This is the case with thunder and
lightening, and is often noticed when watching sport.
For example, you will see a cricketer hit a ball before
you hear the accompanying sound. If you were sitting

340 metres from the action, then the sound would take
one second to reach your ears and the light would take
about ten-millionths of a second to reach your eyes!
A wave travels faster in a slinky made of a stiffer
spring. Likewise, sound travels more quickly in
solids and liquids than in air. This is because
the particles are packed together more closely.
The table on page 198 shows the approximate
Prac 1
p. 202
speed of sound in some different materials.
197
Sound
Approximate speed of
sound in the material
(metres per second)
Material
Air at 0C
330
Air at 20C
340
Air at 30C
350
Water
1400
Wood
4500
Steel
5000
Once the speed of sound is known it can be used to

calculate distance or depth. For example, the speed of
sound in water is 1400 metres per second. If it takes one
second for a sound vibration to return to a ship after
bouncing off a shoal of fish, then the sound has
travelled 1400 metres. Therefore, the distance to the
fish is 700 metres. This technique of finding distances
and depth is known as echolocation. Ships and fishing
use a system of echolocation known as sonar. Sonar
uses ultrasonic sound waveswaves that are vibrating
faster than humans can hear.
Science
Clip
Sonic boom
On 14 October 1947, Chuck Yeager piggybacked his X-1 jet aircraft on a B-29 bomber.
He separated from the B-29 at 12 000 metres
and then broke the so-called sound barrier at
that altitude by taking his X-1 to a speed of
1065 kilometres per hour.
Nowadays, fighter jets commonly
achieve supersonic flight. Before it was
decommissioned, the Concorde passenger
jet travelled faster than the speed of sound
on regular services between Europe and New
York. A loud sonic boom was heard as the
jet caught up with and passed sound waves
emitted by its engines. This phenomenon is
similar to a boat travelling faster than the water
waves it creates in its wake.
Prac 2
p. 202
Fig 6.4.7 A fishing boat using echolocation to locate a shoal of fish.
Echoes
Sound striking a hard wall will reflect back, or echo,
towards its source. Echoes can be used to calculate the
speed of sound.
Fig 6.4.8 Some animals like bats and dolphins use echolocation to
avoid obstacles, detect food or locate objects.
Echo is heard one second after clap.
170 m
198
Fig 6.4.6 If the echo of a loud clap takes one second to get back,
then it travels roughly 340 metres in one second. This gives the speed
of sound as 340 metres per second.
Radar is a similar process to sonar, except that radio

waves are used instead of ultrasound to locate, direct
and track various objects, such as aircraft, over long
distances.
Unit
6.4
Science
Clip
Ultrasound
Fig 6.4.9 Ultrasound is often used to monitor pregnancy.
Reverberation
If you yell out in an empty hall, the echo time
is too short for you to detect a distinct second
Prac 3
sound.
p. 203
The echo partly overlaps with the original
sound, producing a sound that lasts longer.
This effect is known as reverberation, and it may
take some time to die out as echoes become weaker and
weaker. Soft materials, such as carpet and curtains,
absorb the sound energy and stop the sounds echoing
and reverberating.
Worksheet 6.4 Sound generator
Sound graphs
Pregnant women can have

an ultrasound to check the
development of their unborn
baby. This procedure uses
an ultrasound scanner to
send sound waves into the
womans body. They are
then reflected off different
surfaces, such as bone and
soft tissue. The echoes are
then converted into images
on a monitor.
Using this method, the
patient avoids potentially
harmful X-rays or invasive
surgical procedures.
Sound waves can be

detected by a microphone
and displayed on a
cathode ray oscilloscope
(CRO). A CRO converts
the pressure variations in
a sound wave into
electrical impulses, which
are then displayed as a
wave on its screen.
The number of compressions that pass a point (e.g.
the microphone) each second is called the frequency of
the sound. A high frequency produces a high-pitched
sound, whereas low frequencies are deep and rumbling
bass sounds.
microphone
cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO)
Fig 6.4.11 A CRO produces

Fig 6.4.10 Concert halls often use special sound-absorbing panels to
tuning
fork
a graph of a sound, showing

pressure at different times.
reduce reverberation.
199
Sound
The sound of music
reference sound
louder
higher frequency
Fig 6.4.12 Louder sounds produce taller sound graphs. Higherfrequency sounds produce graphs that are more scrunched and tight.
guitar
oboe
piano
noise
Fig 6.4.13 Musical instruments produce smooth, repetitive, rhythmic

patterns on the CRO. Noise produces a messy, irregular pattern. Voice
recognition software converts spoken words into text on a computer by
recognising the patterns that each different letter and word produce.
Different musical
instruments produce their
notes in different ways.
Stringed instruments
like guitars and violins
use vibrating strings to
make a basic set of notes
whereas wind instruments
like clarinets and
trombones use a column
of vibrating air.
A string or air column
Fig 6.4.14 Wind instruments use
has a natural frequency
valves or holes to alter the length of
that depends on its
the vibrating column of air. Different
notes are the result.
length. The string or
column is said to resonate
at this frequency. Resonance can cause another object
nearby to vibrate at the same rate. The thin wood of a
guitar, for example, resonates in response to its vibrating
strings. Likewise, the body of the clarinet resonates at
the same frequency as the air inside it.
Other frequencies and notes can be produced on a
guitar by altering the length of the string (by holding
the strings at different points) or by tightening or
loosening the strings.
A clarinet has keys that open or
close holes in the column. This
changes the length of the air column Prac 4
Prac 5
p. 203
p. 203
and the resulting notes.
Worksheet 6.5 Sound
Worksheet 6.6 Morse code
6.4
QUESTIONS
Remembering
1 List five sources of sound and state what is vibrating in each.
2 State the speed of sound in air at 20C.
3 State whether the following are true or false:
a CRO is short for cathode ray oscilloscope.
b A CRO shows what sound waves would actually look like if
air was visible.
c A CRO can display a graph of pressure at different times as
a sound wave passes.
4 Name two animals that use echolocation.
200
Understanding
5 Describe a test to prove that sound cannot travel through a
vacuum.
6 Clarify the following terms by providing a definition for
each: L
a compression
b rarefaction.
7 Calculate how far sound would travel (in air at 20C) in
3 seconds. N
8 Explain an advantage of ultrasound.
Unit
9 Explain what is meant by the following terms:
18 A CRO displays the graph shown in Figure 6.4.15.
6.4
a frequency
b resonance
c reverberation.
10 Explain how the frequency of the sound from a guitar string
can be changed.
11 Explain why empty rooms echo more than furnished ones.
Applying
12 Sketch a longitudinal wave that demonstrates its
compressions and rarefactions.
13 A sound is transmitted from person X to person Y. Identify
which of the following is happening:
A Air particles are travelling from person X to person Y.
B Air particles are passing vibrations from person X to
person Y.
C Infra-red waves are being transmitted from person X to
person Y in the same way as radiated heat.
D Heated air particles are transmitting heat by conduction
from person X to person Y.
E None of the above.
14 Calculate the speed of sound if it travels: N
Fig 6.4.15
Identify which of these sounds produced the display above.

A a tuning fork
B a guitar
C a piano
D noise.
19 A student stands at the end of a road and yells towards a
house some distance away. If she hears an echo 2 seconds
later, calculate how far she is from the house. N
20 Identify which of the displays (left, centre or right) in
Figure 6.4.16 was caused by the loudest sound.
a 9000 metres in 30 seconds

b 800 metres in 4 seconds.
15 From the following list, identify the substance in which sound
travels the fastest:
air at 30C, water or steel.
16 Identify an example of a useful and a not-so-useful echo.
17 Identify what makes the sound when each of the following
instruments is being played:
a a violin
Fig 6.4.16
Analysing
21 Calculate how many seconds it would take sound (in air at
20C) to travel 1 kilometre. N
b a flute
c a drum.
6.4
INVESTIGATING

Find out how vocal cords work.
Find out more about the sound barrier and a sonic boom.
e -xploring
We
b
ion
Desti nat
To construct models of instruments called the chook
and the punji, web destinations can be found on Science Focus 1
201
Sound
6.4
flame
A sound cannon
Aim
To make a sound cannon that will blow out a candle.
Equipment
cardboard tube (e.g. a poster tube)

self-adhesive contact or plastic cling wrap
masking tape or rubber bands
a match
Method
small hole
(12 mm)
contact or
cling wrap
Fig 6.4.17
Questions
1 Place the contact/cling wrap over each end of the tube, stretch
it taut and hold it tight with tape or rubber bands.
1 Explain what happened to the flame when you tapped the end
of the tube.
2 Make a small hole in one end, using a pin or compass end.
2 Explain why it is important to seal both ends of the tube, and

for the contact/cling wrap to be tight.
3 Hold a lit match a few centimetres in front of the hole and

sharply tap the other end.
3 Explain why the small hole was necessary.
The speed of sound
Aim
To compare the speeds of sound and light.
Equipment
teacher with a starting pistol (or two garbage bin lids)
long tape measure or trundle wheel for measuring
100300 metres
stopwatch
Method
1 Measure a straight distance of between 100 and 300 metres
with a clear view from the start to the finish.
2 Your teacher should stand at the start with the starting pistol
or garbage bin lids.
3 Several students should stand at the finish with stopwatches.
4 The teacher fires the starting pistol or bangs the lids together.
The students start their watches when they see a wisp of
smoke rise from the starting pistol or the movement of the
lids, and stop them when they hear the sound of the pistol.
(Alternatively, use a sound detector to determine the time
taken for the sound to reach you.)
5 Calculate an average of the times recorded.
202
measure distance
Fig 6.4.18
Questions
1 The people with stopwatches started timing when light
reflecting from the smoke reached their eyes. Explain whether
the time this takes is a significant factor.
2 Explain the advantage of calculating an average.
3 Use your average to calculate the speed of sound. To do this,
divide the distance (in metres) by the time (in seconds). N
Unit
Aim
Method
To determine the reflecting or absorbing capacity of different

materials.
Design your own experiment to test and compare the reflecting and
absorbing qualities of various materials (e.g. cardboard, glass,
wood, plasterboard, curtains).
Equipment
a sound level meter or sound probe/data-logging
system
various materials to test as reflectors and
absorbers of sound
6.4
Reflection and absorption

of sound
?
DYO
Measuring cylinder resonance
Aim
To examine resonance in a measuring cylinder.
Equipment
250 mL measuring cylinder
tuning fork
Method
1 Strike a tuning fork and hold it at the top of the measuring
cylinder. (If a sound detector is available, you may wish to use
one to measure the intensity of the sound produced.)
2 Add a small amount of water to change the length of the air
column in the measuring cylinder, and repeat step 1. Note
whether the sound produced is louder or not.
3 Keep adding water and testing the sound produced when a
struck tuning fork is held at the top of the cylinder.
Construct a musical
instrument
Fig 6.4.19
Questions
1 Determine the length of air column that has a resonant
frequency equal to that of the tuning fork.
2 Explain why water is added in small amounts.
Method
Aim
1 Design and build your own musical instrument that

uses only recycled materials. Your instrument must
be able to play the song Twinkle, Twinkle Little Star.
To construct a musical instrument.
2 Demonstrate your instrument to the class.
?
DYO
CHAPTER REVIEW
Remembering
1 List all the types of energy that you can.
2 List the three ways that heat can flow from one region to
another.
3 State which coloured objects best:
a absorb heat
b emit heat.
4 Sound waves transmit as a wave. State whether they are

longitudinal or transverse waves.
5 State whether the following are true or false:
a Sound needs a material to travel through.
b Light needs a material to travel through.
203
Understanding
19 Identify which diagram below best represents an actual

sound wave.
6 Using examples, explain the following terms:

a conservation of energy
b energy transformation.
7 Choose two appliances used in the home and describe the

energy transformations that happen when they are used.
8 Outline how a sea breeze works.
9 Explain why not all shadows are sharp.

10 Write a definition to clarify the term umbra.
11 Explain the difference between an echo and a reverberation.
Applying
12 Identify the type of heat transfer that does not require a
medium.
Fig 6.5.2
13 Identify an example of radiated heat.
Analysing
14 a Explain the difference between a luminous object and

an incandescent one.
20 Classify the following as either heat insulators or heat

conductors:
b Identify an example of each.
nail, foam Esky, wooden table, plastic cup, barbecue grill,

frypan handle, woollen jumper, metal oven tray.
15 a Explain what is a lateral inversion.

b Demonstrate your understanding of this by writing your
name in capital letters, laterally inverted.
21 a Compare water with air as conductors of heat. Which

one is best?
16 A person standing 160 metres from a wall hears an echo

from it 1 second after calling out. Calculate the speed of
sound based on this information. N
b Explain your choice.
17 A vibrating tuning fork placed on a tabletop causes the

tabletop to vibrate at the same frequency. Identify what this
effect is called.
18 Three sounds are displayed on a cathode ray oscilloscope, as
shown in Figure 6.5.1.
22 a Many applications and uses of science in everyday

life were introduced in this chapter. Copy and
complete the table below to summarise some of
these applications. L
b Identify two more technologies not listed in the table
below and add them to your summary.
23 A boat is using echolocation to find fish. The signal is sent
down into the water and returns to the boat after 1 second.
The speed of sound in water is 1400 metres per second.
a Identify which sound is the highest in pitch.

b Identify which sound is the loudest.
a Calculate the depth of the fish.

b If the sound returned in 0.5 seconds, calculate what would
be the depth of the fish. N
pt
Fig 6.5.1
Technology
Ultrasound
204
Thermos
Fish finder (echolocation)
Guitar
Solar hot-water system
Insulation batt
Use of technology
Viewing unborn babies
on
Ch

er R
sti
ev i ew Q u e
Type of energy
(heat, light, sound)
How it works
Sound
Sound waves are sent into the body and

reflected back from bones, tissue etc. The
reflected sound is changed into an image on
a screen.
Forces

Key outcomes
4.3, 4.6.2, 4.6.7, 4.6.9, 4.6.10
Forces cause acceleration, deceleration, a
change in direction or a change in shape.
Forces can act at a distance through a field.
Mass is the amount of matter in an object.
All objects exert a force of gravity on all

other objects.
Magnets are used in a variety of situations.
Forces have a size and a direction and are

shown as arrows in a diagram.
Sir Isaac Newton developed laws of

gravitation and motion.
Friction is a contact force that slows down

objects.
Weight is the pulling force caused by
gravity.
Essentials
Like poles of magnets repel each other.

Unlike poles of magnets attract each other.
Additional
Unit
7.1
context
What are forces?
Forces in body contact sports, such as

rugby or AFL, are very obviousplayers
are thrown about, pushed or pulled to the
ground or stopped in their tracks by
another player. When a horse falls at the
racetrack, the jockey is dragged to the

ground by the force of gravity. Impact with
the ground provides another force and may
be enough to break the jockeys bones.
Fig 7.1.1 The weight of a falling horse is a force that all jockeys try to avoid!
206
Push, pull or twist
What forces do
Forces are best described as a push, a pull or

Quick Quiz
a twist.
Most forces actually touch the object they are
pushing or pulling around. Forces such as friction, air
resistance and buoyancy are impossible to see but still
touch the object that they are affecting. These forces are
called contact forces because they touch the object.
Other forces act through an invisible force field and
dont actually touch the object that they are pushing or
pulling around. Instead, the field does the pushing and
pulling. These forces are known as non-contact forces.
The forces caused by gravity, magnetism and electricity
are non-contact forces.
A force causes an object to change the way it is moving

or to change its shape in some way. If an object has
sped up (accelerated), slowed down or stopped
(decelerated) or changed direction, then a force caused
the change. Likewise, if an object (or even part of an
object) has changed shape, then a force caused the
change. Sometimes this change is permanent, but often
the object bounces back to its original shape. If this
happens, the object is said to be elastic.
Unit
Forces are needed to decelerate or slow
something down. The force may even stop it.
7.1
Forces are needed to

accelerate something,
or get it going faster.
Forces are
needed to
twist, break
or change
the shape of
something.
Forces are needed to

change the direction that
something is travelling in.
Fig 7.1.2 A force is anything that changes motion.
Acceleration
An object is accelerating whenever it changes
speed. When an object increases its speed, its
acceleration is said to be positive. This means that
speed is being added so that it goes faster and
faster. If the object slows, then it is said to be
decelerating. This deceleration is also called
negative acceleration because speed is being
subtracted, making it go slower and slower.
Science
Clip
Thats fast!
A massive particle accelerator called the synchrotron was
opened in Victoria in 2007. This tube uses a combination
of different magnets to accelerate electrons to speeds
approaching the speed of light. The synchrotron will be
used as an incredibly sensitive microscope that will allow
scientists to study the structures of diseases and the
drugs that might provide cures for them.
Fig 7.1.3 A bike gets faster as it accelerates. It slows when it decelerates.
207
What are forces?
How to draw forces
Measuring forces
Usually, there are a number of different forces acting on

an object all at the same time. Each force is often
pushing or pulling in different directions and, often, this
needs to be made clear in a diagram.
Scientists draw forces using special arrows called
vectors. The direction of the arrow shows the direction
of the force and its length represents how big the push
or pull isbig forces are shown as long arrows, whereas
short arrows indicate small forces.
A spring gets shorter when it is squashed and longer

when a pull force stretches it. The bigger the force, the
more the spring is squashed or stretched.
These facts give us a way of measuring forces. If a
pointer is attached to the spring then any change in the
length of the spring can be measured. The bigger the
change, the bigger the force. Spring balances and most
kitchen and bathroom scales use this method to weigh
things.
All forces are measured in
newtons, named after the English
scientist Sir Isaac Newton
(16421727). The unit newton is
Prac 1
Prac 2
p. 210
p. 211
abbreviated as N.
the ground pushes up
Worksheet 7.1 Forces in flight
force of
pushing
pedal
air (wind)
resistance
NEWTONS
0
10
50
20
40
30
40
50
kg
60
GRAMS
0
50
100
weight force
150
Fig 7.1.4 Forces are drawn as arrows. The longer the arrow, the
bigger the force.
Fig 7.1.5 Forces cause springs to get longer or get shorter. This
7.1
QUESTIONS
Remembering
1 A force is applied to an object. List four things that might
happen to it.
Understanding
6 Copy the statements below and modify any incorrect
statements so that they become true.
2 State what must be inside an instrument that can measure the

force applied to an object.
a Force is needed to change the direction of an object.
3 State the unit used to measure forces, its symbol and who it
was named after.
c A force is required to change the shape of an object.
4 State other words or phrases that could be used instead of

acceleration and deceleration.
5 Specify how forces are shown in diagrams.
208
gives a way of measuring the force. All scales and weighing devices
have a spring that gets longer or shorter because of the weight.
b Things slow down naturally. No force is involved.

d Objects speed up when they fall because there is a force
involved.
e Twisting is caused by a force.
>>
12 Identify which of the situations in Figure 7.1.7 are showing:

a push forces
8 Identify three examples of non-contact forces.
b pull forces
9 Identify three examples of situations in which the following

forces are acting:
c twist forces.
7.1
7 Identify five examples of contact forces.
Unit
Applying
a push forces
b pull forces
c twist forces.
10 Identify three examples of situations in which an object:
a speeds up
b slows down
c changes direction
d changes shape permanently
e changes shape for a short time but then bounces back to
its original shape
f stops.
E
D
11 Identify which of the situations in Figure 7.1.6 show:

a acceleration
b deceleration
c change in shape
d change in direction.
A
Fig 7.1.7
Analysing
13 Elastic means that the material will bounce back to its original
shape after the force is removed. Inelastic materials might
bounce back a little but never regain their original shape
or size.
D
Classify the following materials as either elastic or inelastic:

a an elastic band
b a crumpled piece of paper
c plasticine
d a car wreckage
Fig 7.1.6
e wet mud
f a diving board
g a drinking glass.
>>
209
What are forces?
Creating
14 Compare the forces shown in Figure 7.1.8.

a Which is the biggest force?
16 Construct small, simple sketches of the following situations:
b Which forces are the same size?
a weightlifter lifting a weight
c Which forces are in the same direction?
a spanner tightening a nut

a nail being hammered
a small child pulling along a toy
A
C
a strong wind pushing your hair backwards
E
D
a sliding door opening

a football falling to the ground after it has been kicked.
a On each of your sketches, draw arrows to show the
directions of the main forces. Indicate the size of the forces
using arrows of different lengths.
Fig 7.1.8
15 Compare the size of a force needed to stop a truck to

that of stopping a car.
7.1
b Under each diagram, write words to describe the forces as

either a push or a pull, and contact or non-contact.
INVESTIGATING
e -xploring
We
b Desti natio
To explore more about forces, a list of web desitinations
can be found on Science Focus 1 Second Edition Student Lounge.
7.1
1
Measuring forces
Aim
To measure the force required to perform some common activities.
Equipment
spring balance
various objects on which to test (e.g. door, sticky tape,
pencil case)
Method
1 Use a spring balance to measure the forces listed below.
a Open and close different types of doors.
b Pull off sticky tape stuck to a bench.
c Pull your science textbook off the bench.
d Lift or unzip your pencil case.
210
2 Some of the forces may change as you measure them. If so,

record the smallest and largest measurements you take. We
call this the range of measurements.
3 Note that some of the forces may be too large or too small for
you to be able to measure.
Questions
1 Look carefully at your results. Explain what factors made
some measurements very large.
2 List the forces in order from smallest to largest. (If you
cannot measure the force, predict the order and give reasons
to justify your answer.)
Unit
7.1
Build your own

force-measuring device
Aim
To build a simple force-measuring device using everyday materials.
Equipment
bosshead
and clamp
Materials as shown in Figure 7.1.9.
cardboard
Method
1 Build one of the three designs shown in Figure 7.1.9.
hacksaw blade
or plastic ruler
2 Place a mark on the scale with no masses. Mark it as zero

(no force).
3 Progressively add masses of 50 grams, marking the scale
each time.
50 g masses
retort stand
4 Since the scale is going to measure force, you will need to

label the scale in newtons, not in grams. Use the table below
to help you. This is called calibration of the scale.
5 Use the force-measuring device to re-measure the weight of
some objects around you (e.g. your pencil case, keys etc.).
Mass added (g)
wooden
dowel
Equivalent weight force (N)
0.0
50
0.5
100
1.0
150
1.5
plastic
graduated
cylinder or
measuring
cylinder
Questions
1 Clarify the meaning of the term calibration. Explain why
calibration is important.
markings
on dowel
2 Explain what happens to your device when heavier objects are

placed on it.
3 Identify what part of your device limits the weight that can be
measured.
metal washers
rubber band
coil
spring
Fig 7.1.9 Build one of these designs.
211
Unit
7.2
context
Friction
You use friction every day but probably

dont think about it. Imagine trying to
walk if there was no grip or friction
between your shoes and the floor.
Imagine how fast you could go on your
bike if there was no friction with the air or

ground. There could also be problems if
there was no friction between your brake
pads and the wheel rimthe brakes
wouldnt work!
Science
Clip
What a drag!
When something moves through
air, it needs to push the air out
of the way and then around it.
The air passing over the surface
has its own friction force, called
air resistance or drag. Cars and
commercial aircraft are designed
to minimise the drag to save on
fuel consumption, and jet
fighters, rockets, missiles and
arrows are designed to travel as
fast as possible. An object is
called streamlined if it cuts
through the air with little air
resistance or drag.
Fig 7.2.1 The tread on a tyre gives it traction in wet weather.

Friction also wears the tread down, eventually making it bald.
What is friction?
Friction is a force that happens whenever an object
slides or rolls over something. Friction always acts
opposite to the direction that the object is moving and
acts to slow it down. A bike, for example, will gradually
come to a stop if its not pedalled. Pedalling provides a
push force that overcomes the friction between the
bikes tyres and the road and so it keeps the bike
moving. This push force stops when you stop
pedallingthe only force left is friction and that slows
you down. The same thing happens if the school bus
driver turns the engine off while driving. The
engine provides enough push to overcome
friction. When the engine is turned off, the
friction is able to slow down the bus until it
Prac 1
p. 216
eventually comes to a stop.
212
Friction (opposite direction)
Motion (the direction in which

the jet ski is facing/moving)
Fig 7.2.2 Friction always opposes motion, slowing you down.
Unit
Reducing friction
Friction is caused by the roughness of the surfaces that

try and slide or roll over each other. Friction always acts
in the opposite direction to the objects movement.
Rough surfaces have a lot of friction. If you try to
slide one rough surface over another rough surface, then
the bumps and hollows on one will catch on the bumps
and hollows of the other, slowing down the movement.
Smooth surfaces have bumps and hollows,
too, although their roughness often can be
seen only under a microscope. Even smooth
Prac 2
surfaces will slow down if pushed or pulled
p. 217
across another surface.
If you could reduce the friction between the moving

parts of a machine then the machines would be more
efficient, using less energy, and you would travel further
and faster. There are a few easy ways of reducing
friction.
Lubricating the surfaces with oil or grease fills the
hollows that cause friction. This makes the surfaces
smoother and easier to slide over each other.
Polishing and waxing makes the surfaces smoother
by removing some of the bumps and filling up some
of roughness that catches and causes friction.
Wheels, rollers or ball bearings reduce friction by
allowing the surfaces to roll instead of slide. This is
most obvious if you need to push a car. It is much
easier to push a car if the handbrake is off since this
allows the wheels to roll. If the handbrake is on,
then the wheels need to slide over the road surface.
This is a nearly impossible task! Ball bearings allow
the axles of your skateboard or inline skates to roll
more freely by reducing the friction, allowing you to
go as fast as possible.
7. 2
What causes friction?
Fig 7.2.3 Even smooth surfaces have bumps and hollowsan

electron microscope image of the smooth surface of a polished
wooden table.
Going bald and getting hotter

Friction slows down objects sliding and rolling over
each other. It also wears them down by breaking off
some of the bumps and making them smoother. Friction
causes tyres to become bald and it can cause grazes to
the skin when rugby players slide across the paddock
when taking a try. Friction can also be a problem in
machines. Engines, gearboxes and wheels all have parts
moving across other parts. These parts gradually lose
their sharp edges, become smaller or thinner and,
eventually, are not able to do the job they were
designed to do.
Friction also causes heat to be generated. Rubbing
hands on cold mornings generates heat through friction.
In a car, this happens throughout its engine. The heat
needs to be released through the radiator, otherwise the
car would quickly overheat.
blades and
ball bearings
Fig 7.2.4 There is less friction if wheels spin on bearings.

That means you can go faster!
The most effective way of reducing friction is to stop

the surfaces touching each other at all. A
hovercraft does this by squeezing a blanket of air
underneath it so that the craft loses contact with the
ground. In this way, the hovercraft can travel over
extremely rough surfaces (ground or water) without
slowing down because of friction.
213
Friction
grab the wheel rim directly or slide against other discs
or pads attached to its axles. Friction between the two
surfaces slows the spinning wheel and brings the bike,
car, train or aircraft to a stop. Friction also generates
heat and this is why brake pads get very hot after a lot
of braking, such as when you are travelling down a long
hill. On your bike, you need to make sure the brakes are
in good condition so that the friction of the brake pads
against the rim is high.
Fig 7.2.5 A hovercraft uses a blanket of air to reduce friction.
The ground pushes

back on the skateboard
and moves it forward
You push the

ground
backwards
Fig 7.2.7 You need friction to move forward.
Friction also allows things to move forward. To

move forward, the wheels of a bike or a car must first
push backwards. Likewise, walking first needs the foot
to push backwards. If the surface is rough then friction
pushes back, getting you moving. Traction is lost if the
surface is smooth. There is no grip, there is nothing to
push off and you slide and skid all over the place!
Once moving, friction is needed to give control so that
you can turn and come to a skid-free stop. To maximise
traction, racing cars use slicks (wide tyres with no
tread) in dry weather. If the track is wet, then tyres
with a deep tread are needed to pump water
from the road surface. Bikes and normal cars
need to cope with all conditions and so have
Prac 3
p. 217
tread on their tyres also.
Fig 7.2.6 Wind tunnel tests of dragsmoke is blown over the object
to see how the object cuts through the air.
Useful friction
So far, friction seems to be a problem force. But friction
works for us too in two very important ways.
Brakes rely on friction to slow down bikes, cars,
trains and aircraft when they land. Discs or pads either
214
Fig 7.2.8 Mountain bikes use a wide, blocked tread to give them even
more grip on rough and loose ground.
Unit
QUESTIONS
Remembering
d your doona or blankets through the night
1 State five examples of objects that naturally slow down (or

stop) because of friction.
e your shoelaces
2 List the disadvantages of friction as a force.
g the way you stop.
f the way you move across a room
3 State five examples of surfaces that have very little friction

between them.
Applying
4 Friction allows us to do many things. List at least 10

situations in order from greatest frictional force to least.
13 a Explain why surfboarders wax their boards.
5 List three machines or devices that would benefit from using

bearings in their wheels.
Understanding
7. 2
7.2
12 Identify a device that needs friction to work.

b Identify other sports that use wax.
Evaluating
14 Propose a reason why:
6 Copy the following and modify any incorrect statements so

that they become true:
a A snowboarder hates friction but a cyclist is happy its

there.
a Friction is caused by bumps and hollows of the surfaces

catching on each other.
b Weightlifters put chalk on their hands when attempting a

heavy lift.
b Smooth surfaces have no bumps or hollows.
c Cars put on chains over their tyres when travelling in the

snow.
c Friction causes a moving object to speed up.

d Friction is a non-contact force.
Creating
e Drag slows a moving object.
15 Construct a table to summarise the different ways that

friction can be reduced. L
f Streamlined is a word used to describe shapes that cut

through the air easily.
7 Define the term traction.
8 Friction makes hinges on a door squeak, allows us to write
with a pencil and to file our nails. Explain each of these
situations in terms of friction.
9 Predict the order from most to least friction for the blocks in
Figure 7.2.9.
16 How did the slaves of ancient Egypt move the massive blocks
of stone across the desert to build the pyramids and temples?
Use the contents of your pencil case to construct a model
demonstrating how these large blocks may have been shifted
over the sand.
17 Overnight scientists have discovered that friction has
disappeared! What can we expect today in this new,
frictionless world?
Create a short piece of writing on friction. You must explain:
long round dowels
oil
1 what friction is
2 how you intend to move about and stop
3 what will happen to structureswill nails hold and screws
stay in?
Write your piece as:
Fig 7.2.9
a diary page about your exploits after getting out of bed
10 The tread on tyres gives a car more grip in the wet but less
grip in the dry. Explain why tread is only important in the wet.
a newspaper front page explaining what is happening in

the world
11 In a world without friction, predict what would happen to:
a pamphlet from the government explaining to residents

how to cope in this strange new world. L
a objects that you hold on to

b pieces of wood nailed together
c pieces of wood screwed together
215
Friction
7.2
INVESTIGATING

encyclopaedias, Internet etc.) to find out how disc and drum brakes
work. List the advantages that disc brakes have over drum brakes.
7.2
1
e -xploring
To explore the forces involved in skateboarding, a list
We
b Desti nation
Measuring friction
Aim
To observe and measure the friction of objects on different
surfaces.
3 Thread a piece of string through one end of your elastic band

chain. Tie this string around one of the shoes. Straighten out
the chain and put the 0 mm of your ruler at the end like you
did before.
4 Construct a table to record your results.
Shoe
Equipment
a selection of shoes (gumboots, runners, slippers, walking
shoes, sandals)
thick rubber bands to make a chain
25 or 50 gram masses
spring balance
string
different surfaces (e.g. classroom floor, playground, carpet)
Extension (cm)
Runner
Sandal
Gumboot
Walking shoe
Slipper
5 Pull on the elastic band chain and make a note in your table
of how much the elastic bands have stretched at the moment
when the shoe starts to move. Repeat with each shoe,
remembering to ensure that they each have the same mass.
6 Sort out the shoes in order of how much they grip the floor.
Remember that the shoes with the most friction are the ones
with the most stretch on the elastic band chain. Compare
your prediction with the observed result.
7 Repeat steps 1 to 6 with a different surface, until all surfaces
have been tested.
Questions
Fig 7.2.10
Method
1 Inspect the soles of the shoes and try to predict which shoe
will provide the most friction. Write down your predictions.
2 To make the test fair, all the shoes must have the same mass.
Use the balance to determine the mass of each shoe. Record
each value. To make sure each shoe has the same mass,
place masses inside each shoe, as required.
216
1 Identify the purpose of making all the shoes have the same
mass before the measurements are taken.
2 State what this variable is called.
3 State whether the shoes stay in the same order of gripping
ability on a different floor surface.
4 Write a statement to describe friction (using your results as a
guide).
Unit
Comparing friction
Method
1 Construct a table in your workbook with the headings
Material and Angle.
Aim
To compare the friction of different materials on a surface.
2 Predict which material would have the least friction and which
would have the most. Arrange them in order in the table.
Equipment
3 Place a wooden block on the wooden ramp.
protractor
wooden blocks
a selection of different materials (e.g. unvarnished wood,
carpet, various grades of sandpaper, rubber grip material)
a wooden ramp
lubricant, such as detergent
wooden block
7. 2
4 Slowly lift one end of the wooden ramp until the block is just
about to slide.
5 Measure the angle between the ramp and the desk, using a
protractor. Record the angle.
6 Place one of the selected materials on the ramp and repeat the
experiment.
7 Repeat with all the other materials.
ramp
8 Repeat the experiment, but this time lubricate the surface

instead of making it rougher.
material to
be tested
protractor
Questions
90
1 Describe what happened to the angle as you changed the

roughness of the surface.
benchtop
2 Explain your answer in terms of friction.

Figure 7.2.11
Constructing roller ball
Aim
To build a model that will demonstrate different forces.
Equipment
A range of junk materials
?
DYO
Your task is to design and build your own structure that will allow
a normal-sized marble to drop a vertical height of 70 centimetres
in as close to 20 seconds as possible.
Your structure must stand by itself and cannot be higher or
longer than 70 centimetres.
The materials you can use are things that are readily available
at home (e.g. cardboard boxes, tubing, plastic containers,
glue, tape etc.)
The marble must pass across/through a minimum of four
different materials/structures.
You must label all forces that are involved in the trip (i.e. label
every push and pull).
217
Unit
7.3
context
Gravity
Youre on your bike, travelling along at

high speed, when you unexpectedly hit a
rock. You lose control and the bike flies
out from under you. There is only one way to

godown!
What is gravity?
Gravitational force is a non-contact
force that attracts objects to each
other. You are constantly attracted to
the planet immediately underneath
you. This attraction gives us our feeling
of weight and means that we cannot
simply jump up and fly away. When
you fall from your bike, it is the force of
gravity that attracts you and pulls you
to the ground. Gravity makes things
fall down. Of course, down depends
on where you are on Earth!
Although, normally, it is a very
small force, gravity becomes significant
when you are near a large object, such
as a planet like Earth, a moon or a star
like the Sun.
Fig 7.3.1 Gravity makes things fall down,
including this snowboarder.
Prac 1
p. 222
Fig 7.3.2 Astronauts do not change when they

go into space. Although their mass is exactly
the same as back on Earth, they feel weightless
in space.
Science
Clip
I find you attractive!

Building on the earlier work of Galileo and Johannes Kepler, the English
scientist Sir Isaac Newton (16421727) developed the law of
gravitation in 1687. This law suggests that all things with matter are
attracted to all other things with matter. This means that you are
currently being pulled towards the desk in front of youand the
person sitting next to youand the ceilingand everything else in the
room! It sounds like some sort of nightmare until you realise that the
gravitational force is actually extremely smallso small that most
things do not affect us.
218
Worksheet 7.2 Pressure
Weight
Weight is the term given to the force of gravity pulling
on a mass. Weight is a non-contact force. Although
gravity physically doesnt touch you, you know it is
there because your body is constantly stopping you from
collapsing or from falling over. Sometimes, this gives
people a sore back. You also know its there because you
find it difficult to lift heavy objects and you cant just go
floating around the room!
Weight is a force and so is measured like all other
forcesweight is measured in newtons (N).
The effect of mass and gravity
The effect of distance

Gravity lessens as you get further away from Earth. This
is because gravity depends on distance. This may seem
strange since your weight doesnt seem to get any
smaller if you climb a mountain. This is because you
have to go much further away than that for the decrease
in gravity to be noticeable.
A 70 kilogram person normally has a weight of about
700 newtons (exactly 686 newtons) at sea level. The
table below shows what happens to the persons weight
as they travel to the Moon.
Distance
from Earths
surface
What is normally found

at this height
Mass
(kg)
Weight
(N)
Sea level
70
686.0
305 m
Top of Centrepoint
tower
70
685.8
2228 m
Top of Mt Kosciusko
70
685.5
10 km
Normal height of
commercial airliners
70
683.8
395 km
Height of space station
70
608.3
595 km
Hubble space
telescope
70
573.9
35 900 km
AUSSAT-2
communications
satellite
70
15.4
190 000 km
Half-way to the Moon
70
0.8
7. 3
Mass is the amount of matter in an object.

Unless you break up the object or add things to it,
the mass of an object never changes. Astronauts, for
example, can be weightless in space even though their
body mass is exactly the same as back on Earth.
Mass is normally measured in kilograms (kg), but is
sometimes measured in grams (g) for smaller things or
tonnes (t) for very large objects. Often, we use the terms
mass and weight interchangeably in everyday speech.
They are, however, different things.
Unit
Mass
Weight depends on mass since the more massive

something is, the heavier it will be. This means that
elephants and whales have greater weight than a
mosquito or ant.
The gravity on each planet and moon is different,
and so your weight also depends on which planet or
moon you happen to be on. The Moon, for example, is
much smaller than Earth and has a gravitational pull
about one-sixth that of Earths. This also means that
your weight on the Moon is only one-sixth your weight
on Earth, allowing you to jump about six times higher
than on Earth! You are, of course, exactly the same
person and so your mass has not changed.
Of all the solar system, Jupiter has the highest
gravity (about 2.5 times that on Earth). Mercury has
only one-third the gravity of Earths, whereas Venus,
Saturn, Uranus and Neptune have gravities roughly the
same as that on Earth.
Fig 7.3.3 You are a little lighter at the top of Centrepoint than at
its base.
219
Gravity
AUSSAT-2
communications
satellite
36 000 km
Space station
400 km
70 kg
574 N
70 kg
0.8 N
70 kg
15 N
Commercial aircraft
10 km
70 kg
608 N
70 kg
686 N
70 kg
683.3 N
Hubble
Space Telescope
600 km
2 km
70 kg
685.5 N
Fig 7.3.4 Gravity and the weight of

an astronaut get less as the astronaut
travels further away from Earth.
Measuring mass and weight
Falling down
Mass can be measured only by using a balance. If the

two sides of the balance are the same, then the mass
on both sides is equal. This would be the case
whichever planet you were on, whether it was Earth,
the Moon or Mars.
Weight is the force due to gravity and so you must
use gravity to measure it. You allow gravity to stretch or
squash a spring to give you a measurement.
The weight of an object causes it to accelerate as it falls.

The Moon has no atmosphere and so all things fall at
exactly the same rate on its surface, regardless of how
big or heavy they are. This is because there is no air to
push back on the objects to slow their fall. On Earth,
there is an atmosphere and so things do tend to fall at
different rates. The air gives almost no resistance to
streamlined, heavy objects that are falling, whereas
light, bulky objects tend to flutter side-to-side as theyy
fall. Feathers and sheets of paper are catching
so much air that they cant fall straight.
The upward force that slows an objects fall Prac 3
p. 223
is called air resistance.
100
200
300
400
500
600
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
10
Prac 2
p. 223
50
40
20
10
0
Fig 7.3.5 A beam balance (top) measures mass, whereas a spring

balance (bottom) measures weight.
220
Fig 7.3.6 A hammer and feather fall at exactly the

same rate on the Moon due to the lack of air slowing
them down.
Unit
QUESTIONS
Remembering
1 State units that are commonly used to measure:
a mass
b weight.
2 State whether weight is:

a a push force or a pull force
b a contact or non-contact force.
3 List three things on which gravity depends.
Understanding
a Weight is measured in grams.
b Kilogram is a unit for mass.
c Weight is a force.
d There is no gravity on the Moon.
5 The gravity on Mercury is only one-third the gravity of that on
Earth. Explain what this suggests about the mass and size of
Mercury.
6 In space, does an astronaut have less mass or less weight?
Explain.
7. 3
7.3
Analysing
13 Contrast mass and weight by stating their key differences.
14 An astronaut in a space suit is very heavy. If the mass on
Earth of an astronaut and their suit was 140 kilograms, then
calculate what their mass and weight in the suit would be:
a
b
c
d
if they visited your school

on top of a 2000 metre high mountain
while repairing the Hubble Space telescope
half-way to the Moon.
15 Three balls, a tennis ball, a cricket ball and a shotput, were

dropped at the same time. The experiment was photographed
on the way down but, unfortunately, only the tennis ball was
recorded on film. Copy the diagram into your workbook and
predict where each of the other objects would be at the same
time as the tennis ball if you were:
a on the Moon
b on Earth.
tennis ball
cricket ball
shotput
Applying
7 Identify where on Earth you think gravity would be the
greatest and where it would be the least.
8 Identify three activities you could do on the Moon that would
be extremely difficult to do on Earth.
9 Identify the direction in which weight force is pointing. (Be
carefulthere may be trick!)
10 The following comment was overheard in a Year 7 class
recently:
Of course 1 kg of lead is heavier than 1 kg of feathers! Its
lead, isnt it?
Identify what the student has got wrong and how they may
have come to have this opinion.
11 All things fall at the same rate due to gravity.
a Identify the evidence that supports this statement.
b Identify the evidence that does not support this statement.
12 You are travelling the solar system. Identify on which planets
you will have: N
the same mass

roughly the same weight
about one-third your weight on Earth
about 2.5 times your weight on Earth.
Fig 7.3.7 Draw in where the cricket ball and shotput will be.
Evaluating
16 Propose a reason why the atmosphere doesnt escape into
space.
17 You are slightly taller when you get up in the morning than
when you go to bed. Propose a reason why.
18 Astronauts who return to Earth after a long time in space
notice that they are a little taller and much weaker. Propose a
reason why.
>>
221
Gravity
Creating
19 Imagine a world without gravity. Nothing would fall down. Create
a piece of writing about a world without gravity.
You can produce:
a set of rules for going to bed without gravity and a design for
the bed
a pamphlet for umpires explaining the rules of a sport

invented for a world without gravity
a poster of exercises to keep astronauts fit and to stop their

muscles getting weaker while on long space missions. L
7.3
INVESTIGATING

1 Find and record the masses, in kilograms, of:
a an average adult man and woman
c an average family car.
2 Find and record the world records for:
a the largest mass that a man and a woman have lifted
b the heaviest thing living at this moment
7.3
c the smallest living thing

d the heaviest of the dinosaurs
e the heaviest ship ever built.
3 Investigate how gravity keeps planets, such as Earth,
revolving around the Sun and keeps the Moon revolving
around the Earth.
b an average newborn baby
4 Find out how NASA changes the direction of its deep space
missions by having the spacecraft caught in the gravitational
field of a planet.
Falling objects
Aim
4 Repeat with all the objects, until you have compared every
object with the drop of the 50 gram mass. Make sure you
drop the different objects from the same height as in step 3.
To see if all objects fall at the same speed.
5 Arrange the objects in the table below.
Equipment
50 gram mass
a range of different objects that will not
break or cause damage when they fall
a soft landing place for the objects
(e.g. carpet, cushion or sponge)
A lot faster than

the 50 gram mass
Method
1 Collect a range of objects of different masses and different
shapes and sizes.
2 Drop the 50 gram mass and one of the other objects at the
same time from the same height. Ensure that the objects fall
onto something soft so as to reduce any damage.
3 Drop the objects from a measured height.
222
a diagram or model of a gravity-free home, bathroom or toilet
About the same as

the 50 gram mass
A lot slower than

the 50 gram mass
Objects that flutter

instead of drop
6 Now drop the 50 gram mass and a single sheet of A4 paper at

the same time and from the same height.
7 Add these results to the table.
8 Now crumple the paper into a loose ball.
9 Drop the 50 gram mass and the paper ball and record your
results again.
>>
Unit
Questions
1 Identify the column in which you placed most of the objects.
2 Identify the type of objects that fluttered on the way down.
3 Identify whether any masses fell faster than the 50 gram
mass. If so, explain why.
4 Explain why it is necessary for the objects to be dropped from
the same height each time.
5 Using your results as a guide, complete the following

sentence:
Most objects fall at the same rate as/faster than/slower than a
50 gram mass.
6 Describe the difference between the sheet of paper, the
loosely crumpled ball and the tight ball.
7 Identify which object dropped the slowest. Explain your
answer.
8 Draw a conclusion by completing these sentences:
Objects that catch the air fall ______ than objects that do not.
Objects that do not catch air fall ______.
Measuring mass and weight

Object
Aim
7. 3
10 Crumple the paper into a very tight ball and repeat the
experiment.
Mass measured
from beam
balance (g)
Weight measured
from spring
balance (N)
To accurately use a beam balance and spring balance to find the

mass and weight of different objects.
Equipment
beam balance
spring balance
a variety of objects of different masses and sizes
Method
1 Use the beam balance to measure the mass of each of the
objects.
2 Now use the spring balance to measure the weight of each
object.
3 Record all your measurements in a table like the one shown.
Testing strength
?
DYO
Aim
To find the stretch and strength of one of the following objects:
a plastic supermarket bag
sticky tape
Questions
1 State the maximum mass that could be recorded using the
beam balance.
2 State the maximum weight that could be recorded using the
spring balance.
3 Using your results as a guide, copy and complete the
following sentence: N
The weight of an object was about _________ times the mass
of the object.
Method
1 Design your own experiment that measures how far a plastic
supermarket bag, sticky tape, nylon fishing line or an elastic
band stretches as masses are added.
2 Keep adding masses until it breaks.
a nylon fishing line
3 Draw a line graph of the stretch obtained as each mass is

added.
an elastic band.
4 Mark clearly the mass required to break the object.
Equipment
various masses
either a plastic supermarket bag, sticky tape, a nylon fishing
line or an elastic band
223
Unit
7.4
context
Balanced and unbalanced

forces
There are usually a number of different

forces acting on an object at the same
time. Sometimes these forces are
balanced. They cancel and nothing
happens. At other times, the forces are

unbalanced. It is only then that the object
accelerates, decelerates, changes direction or
changes shape.
Fig 7.4.1 In a tug of war,

forces are pulling in different
directions. What happens
depends on whether the
forces are balanced or not.
Balanced but not moving

There are at least two forces acting on you right now as
you are sitting down reading this textbook.
There is the downward pull of gravity or weight.
Your weight is pulling you into the chair. You know this
force exists because if the chair broke then gravity
would cause you to fall down to the floor.
You are not falling, however, because gravity is not
the only force acting on you. The chair is also pushing
you upwards. You can feel its push through the
pressure on your backside, flattening your buttocks a
little more than normal. It also compresses your spine a
little.
There are two forces acting on you right now and
they balance. This means that they are equal in size but
opposite in direction. The downward and upward forces
are playing a tug of war and neither of them is
winningthere is no overall force on you. You are not
moving because the forces are balanced.
The forces are balanced on any object that is not
moving.
The room in which you are currently in is not
224
moving and so you know that all the forces on it are

balanced. Likewise, all the forces on the cars in the
teachers car park and the bikes in the bike shed are
balanced since they are not moving either.
chair pushes back
with the same
size force as the
weight force
weight force
Fig 7.4.2 Forces are balanced if they are equal in size but acting in
opposite directions.
Prac 1
p. 228
Unit
Balanced but moving
7. 4
Most cars on a freeway travel at a constant

speed. They are not speeding up or slowing
down. Once again, there is no overall force
on the car because all of the forces are
balanced. Friction with the road and the drag
of the air balances the forward push from the
wheels.
An easy way of telling whether the forces
on an object are balanced is to look at what
the object is doing. The forces on an object
must be balanced if it:
is not moving
is not speeding up
is not slowing down
is not changing direction
is not changing shape.
lift
thrust
drag
weight
Fig 7.4.4 The main forces on an aircraft
Unbalanced forces
If one force is bigger than all of the others put together,
then it will win the tug of war on an object. The forces
then are unbalanced and so the object will:
speed up
slow down or stop
change direction
change shape.
car accelerates
car travels at
constant speed
Forces on an aircraft
An aircraft flies because of a balancing act between the
four main forces that act on it. These forces are its
weight, lift, thrust and drag.
Weight is the force that causes everything,
including an aircraft, to fall.
Lift is an upward force that allows an aircraft to stay
in the air. The wings provide lift because they have a
special shape called an air foil or aerofoil. The top
surface of the wing is longer than the bottom surface.
The air passing over the top of the wing has further
to go and moves faster than the air travelling the
shorter distance under the wing. High-speed air has
lower pressure than air that is slow or not moving.
This causes the wing to be sucked upwards, taking
the aircraft with it.
Science
Thrust is the push force that
gets an aircraft moving and is
provided by jet engines or
No air? No aircraft!
propellers that push it forward.
Aircraft would not be able to
The upwards-lift force also
take off on the Moon. The lack
of any atmosphere means no
needs thrust to get the air
lift force is possible, so
moving at high speed over the
aircraft would always stay on
wing.
the ground regardless of how
Drag is friction caused by air
fast they travelled. Helicopters
sliding around the aircraft. Drag
would also be grounded.
Rockets are the only craft that
slows down an aircraft.
have the ability to take off
Aeroplanes have streamlined
when there is no air.
shapes to minimise drag.
Clip
car slows down
Fig 7.4.3 What a car does depends on which force is the winner in
the tug of war.
Prac 2
p. 229
Prac 3
p. 229
225
Balanced and unbalanced forces
Flight: The ultimate

balancing act
All the forces on an aircraft are balanced when
it is sitting stationary on the ground.
wing
Prac 4
p. 230
cross-section
As an aircraft picks up speed on the runway, the lift

force builds until it is greater than the aircrafts weight.
This is when it takes off. The forces are unbalanced
there is an overall push upwards, lifting the aircraft into
the air. At cruising altitude, the lift is the same as the
weightthe aircraft stays at the same height and speed
because the forces are balanced. As the aircraft
approaches an airport, it slows down. The lift decreases,
making the forces unbalanced once more. Its weight is
greater than its lift and it starts to descend.
Science
Clip
lift
air must travel

further over
the top
Early attempts at flight
air moves faster

and has less
pressure
air is slower
and has higher
pressure
weight
Humans have always wished they could fly and have the freedom
of movement of birds. Most early attempts tried to imitate how
birds flew. The first recorded flight was made by Bladud, the
ninth King of Britain, in 843 BCE. Unfortunately, King Bladud had
simply strapped wings made out of feathers onto his arms, so
his flight was very short, very vertical and had a very messy
landing! The Renaissance artist/scientist Leonardo da Vinci
(14521519) drew some of the earliest sketches of flying
machines. One design flapped its wings. Another was an aerial
screw, a primitive ancestor of the helicopter.
airflow
direction of travel
Fig 7.4.5 An air foil generates the lift that keeps an aircraft flying.
take-off
landing
Fig 7.4.6 Balanced and unbalanced

forces on an aircraft
7.4
QUESTIONS
Remembering
Understanding
1 List the signs to look for if the forces on an object are:

a balanced
b unbalanced.
2 A car is travelling along the freeway. State what will happen to

the car when all forces acting on it are:
a balanced
b unbalanced.
3 Specify the two forces acting on you as you sit and read this
question.
226
Prac 5
p. 230
cruising
4 Two forces act on an object. Explain how they can be balanced.

5 Copy the following and modify any incorrect statements so that
they become true:
a Forces are balanced when there is no overall force.
b Forces are normally balanced when the forces are the same
size and acting in the same direction.
c If I am sitting on a chair, the only force on me is my weight
force.
Unit
e A balanced force is needed if an object is going to

accelerate.
b Three students against four students.

c Ten students versus another ten students of equal strength.
d Two students versus ten students.
16 The class tug of war continues. Analyse each of the games
shown in Figure 7.4.7 and predict who will probably win.
a
6 A bike is slowing down to a stop. Explain why the forces on it

must be unbalanced.
c 3 people
7 Tom is trying to push a broken-down car and cannot get it

moving. He is pushing with a force of 500 newtons. Predict
the size of the force that must be resisting his push and in
which direction it will be operating.
3 people
2
people
2
people
6 people
8 Outline the four forces that are important in the flight of an

aircraft.
9 Outline what is special about the shape of an air foil and
explain how this allows the air foil to create lift.
7. 4
d A car travels at constant speed when the force from the

driving wheels balances the push backwards of the air (we
call this air resistance) as well as the friction between the
road and the wheels.
3
people
3 people
3
people
10 people

10 people
5 people
a Air moving over an air foil causes thrust.

b The top part of a wing is longer than the bottom.
c Fast-moving air has higher pressure than slow-moving air.
e
3 people
d An aircraft will take off only if the lift is greater than the
weight.
e There is no overall force on an aircraft when it is at cruising
altitude.
3 people
3 people
Fig 7.4.7
11 There is no lift and no drag on an aircraft that is not moving.

Explain why.
Evaluating
Analysing
17 Propose reasons why:
12 A helicopter also creates lift, but with its rotor blades. Analyse
what shape a rotor blade must have for it to provide lift for the
helicopter.
13 Draw a diagram showing:
a the likely cross-section of a helicopter rotor blade
b where you would expect the air to be moving fastest
a Aircraft need to pick up speed on a runway before they can

take off.
b Aircraft always try to take off by heading into the wind.
c Heavy aircraft need longer runways to take off.
d Aircraft need longer and faster run-ups on hot days than on
cold days.
c where the pressure would be least
Creating
d the direction of the lift force that is produced by the rotor.
18 Construct simple sketches of the situations below and add

arrows to show the balanced forces involved.
14 When a helicopter is stationary, the spinning blades on both

sides of the rotor give the same lift. When the helicopter is
moving, however, the blades provide more lift on one half of
their spin than on the other half. Use your knowledge of air
movement and lift to explain why.
15 Analyse the following games of tug of war and predict who
will win.
a A team of three students goes against another team of three
students of equal strength.
a A student leans against the wall.

b A person is standing.
c A hang-glider floats in the air.
d A skateboarder is cruising at constant speed along a
footpath.
>>
227

19 Construct simple sketches of the situations below and add
arrows to show the unbalanced forces involved. (Note that the
length of one arrow will need to be bigger than the length of
the other arrow.)
a A student sits back on only two legs of a chair.
b A parachutist jumps from a plane but hasnt yet opened
their chute.
c A stone is dropped.
d A passenger, not wearing a seatbelt, is involved in a car
accident.
e A parachutist is landing on the ground.
7.4
20 Construct simple diagrams to show aircraft in the given

situations. Include arrows to demonstrate the forces involved.
Assess whether the aircraft is taking off, landing, cruising, at
the departure gates or in trouble.
a Lift is zero, thrust is zero and drag is zero.
b Lift equals weight and thrust equals drag.
c Lift is greater than weight and thrust is greater than drag.
d Lift is less than weight and thrust is less than drag.
e Lift is less than weight, thrust is zero and drag is high.
INVESTIGATING
Investigate your available resources (e.g textbook, encyclopaedias,

Internet etc.) to:
1 Construct a timeline of the major developments in human
flight. N
2 Find out more about helicopters. Research:
e -xploring
W
n
eb D
To explore information about forces on an aircraft,
esti natio
a list of web destinations can be found on Science Focus 1
a why they have a small rotor on their tail

b how they get their thrust to move forward
c why they dont tip over because of unequal lift from the two
sides of the rotor. Present your findings to the class in
group presentations. Use a form of presentation media,
such as PowerPoint.
7.4
1
Tug of war #1
Aim
To examine balanced and unbalanced forces.
Equipment
long thick rope
thick gloves
large area to play tug of war (e.g. grass oval)
Method
1 Have the same number of students of roughly the same size on
either end of the rope.
2 Have the students pull the rope on either end. Observe and
record the results.
228
3 Decrease the number of students on one end of the rope and

increase the number of students on the other end and repeat.
4 Attach another rope and have a three-way tug of war. Try out
the combinations shown in Figure 7.4.7.
Questions
1 Explain why no-one will probably win when equal numbers of
students are pulling at each end.
2 Explain why unequal numbers are needed for any team to win.
3 In a three-way contest, such as that shown in Figure 7.4.8, the
lone person on the stem of the T will probably win, despite
having 20 people to struggle against. Explain why.
10 people
10 people
1 person
Fig 7.4.8
Unit
Tug of war #2
pulley
Aim
7. 4
string
washer
clamp
benchtop
To examine balanced and unbalanced forces.
Equipment
three pulleys and clamps

string or heavy cotton thread
metal washer or ring
50 gram masses
mass
mass
3 masses
3 masses
3 masses
4 masses
2 Attach the masses as shown in the first diagram and support

them until they are all attached.
4 masses
3 masses
Method
3 masses
3 masses
3 Let go all of the masses at the same time.

4 Take note of any movement of the washer.
3 masses
3 masses
5 Repeat for each combination of masses illustrated.
Questions
3 masses
1 Identify the situations in which the washer did not move.

2 Explain what this suggests about the forces on the washer.
3 State the situations in which the washer did move.
3 masses
3 masses
2 masses
4 Explain why this suggests that the forces were not balanced.
3 masses
Wonky tower
Method
DYO
Aim
To construct as tall a structure as you can, using no more than
20 drinking straws.
Equipment
20 drinking straws
50 gram masses
glue and/or pins
Fig 7.4.9
You are to design and construct as tall a structure as you can by

using no more than 20 drinking straws. The structure must be able to
stand without any other support and must be able to hold a 50 gram
mass at its very top. You can cut straws and can use pins or glue to
join the straws, but you are not allowed any other materials.
Questions
1 Identify whether the forces on each joint in the structure are
balanced. Explain your answer.
2 Identify the very important non-contact force that is acting and
is trying to topple the tower.
229
fine line
Creating lift
folded paper
blow air
through straw
Aim
To create lift.
ping pong
balls
straw
Equipment
one sheet of paper

two ping-pong balls
fine cotton thread or fishing line
retort stand, bossheads and clamps
sticky tape
drinking straw
straw
blow air
through straw
Fig 7.4.10
Questions
Method
1 Set up the two experiments shown in Figure 7.4.10. Support
the ping-pong balls with the retort stand, bosshead and clamp.
2 Blow air strongly through the straw, in the directions shown.
3 Record all observations.
1 In these experiments, movement has been created by

passing air quickly over a surface. Construct a diagram of
each situation, and identify where the air is moving the
fastest, where the air has the lowest air pressure, and the
direction of any movement.
2 Copy and complete the following sentence:
An air foil is pulled into an area of ___________-speed air or
____________________ pressure.
3 Has lift been created in this experiment? Explain.
paper
Making an air foil
Aim
To construct and test an air foil.
Equipment
a selection of light cardboard or
polystyrene
paper or plastic cling wrap
sticky tape or glue
cotton thread
small weights (e.g. paperclip)
fan with safety grille
Method
1 Use the diagrams to construct an air
foil and attach it to the fan as shown in
Figure 7.4.11.
paper
card
paper
wing shape
paper
cotton threads to
adjust the angle
wing shape
Fig 7.4.11
2 Set the fan on different speeds and

observe how well the air foil flies. Is the wing stable or does
it flick about?
3 Attach small weights. Observe whether the wing is now more
or less stable.
4 Test to see how many paperclips the wing can hold.
5 Change the angle of the wing by shortening the lower strings,
and once again test fan speed, stability and how many
paperclips the wing can hold.
230
paperclips
Questions
1 Assess whether fast or slow fan speeds would be expected to
give the most lift.
2 State what was observed when fan speed was increased.
3 Specify the maximum number of paperclips your air foil could
hold in flight.
4 Specify the angle at which the wing was most stable.
5 Specify the angle at which the air foil held the most paperclips.
6 Propose reasons why the air foil was sometimes unstable.
Unit
7.5
context
Forces in water
Two special forces are involved when

objects are placed in water. Buoyancy
allows you to sit on your surfboard and
float while waiting to catch a wave.
Surface tension allows you fill a glass above

the rim without it spilling and it enables small
insects to walk across the surface of water
without sinking.
buoyancy
weight
Fig 7.5.2 Buoyancy equals weight force and the ship stays afloat.
buoyancy
Fig 7.5.1 Surface tension allows a bubble to form, and buoyancy

allows a bubble to float and form froth on top of water.
weight
Buoyancy
A lump of steel sinks if it is placed in water, yet a ship
made from steel doesnt. It floats instead. The ships
weight is balanced by the water pushing upwards on its
hull. The force that keeps the ship from sinking is called
buoyancy.
Prac 1
p. 233
Prac 2
p. 234
buoyancy
weight
Fig 7.5.3 Weight is greater than buoyancy and the ship sinks.
231
Forces in water
A ship would definitely sink if it was solid steel
steel sinks because it is much denser than water.
However, the ships hull is hollow and contains air,
making the average density of the ship less dense than
the water on which it floats. Water gives the ship its
upward buoyancy force, which then balances the
downward weight force of the ship.
As the ship is loaded, it gets lower and lower in the
water. The ship will sink if it is loaded too much, or if
the hull is holed and fills with water. The buoyancy
force is now not enough to balance the weight
of the ship, and so it will sink.
Go to
Science
Prac 3
p. 234
Worksheet 7.4 Forces in water
Clip
Dead mans float

If you want to float in a pool, then
breathe in and fill your lungs with
air. Get rid of all the air and you will
generally sinkthe buoyancy is
now not enough to keep you afloat.
It is easier to float in the sea than in
a pool because salt water is denser
than fresh water, meaning that it
gives you more buoyancy.
7.5
Surface tension
Water often creates a film or
skin on its surface. This skin
can be strong enough to keep
afloat objects that would
normally sink. It also makes
water take on shapes that are
quite unexpected.
All water particles have a force of attraction,

called cohesion, between them that holds the
particles together. Cohesion at the surface is
called surface tension and is sometimes strong
enough to form a skin. Surface tension also
accounts for why drops of water can hang from
a tap without falling and why glasses can be
filled with water to above their brims.
Prac 4
p. 235
Prac 5
p. 235
QUESTIONS
Remembering
1 State what happens to a ship if:
a its weight equals its buoyancy
b its weight is greater than its buoyancy.
2 State what cohesion at a surface is called and what it forms on
the surface.
Understanding
3 Copy the following, modifying any incorrect statements so that
they become true:
a Gravity is the force that keeps a ship afloat.
b An iceberg stays afloat because its buoyancy balances its
weight force.
c A ship will sink if its weight is greater than its buoyancy.
d Small objects often float because they are very dense.
4 Explain how density and buoyancy are related.
232
Figure 7.5.4 This steel paperclip should sink but is held afloat by the
cohesive skin on top of water in a brimming glass. Its weight makes
an indent in the water but is not enough to break the skin. Some
small insects are so light that they dont break the skin either, allowing
them to walk across its surface. Other animals are far too heavy and
would fall straight through.
5 Describe what happens to the water level on a ship as it is

loaded. Explain why it happens using the terms weight and
buoyancy.
6 Explain in terms of density and buoyancy why ships sink when
they have a hole in them.
7 Use buoyancy to explain how a steel submarine floats on top
of the water while it is in harbour.
8 When out at sea, the submarine dives. Describe what the
crew must do to allow it to dive.
Applying
9 Identify whether the following are examples of buoyancy or
surface tension at work:
a
b
c
d
e
a duck floats on water

a mosquito walks across water
droplets of water form on a freshly washed and waxed car
a diver straps on a weight belt to stay below the surface
a drop of water hangs from a tap.
Unit
Analysing
11 Classify these objects as either those that float on water or
those that sink:
a a small pebble
7. 5
10 Plimsoll lines are lines painted on the hull of a ship to show

where the waterline should be under different conditions.
Figure 7.5.5 shows a partly loaded ship with the waterline level
with the lines labelled L and R. Use the codes shown to identify
which Plimsoll line the waterline would be level with if:
b a house key
a the ship is empty
c a paperclip
b the ship is fully loaded

c the ship is loaded and is expecting heavy and dangerous seas.
d a cork
e a drop of car oil and a drop of cooking oil
f a cricket ball
Fig 7.5.5
g a book and a sheet of paper

h an ice cube
i a leaf
j an inflated balloon and a deflated balloon.
Evaluating
LT
LS
LW
LWNA
7.5
LTF
TF
LF F
L
12 When a piece of newspaper is dropped in water, it will probably

float, but after a while it will sink. Propose a reason why.
T
S
W
W
INVESTIGATING

encyclopaedias, Internet etc.) to find why it is impossible for a
person to sink in the Dead Sea, which is located on the Israeli
JordanianPalestinian border. It is also recommended that people
7.5
13 Icebergs do not sink even though they are often kilometres

across and contain thousands of tonnes of ice. Propose two
reasons why.
with small cuts or open wounds do not swim there because it

would be very painful for them. Find out what is strange about the
Dead Sea that could account for these two facts.
1 Paper boats
?
DYO
Aim
To construct a paper boat and determine how much mass it can hold.
Equipment
sheet of A4 paper or aluminium foil of the same size
access to a tub or sink of water
Method
1 Design and build your own boat that will hold a pile of paperclips.
2 Run a competition between groups to see which boat can
contain the greatest number of paperclips.
Questions
1 Identify whether the boat floats due to buoyancy or surface
tension.
2 The boat sinks if too many paperclip are added. Use the terms
introduced in this unit to explain why this happens.
233
Forces in water
2 How do ships float?
spring balance
50
40
20
10
0
Aim
To determine what happens to the total force on a ship as it is
loaded.
elastic band/string
water
Equipment
100 mL conical flask
large container of water (e.g. plastic ice-cream container or
bucket)
spring balance
elastic band or string
cork or rubber stopper
Method
1 Copy the table shown below.
Observations as
flask is lowered
into water
Reading on spring
balance as flask is
lowered into water (N)
Empty flask
Quarter-full
stopper
flask
ice-cream container
filled with water
Fig 7.5.6
6 Record observations on what is happening to both the flask

and the reading on the spring balance.
7 Repeat steps 4 to 6 for a flask quarter-full and half-full with
water.
Questions
1 State the weight of the empty flask in air.
2 In this experiment, the spring balance gave the total force on
the sealed flask. What did you notice about this reading as it
was lowered into the container of water? Explain why it
altered.
3 Draw a diagram showing the weight and buoyancy forces on
the flask as it was lowered into the container of water.
Half-full
2 Start with an empty flask and seal it with the stopper.

3 Tie a loop of string or place an elastic band tightly around the
neck of the conical flask. Use it to attach the flask to the hook
of the spring balance.
4 Weigh the sealed conical flask.
5 Lower the conical flask into the large container of water.
4 When the flask just sank, roughly assess what fraction of it

was filled with water.
A special case of floating
5 Carefully rest a pin on the edge of the beaker and see if it is

possible to get the other end to float on top of the water.
3
Aim
To determine if a steel pin can float.
Equipment
two fine pins
250 mL beaker
Method
1 Fill the 250 mL beaker with water until it is nearly full.
5 Explain why the buoyancy force is sometimes insufficient to

keep objects afloat.
6 If unable to make it float, then carefully use another pin to

push it into the centre of the beaker.
7 It may take some time to
be successfulkeep
trying if it fails.
8 Record all observations of
the water around the pin.
250 mL
2 Place a pin on the surface of the water, recording carefully

what happens.
3 Now add more water very slowly and carefully.
4 Place your eye level with the surface of the beaker and draw
what is seen.
234
Fig 7.5.7
>>
3 If pushed too hard, the pin sinks once again. Explain what has
happened to the surface tension now.
2 With care, the pin floats. Use the idea of surface tension to
explain why.
4 Sugar lumps and milk swirls
Part B
1 Pour milk into the Petri dish until it is nearly full.
Aim
2 Wait until the milk stops moving.
To investigate how the surface tension of water can be altered.
Equipment
7. 5
1 A pin normally drops to the bottom of a beaker of water.

Explain why.
Unit
Questions
eyedropper
matchsticks
milk
detergent
sugar cube or cotton cloth

food dye of different colours
large beaker
large Petri dish or saucer
Method
Part A
1 Fill a beaker with water and place a few matchsticks on top
of the water to form a circle.
2 Slowly dip the sugar cube or cotton cloth into the centre of
the matchsticks.
3 Observe the behaviour of the matchsticks. Record your
observations.
3 Carefully place a drop of food dye on the milk. Do not stir.

4 Add drops of different colours elsewhere on the milk.
5 Place a single drop of dishwashing detergent anywhere on the
milk.
Questions
1 Identify what the sugar cube or cotton cloth is doing to the
surface tension.
2 Use this to explain why the matchsticks move in and come
closer together.
3 The detergent attaches itself to the fat in the milk and reduces
the surface tension of the water. Explain how the detergent
gets the food dye to move.
4 Predict what would happen if low-fat milk was used instead.
5 Five cents worth of water

Aim
2 mL
To observe how many drops of water can fit on the top of a five
cent piece before it spills over.
Equipment
five cent piece
eyedropper
access to tap water

warm water and chilled water
Method
Fig 7.5.8
1 Place the five cent piece on a flat surface.
5 Repeat the experiment, but this time use warm water and then
cold water. Keep everything else the same.
2 Using the eyedropper, carefully place one drop at a time onto

the centre of the coin.
6 Once again, record your results in the table.
3 Count the number of drops of water that land on the five cent
coin without it spilling over.
4 Record your results in a table similar to the one below.
Type of water
Tap water
Warm water
Cold water
Number of drops
Attempt 1
Attempt 2
Questions
1 Describe the shape of the water on the five cent piece. Use
terms introduced in this unit to describe why this shape
occurs.
2 Was there a difference between the number of drops that you
counted for the different temperatures of the water that you
used? If so, propose a reason why it may have happened.
3 Predict whether a different liquid (e.g. soft drink or milk)
would show similar results. Explain your answer.
235
Unit
7.6
context
Magnetic forces
Magnets exert an invisible force on other

magnets and on objects that contain iron,
nickel or cobalt. This force is called a

magnetic force.
Fig 7.6.1 Iron filings

make the force-field
visible around a magnet.
236
What magnets do
Attraction and repulsion
Although magnets are strongest when touching, most

have the ability to push and pull from some distance
away. Magnetic forces are non-contact forces. This is
what makes them useful as door latches. Magnets can
also operate through paper and many other materials,
allowing them to hold photos and notes on the fridge.
Magnets can:
attract metals containing iron, nickel or cobalt.
Steel is an alloy of iron, containing a high
percentage of it. Therefore, magnets also attract
steel.
at times, attract and pull the ends of other magnets
towards them, or repel and push the other ends of
those same magnets away
point to the North and South Poles of the Earth
make other iron-containing objects magnetic.
The magnetic force fields are particularly strong at the

ends of a magnet. The ends are called polesthe north
pole and the south pole.
What a magnet does depends on its poles.
Poles that are the same (called like poles) push away
or repel each other.
Poles that are different (opposite/unlike) pull
together or attract each other.
Science
Clip
Which direction do we go?

It is thought that birds, turtles and
even bees may use the magnetic
field of the Earth to navigate while
travelling over long distances.
Prac 1
p. 239
Prac 2
p. 240
Magnetic fields
Fig 7.6.3 Unlike poles (northsouth) attract and pull together.
Non-contact forces must have a method of moving

other objects without touching them. This happens
because there is a force field around the magnet.
This magnetic field is the area around a magnet
where a magnetic force is felt. Magnetic field lines show
the direction an iron filing or a compass needle would
point in the field. Scientists show the direction
of the field with arrows that point away from
the North Pole and towards the South Pole.
7. 6
Fig 7.6.2 Like poles (northnorth or southsouth) repel and push

away from each other.
Unit
If magnets are dropped, hit or heated, the domains

can be knocked out of alignment and the magnetism
lost. Magnets made out of soft iron or mild steel tend to
lose their magnetism very quickly. Permanent magnets
are made from harder steel or cast iron in which the
domains are more resistant to being knocked about.
Prac 3
p. 240
Making and destroying magnets

The first magnets were simply lumps of rock that were
naturally magnetic. These rocks contained a lot of iron
and were called magnetite or lodestone.
Magnets, iron and steel are all thought to have
inside them mini-magnetic particles called domains. In
unmagnetised iron, these domains are pointing in
different directions. The forces from these mini-magnets
cancel out each other and give no overall magnetism. If
another magnet is used to push these domains around,
they can become aligned and the piece of iron will
become magnetic.
S
N N
S
N
N
S
Fig 7.6.4 Iron becomes magnetic if its domains align.
This can be done by:

stroking the piece of iron or steel repeatedly, in the
same direction, with another magnet
lining up a piece of iron with the North and South
Poles of the Earth and gently tapping it
leaving the iron in the core of an electromagnet.
Fig 7.6.5 Compasses and iron filings clearly show the direction and
strength of a magnetic field.
237
Magnetic forces
These lines never cross and come straight out of
any surface. Lines that are close together show strong
fields. Weak fields have their lines widely spaced.
Magnetic fields are strongest at the magnets poles
and get weaker as we move further away from them.
geographic axis
true
North
Pole
Earths
magnetic
north
pole
Magnetic Earth
The ancient Chinese, Romans and Greeks all used
lodestone as a primitive compass to help them in
their navigation. Although used much less now than
in the past, compasses are still used in navigation.
Compasses are small magnets that are allowed to
move. The compass needle aligns
itself with the Earths field lines and
Science
can be used to find north or south.
This suggests that the interior of
Watch it!
the Earth is actually a magnet, with
The fine inner workings of a
its own magnetic field flowing from
watch can be easily
the South Pole to the North Pole.
Clip
destroyed if a strong
magnet comes nearby. The
backs of watches are always
made from stainless steel to
shield the mechanism from
magnetic fields.
Earths
magnetic
south
pole
Fig 7.6.6 Bar magnets and the Earth have similar magnetic fields.
Worksheet 7.5 Magnets

Prac 4
p. 241
7.6
QUESTIONS
Remembering
1 State whether magnetic forces are classified as contact or
non-contact forces.
2 List three metals that can be attracted to magnets.
3 Specify what steel contains that makes it attracted by
magnets.
4 List the rules for attraction and repulsion of magnetic poles.
5 Recall the magnetic fields around a bar magnet and a
horseshoe magnet by sketching their fields.
Understanding
a
b
c
d
238
The north pole of a magnet will attract other north poles.

Compasses are actually small magnets.
The area around a magnet is called its poles.
The ends of a magnet are called its magnetic field.
e Domains must be aligned for a piece of iron to be a

magnet.
f The Earth does not have any magnetic field.
7 Outline what happens to the domains in a piece of iron when
it becomes magnetised.
8 Explain what a magnetic pole is.
9 Explain how a compass works.
10 Describe how a material that contains iron can be made
magnetic.
11 Predict what the Earths core is made up of, given that the
Earth has a magnetic field.
Applying
12 Identify where the magnetic field on a magnet is strongest
and where it is weakest.
13 Compasses are not as important as they once were. GPS is
taking their place. Identify what GPS stands for.
>>
Unit
7. 6
14 The aurora australis is an amazing show of lights in the night

Evaluating
sky that happens only at the South Pole. It happens when
15 Propose a meaning for the term ferromagnetic. (Hint: Use
particles from space follow the magnetic field of Earth until they
the periodic table to find the chemical symbol for iron.)
enter the Earths atmosphere.
a Draw the magnetic field of Earth, identifying where the
field is strongest.
b Identify where the field lines actually touch Earth, and predict
where on the Earth you would expect to see an aurora.
7.6
INVESTIGATING

encyclopaedia, Internet etc.) to:
1 Find out about Alnico, the material that most permanent
magnets are made from.
a Use a periodic table to identify the meanings of the
chemical symbols Al, Ni and Co.
b Name the three elements that the alloy Alnico contains.
c Propose a reason why each one might be included.
2 Find out what electromagnets are used for, particularly in
simple electrical devices such as doorbells and telephones.
Produce a report to explain how these electromagnetic
devices work.
3 Explain why screwdrivers and screws are often accidentally
magnetised when an electrical device such as a power drill
has been operating nearby. Investigate how an electric motor
works and how it could affect a screwdriver.
7.6
1
4 Describe the differences between Earths geographic and

magnetic north poles.
5 Investigate how magnetism records sound and images on
computer hard disks. Draw a series of diagrams to show how
these devices record information.
6 Research why you should never store magnets (even fridge
magnets) next to USB flash drives or computers.
e -xploring
To find out more about compasses and making your
own, a list of web destinations can be found on
We
b Desti nation
Attracted to magnets?
Aim
To determine what materials are attracted to magnets.
Equipment
bar or horseshoe magnet
watch-glass
a selection of different metals (e.g. aluminium, zinc,
magnesium, tin, copper)
a selection of different objects (e.g. nails, paperclip, rubber,
plastic, cotton wool)
Method
1 Place a material or object on top of an upturned watch-glass
so that it can spin if attracted by the magnet.
2 Hold the magnet close to the object and record what happens
in a table like the one shown.
3 Repeat with the rest of the materials and objects, making sure
that you keep the magnet the same distance away from the
object each time.
>>
239
Magnetic forces
Object/material
Magnetic? (Y/N)
Questions
1 Name the objects that are magnetic.
Zinc
Aluminium
Tin
Copper
Magnesium
Paperclip
Nail
Rubber
Cotton wool
Plastic
2 Name the objects that are not magnetic.

3 Explain the relationship between the objects that are magnetic.
4 Predict what other materials may be magnetic.
Attracting and repelling
2
Aim
To investigate the two poles of a bar magnet.

S
Equipment
watch-glass
two bar magnets
Method
1 Balance a magnet on the back of a watch-glass.
2 Hold another magnet near the poles, as shown in
Figure 7.6.7, and record your results in the table below.
North pole
South pole
Questions
North pole
1 Propose a rule for the attraction and repulsion of magnetic

poles.
South pole
2 Explain the term poles.
Magnetic fields
3
Aim
To observe magnetic fields.
Equipment
wooden board or bench mat

sheet of A4 paper
bar or horseshoe magnet
fine iron filings (preferably in a shaker)
can of hairspray
Method
1 Place a magnet on the board or bench mat and lay the sheet
of paper over the magnet.
240
Fig 7.6.7
2 Sprinkle a small amount of the iron filings onto the sheet,

gently tapping the sheet to spread them out around the
magnet.
3 After a pattern is established, spray hair spray over the sheet
to fix the filings in their positions.
4 You now have a permanent record of the magnetic field of the
magnet. Paste it into your workbook.
Questions
1 Identify where the magnetic field was the strongest.
2 Identify and describe any positions on the magnet where no
(or very few) filings were attracted.
3 Describe what you noticed about the strength of the field
further away from the magnet.
Unit
Aim
Method
To determine what blocks or shields a magnetic field.
Part A
Equipment
7. 6
Shielding
paperclip
fine cotton thread or fishing line
sticky tape or plasticine or Blu-Tack
50 gram mass
two bar magnets
retort stand, bosshead and clamp
sheets of various materials (e.g. paper, aluminium foil, iron,
steel, lead, plastic, wood, tin, cardboard)
2 Now place another magnet near the paperclip. Try different

combinations of poles (e.g. north with north, north with
south, south with south).
3 Record the direction that the paperclip moves in each case.
Part B
4 Find the maximum distance that could be left between the
paperclip and the magnet before the clip would drop.
Part C
5 One by one, insert the different sheets between the paperclip
and the magnet.
N
bar magnet
S
bosshead
and clamp
paper clip
Questions
1 State what happened to the paperclip when other magnets
were brought near it.
2 Propose a reason why the paperclip was more likely to drop
when further away from the magnet.
retort stand
cotton thread
3 List the materials that caused the paperclip to drop.

4 Propose what happened to the magnetic field when the
paperclip dropped.
sticky tape or plasticine

or Blu-Tack
50 g mass
Fig 7.6.8
241
CHAPTER REVIEW
Remembering
6 Complete the table below to summarise how forces are
important in our everyday lives. Give two examples for each
type of force.
1 State three words that summarise what is a force.

2 List what a force does to an object to which it is being
applied.
7 Reducing friction would make machines more efficient.

Explain what is meant by this statement.
3 List three ways in which friction may be reduced.

4 State whether each of the following statements is true or false:
a Gravity depends on the planet we are on.
8 When we swallow food, there is a lot of friction from our

throat. Explain what makes swallowing food easier.
b The mass of an object depends on where we are in the

universe.
9 Describe three ways in which a magnet can be made.

10 Use the idea of domains to explain how magnets can lose
their magnetism.
c There is no gravity on the Moon.

d The gravity on the Moon is less than on Earth.
11 Describe three situations in which it is important to be able to

reduce friction.
e Weight is measured in kilograms.

f All objects have their own gravity and pull all other objects
towards them.
g A ship floats because its buoyancy balances its weight.
Applying
12 For each of the diagrams in Figure 7.7.1, identify whether it
shows:
h Buoyancy is a downward force.
magnetic force
i Drag always makes objects go faster.
push
Understanding
pull
surface tension
5 Match the words with their correct meanings. L

force
caused by rough surfaces sliding
lift
spring balance
a unit of mass
weight
friction
reduces friction
friction
newton
forces that add up to zero
buoyancy
lubricant
push or pull
drag.
heat
causes large friction
sandpaper
produced by friction
kilogram
a unit of force
balanced forces
measures mass
balance
measures weight
Type of force
Push
Pull
Friction
Gravity
Magnetic
Buoyancy
242
Where used
Skateboarding
How it works
Skateboarder pushes ground with foot
to move forward
b
a
Fig 7.7.1
13 Identify an example of where each of the following forces can

be seen in action:
a a contact push force
Analysing
15 Classify the examples below according to whether friction
can be seen as an advantage or a disadvantage:
b a non-contact push force
a stopping in a hurry
c a contact pull force
b pushing a fridge across the floor
d nuisance friction
c running a car engine
e useful friction
d parachuting from a plane
f drag
e turning quickly on your bike.
g gravity
16 An astronaut has a mass of 140 kilograms on Earth.
h buoyancy
a Use Figure 7.3.4 on page 220 to calculate their weight.
i surface tension
b The astronaut goes into space on a mission. What would

be their mass in space?
j magnetic force.
14 The weight of a small rocket on Earth is 6000 N. Identify
where in the solar system its weight would be: N
c What would be their weight in deep space where gravity is

zero? N
a 1000 N
Creating
b 2000 N
17 Construct small, simple sketches of the situations below. For

each, draw all the forces that are acting in the sketch.
a A kite is flying.
b A basketball is being thrown towards the hoop.
c A magnet is affecting a compass.
d A fish is hauled in on a line.
Ch
pt
d 15 000 N
on
c 6000 N
er R
sti
ev i ew Q u e
243
Earth in space

Additional
Essentials
Key outcomes
4.1, 4.9.1, 4.9.2, 4.9.5
The solar system is made up of many

different objects, including Earth, its
Moon, other planets and the Sun.
The planets and their Moons in the

solar system move around the Sun in
an ellipitical orbit.
We experience night and day because

the Earth spins on its axis.
As the Earth orbits the Sun, the tilt of

its axis causes different parts of the
Earth to experience different seasons.
Tides are caused by the gravitational

pull of the Sun and Moon.
Our ideas about the working of the

solar system have changed over the
centuries.
Different cultures see the constellations

in different ways.
The planets and moons in the solar

system have very different physical
features.
Unit
8.1
context
Earths movement in space
The Earth moves around the Sun while

spinning on its own axis. This movement
in space gives us day and night, the year and

the seasons.
Science
Clip
Using the Sun and Moon

as a calendar
The ancient civilisations
measured the days, seasons,
months and years by following
the movements of the Sun and
Moon. Chinese, Babylonians,
Mayans, Indigenous
Australians and many other
cultures developed complex
ways to predict seasonal
changes. This way, they knew
when to plant crops or move
to a new location in search of
seasonal foods. Survival
depended on this ancient
scientific knowledge of the
Earths movement in space.
Fig 8.1.1 Earths movement in

space determines the seasons and
the length of the day and year.
Day and night

The Earth has an imaginary line joining the
Quick Quiz
North and South poles. This line is called its
axis and the Earth spins around it once every 24 hours.
It is because of the Earths spin that we experience day
and night. The part of the Earth receiving light directly
from the Sun is experiencing day. Meanwhile the other
side of Earth experiences night because no direct
sunlight is falling on it. The direction of this spin is from
west to east. This is why people in eastern Australia
(such as those living in Sydney, Wollongong and
Newcastle) start and end each day before those in the
west (e.g. Perth). The direction of the spin makes the
Sun, the Moon and stars appear as if they move from
east to west.
The Earths axis is tilted, meaning that days and

nights are of different lengths at most places around the
globe. Only at the equator are day and night roughly of
equal length.
Science
Sunrise and sunset

The terms sunrise and sunset seem
to suggest that the Sun is moving
and causes them. Sunrise is,
however, caused by the Earth
spinning towards the Sun. Sunset
is caused by the Earth spinning
away from the Sun.
Clip
Lets go for a quick spin

The Earth is spinning and so
we are always moving. If you
are standing at either the
North or South Pole, then
you dont move at allyou
just turn on the spot over
24 hours. At the equator you
are travelling at an amazing
1600 kilometres per hour!
245
The year
N
night
The Earth travels around the Sun once per year. The
path the Earth takes is called its orbit. This means that
the Earth takes one year to complete one orbit of the
Sun. The Earth spins on its axis as it orbits the Sun, just
as a spinning top moves in a circular path while it spins.
axis
day
light from the Sun

1 year
S
axis
23.5 tilt
Sun
1 day
N
Fig 8.1.2 The Earth spins on its axis, causing alternating day and
night.
Earth
area about to experience sunset
Fig 8.1.5 The Earth spins on its axis once per day and takes one year
to orbit the Sun. As the Earth orbits the Sun, stars appear in different
parts of the night sky and the length of day and night changes.
Sun
Earth
area about to experience sunrise
Fig 8.1.3 Earth rotation from west to east makes the Sun appear to
move from east to west. This causes sunrise and sunset.
light from
the Sun
Science
equator
equal
length
day and
night
longer
nights
longer
days
Northern
Hemisphere
Southern
Hemisphere
Fig 8.1.4 Everywhere on Earth experiences a 24-hour long day. These

24 hours are split into night and daylight hours. The split is equal only
at the equator. If the Northern Hemisphere points towards the Sun,
then its daylight hours will be longer than its night. Meanwhile in the
Southern Hemisphere, the night will be longer.
246
An Earth year is 365 or 365.25 days. For

convenience, a calendar year needs to have an exact
number of days. A calendar year has exactly 365 days
with an extra day being added every four years to catch
up on the quarter days that must be accounted for. This
longer calendar year is known as a leap year and the
extra day is added to February (making it February 29).
Generally, a leap year occurs every four years and is
divisible by 4. However, years ending in 00 (e.g. 1900,
2100, 2200 etc.) are not leap years unless they are
divisible by 400.
Clip
Time zones
Most countries are small enough to have all their cities and
towns working on exactly the same time. Larger countries are
generally split into different time zones to account for the Earths
spin and to keep the hours of dawn and sunset roughly
consistent across them. To do this, USA and Canada have six
time zones and Russia has twelve! Australia has three basic time
zones. As a result, Adelaides times are half an hour behind
Sydneys, and Perth is two hours behind. During summer there
are five time zones because Queensland and Northern Territory
do not change their clocks for daylight savings. Despite being
such a huge country, China has only one time zone!
North Pole
8.1
sunlight
sunlight
Unit
North Pole
equator
equator
Earths axis
of rotation
South Pole
South Pole
Fig 8.1.6 Different amounts of light and heat from the Sun produce the seasons.
Seasons
The Earth experiences seasons as it orbits the Sun.
This is because the Earths tilt exposes some parts of the
planet more to the Sun than others. This means that
some regions will get more heat than others.
southern autumn equinox
21 March
southern
winter
solstice
21 June
Clip
Sun
southern spring equinox

21 September
In summer, the Suns energy is concentrated over a

smaller area, producing a greater heating effect. This
results in higher temperatures. In winter, the same
amount of energy is spread over a larger area and so
that area does not heat up as much.
The Earth is thought of as being made of two half
spheres, known as hemispheres. When it is summer in
the Southern Hemisphere (which contains Australia),
it is winter in the Northern Hemisphere. Conversely,
when it is winter here, it is summer there.
The longest day each year
Science
is called the summer solstice.
The shortest day occurs at the
winter solstice. Day and night
Collision course
are of equal length twice each
The Earths orbit around the Sun
occurs largely through empty space,
year. This occurs at the two
filled with a little space dust and the
equinoxes.
southern
summer
solstice
21 December
Animati on
Fig 8.1.7 Seasons depend on where Earth is in its orbit. These are
the seasons experienced by the Southern Hemisphere.
Prac 1
p. 249
occasional asteroid that crosses it.

Space dust is so fine that it poses no
risk to us, despite the fact that the
Earth sweeps up about 30 000
tonnes of it per year. Asteroids are
lumps of rock ranging from one
metre to many hundreds of
kilometres across. Collision with
them would cause extreme damage
and possible extinction of life! This
is a worrying thought since it is
estimated that over 100 million
asteroids will cross our orbit at
some time!
247
8.1
QUESTIONS
Remembering
1 State what is meant by the Earths axis.
2 State the angle of the Earths tilt.
3 Specify how long it takes the Earth to:
a rotate once on its axis
12 a Identify the location on Earth where it could be dark

for more than 24 hours at a time.
b Explain why this is possible.
13 For the area marked A on Earth in Figure 8.1.8, identify
whether day or night is longer.
b travel once around the Sun.

A
4 State whether the statements below are true or false.

a A leap year is one that the number 4 divides into without
any remainder.
b The year 2000 was a leap year.
Sun
c The year 2100 will be a leap year.

5 List the seasons of the year and the months that they
(roughly) span in the Southern Hemisphere. Next to this list,
write the seasons that the Northern Hemisphere would
experience at the same time.
Understanding
Fig 8.1.8
6 Describe the feature of the Earth that is responsible for the

seasons.
Analysing
7 Define the following terms:
14 Contrast an equinox from a solstice.
a hemisphere
Evaluating
b solstice
15 Propose why the stars appear to move from east to west.

(Hint: Think about the direction of the Earths rotation.)
c equinox.
8 If the Earths axis was not tilted, explain whether there
would be:
a seasons
b day and night.
9 If the Earth tilted even more, explain how the seasons would
be affected.
10 It is hot at the equator all year. Explain why.
Applying
11 Identify the location on Earth where day and night are always
the same length.
248
Earth
Creating
16 Construct a diagram to show how a season occurs.
17 Construct a model to demonstrate how seasons, day and
night and a year occur.
18 Scientists have just announced that the Earth is about to stop
spinning on its axis!
What may be the consequences? How will the weather and
climate be affected? Will plants grow? Is this the end, or will
life be possible in some areas? Write an account that
synthesises what life would be like on Earth, using the
answers to the questions.
Unit
8.1
8.1
INVESTIGATING
Investigate your available resources (e.g. dictionary, newspapers,

Internet etc.) to:
1 Find out and record sunrise and sunset times for two weeks.
Describe any changes in the length of day and night.
2 Explain the meaning of aphelion and perihelion.
3 List the five climatic zones on Earth. Produce a poster to

display your information, with examples of what these zones
commonly are like.
4 Find the speed at which the Earth: N
a spins on its axis
b moves around the Sun.
8.1
PRACTICAL ACTIVITY
A model Earth
mark where
you live
(approximately!)
Aim
To model night, day and the seasons.
Equipment
sphere (e.g. a ping-pong ball or foam ball)

skewer or fine rod
wedge
lamp
piece of string of length 60 centimetres
Method
1 Assemble the apparatus as shown in Figure 8.1.9, and place a
mark on the Earth model to represent where you live.
2 Rotate the Earth model on its axis to simulate day and night.
3 Keeping the axis at the same angle, move the model around
the lamp (the Sun) while a partner keeps it spinning on its
axis to simulate day and night.
sphere
(Earth)
rod
string
lamp
(Sun)
wedge
Fig 8.1.9
Questions
1 Explain the purpose of the piece of string.
2 Describe what you notice about the length of day and night as
you move around the Sun in step 3 above.
3 Draw and clearly label a diagram to demonstrate your model
in four positions, representing each season.
249
Unit
8.2
context
The Moon
The Moon is the closest celestial body to

Earth and is the only one that orbits us.
The Moon is the second brightest object
in the sky after the Sun. It doesnt make
Fig 8.2.1 The Moon is our

closest neighbour in space.
its own light but, instead, acts like a giant

mirror-ball, reflecting sunlight onto us. The
Moon is the only celestial body that has ever
been visited by humans in person.
Lunar statistics
The Moon is our immediate neighbour in space, being
between 380 000 and 410 000 kilometres from us. It
orbits the Earth, just as Earth orbits the Sun, taking about
a month to do so. Like Earth, the Moon is roughly
spherical and has gravity. It is much smaller than Earth,
however, having a diameter about the same as the
distance from Sydney to Perth. This smaller size (and
mass) makes its gravity about only one-sixth that of
Earths gravity.
Science
Fact File
The Moon
Mass
Diameter
3476 km (about or 0.27

Earths diameter)
Gravity
About one-sixth (0.16)

that on Earth
Atmosphere
None
Surface temperature
230C to 123C
Period of rotation (day)
27.3 days
Time to orbit Earth
29.5 days
Tilt of axis
Science
Clip
Mysterious Moon
The Moon has inspired more stories, myths, prayers and rituals
than just about anything else. In its surface markings, different
cultures see a man, a woman weaving or even a rabbit! Many
once believed that a full moon made people go mad. This belief
took the name from the Roman goddess Luna, and so those who
went mad were known as lunatics. Many religious festivals are
based on the cycles of the Moon. The Christian festival of Easter,
for example, falls on the first Sunday after the first full Moon after
21 March. Ramadan, the Islamic month of worship and fasting,
starts and ends with the first sightings of a thin crescent Moon.
250
Missions to the Moon

The Moon is our closest neighbour in space and so it
makes sense that it was the first celestial body that
humans visited. Many unmanned scientific missions have
been sent to the Moon looking for the presence of life
and water, and to determine the composition of the rocks
that make it up.
The first manned landing occurred in 1969 when the
US space agency NASA landed Apollo 11 on the Sea of
Tranquility. The lunar module that landed (code-named
Eagle) was piloted by astronaut Buzz Aldrin.
Fact File
Moon missions
French author, Jules Verne, wrote From
the Earth to the Moon, a novel about an
imaginary visit to the Moon
1959
First Russian unmanned mission
1961
US first unmanned hard landing probe
19611969
US-manned Apollo missions, testing
different aspects of a manned landing
20 July 1969
Eagle lunar module from Apollo 11 lands
on surface, and Armstrong and Aldrin
become the first humans to walk on
anything other than Earth
19691972
Apollo 12, 14, 15, 16 and 17 land two
men each on the Moon. Apollo 13 aborts
due to explosion and multiple system
failures
14 December 1972 Challenger lunar module from Apollo 17
blasts off from Moons surface. No
humans have visited the Moon since
19701973
Soviet-unmanned probes
19901993
Japanese orbital and hard landing probes
2003
European lunar orbiter
2007
Japanese lunar orbiter
2008
Indian-manned lunar orbiter
8.2
1865
Its commander, Neil Armstrong, was first to set foot

on the lunar surface. While Eagle landed on the surface,
a third astronaut, Michael Collins, stayed in orbit
around the Moon in the command module
(code-named Columbia).
The Moon differs from Earth in two very important
aspects.
It has no atmosphere and, therefore, no air to
provide oxygen to breathe. This is why astronauts
must wear space suits with breathing apparatus.
Its gravity is far less than that on Earth, meaning
that astronauts weigh only one-sixth of their Earth
weight. The astronauts mass (e.g. the amount of
bone, muscle and skin) remains exactly the same as
on Earth. After an extended time, this lack of gravity
leads to a loss of muscle strength and bone density.
Unit
Science
The lunar landscape

Before 1609, most scientists thought that the surface of
the Moon was smooth. In that year, however, Galileo
Galilei (15641642) used a telescope to view details of
the Moons surface. The two main types of lunar
landscape he observed were highlands and vast plains
known as maria (singular = mare).
Scientists believe that about 4 billion years ago the
Moon was a hot, fluid mass that eventually cooled
enough to form a crust. This crust was bombarded by
meteorites to create the highlands and craters. Some of
the depressions caused by meteorite impacts were then
filled with lava from lunar volcanoes. The lava then
became solid to form large, smooth areas or maria.
Fig 8.2.2 Buzz Aldrin was the second man to step onto the Moon.
Neil Armstrong was the first.
Fig 8.2.4 A full moon showing dark areas of lava-filled impact

basins. Space probes have found very few maria on the other side not
seen from Earth (known as the dark side).
Fig 8.2.3 Moon buggies like this one were used in the last Apollo
missions to the Moon. They were left there.
Apollo missions in 1971 and 1972 found that

the interior of the Moon is still hot. In 1998,
the Lunar Prospector found evidence of water
in the form of ice mixed with lunar dirt at the
Moons poles.
Prac 1
p. 255
251
The Moon
Science
Clip
The dark side
Science
The time taken for the Moon to orbit Earth is nearly the same time
as it takes to spin once on its axis. This results in us only ever
seeing the one side of the Moon from Earth. The other side is
often called the dark side of the Moon since it had never been
seen until the early Apollo missions.
Phases of the Moon

The Moon takes about the same time to orbit Earth as
it does to complete one spin, and so we always see the
same face of it. How much of the Moons face we see
depends on where it is in its orbit around the Earth.
These different views are known as phases. There are
eight main phases of the Moon.
Clip
Once in a blue moon

There is a saying once in a blue
moon, which means not very likely.
A blue moon is the name given to
the second full moon in the same
month. Since the time between two
full moons is 29.5 days and a
month is about 30.5 days, a blue
moon is rare, occurring only once
every two and a half years.
Science
Clip
Bugs on the Moon!

Some early astronomers thought that
the dark patches on the Moon were
caused by huge migrating swarms of
insects! Later on, in 1651, the Italian
astronomer Giovanni Riccioli (1598
1671) suggested that the dark areas on
the Moon were seas. Although the
Moon has no surface water, his method
of naming has become a tradition and
continues today, with names such as
Sea of Tranquility and Sea of Serenity.
Prac 2
p. 256
Fig 8.2.5
a Half the Moon is always in sunlight, but
we on Earth do not always see the full half.
This produces the phases of the Moon.
b The eight phases of the Moon.
new
moon
waxing
crescent
first
quarter
gibbous
full
moon
gibbous
third
quarter
waning
crescent
views of the Moon from point on Earth
252
Unit
Lunar eclipse
The ancient Chinese recognised a connection between

tides and the Moons cycle. About twice a day the sea
level rises to a high tide and falls to a low tidethe
average time between two high tides is 12 hours
25 minutes.
In 1687, the English scientist Sir Isaac Newton
(16421727) proposed his theory of gravity. He used his
theory to explain that tides happened because of the
Moons gravitational pull on the Earth.
The gravitational force between two objects is
noticeable only when one or both objects are very large,
as is the case with the Moon and the Earth. The Moon
attracts the oceans towards it, enough to cause a bulge
in the oceans facing the Moon. This bulge causes water
to be drawn from other areas on Earth, giving a low
tide. If this was the only effect, there would be one high
tide and one low tide a daynot two. The Earths
rotation, however, causes a similar bulge on the other
side of the Earth.
Lunar eclipses occur when the Moon passes into the

shadow of the Earth, making it completely or partially
disappear. They occur up to three times a year.
8.2
Tides
low tide
water pulled by
Moons gravity
Earth
N
Moon
high tide
water not as strongly attracted by
Moons gravity is left behind,
causing another high tide
Fig 8.2.6 Tides are caused by the gravitational pull of the Moon.
G
penumbra
F
E
Sun
Earth
umbra
C
B
A
penumbra
Moons orbit
Fig 8.2.7 A lunar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes into
the shadow of the Earth.
Animati on
253
The Moon
8.2
QUESTIONS
Remembering
1 a State the year in which the first person walked on the
Moon.
b Name who was the first.
sunlight
c Name the second person to walk on the Moon.

2 State whether the Moon has:
Moon
a an atmosphere
b gravity.
3 State how far the Moon is from the Earth, rounding to the
nearest 100 000 kilometres.
4 State how long it takes for the Moon to orbit the Earth.
Fig 8.2.8
20 The tidal bulges are missing from Figure 8.2.9. Use a copy of
the diagram and include them.
5 State the number of tides that occur per day.
Moon
6 State who used a telescope to view the Moon in 1609.

7 Specify where water may exist on the Moon.
Understanding
8 Describe what the Apollo missions discovered about the core
of the Moon.
9 Explain why we always see the same side of the Moon.
Earth
10 Explain what a phase of the Moon means.

11 Describe how a lunar eclipse occurs.
12 Predict how the tides would be affected if the Moon was:
a larger
Analysing
b further from the Earth.
21 Contrast a waxing crescent from a waning crescent.
13 Describe what is meant by the dark side of the Moon.
Evaluating
14 Use Figure 8.2.7 to describe how the duration of a lunar

eclipse would be different if the Earth was smaller.
22 More meteorites reach the surface of the Moon than the

surface of the Earth. Propose a reason why.
Applying
23 There are more extreme temperatures on the Moon than on

the Earth. Propose a reason why.
15 Identify the two main types of lunar landscape, and describe

them briefly.
Creating
16 Identify what causes the tides on Earth.
24 Construct a drawing of each of the following:
17 Calculate (approximately) the number of Moons it would take

to equal the mass of the Earth.
18 Use Figure 8.2.7 to explain what happens during:
a a penumbral lunar eclipse
b a partial lunar eclipse.
19 Copy and modify Figure 8.2.8 to show where the Earth would
be placed if a quarter moon is to be seen.
254
Fig 8.2.9
a a gibbous moon
b a crescent moon.
25 Construct a diagram to demonstrate how the tides are
created.
26 Design a colony that meets the requirements people will have
on the Moon. Anticipate some of the difficulties of life on the
Moon. Consider factors such as food, temperature, oxygen
and the possibility of meteorite strikes.
Unit
INVESTIGATING

encyclopaedias, Internet etc) to:
1 Produce a poster of the Moon, showing the names of the
maria and highlands.
2 Find out what are neap and solar tides.
8.2
8.2
e -xploring
We
b Desti nation
To construct a model of the Lunar Prospector that
discovered ice on the Moon, a list if web destinations
can be found on Science Focus 1 Second Edition Student Lounge.
3 Obtain a tides chart and produce a key to explain how to

use it.
4 Find the NASA website and its video clips of Moon missions.
8.2
Crater formation
1
Aim
To investigate how craters get their shape.
Equipment
flour
chocolate icing sugar
shallow tray (e.g. foil tray)
three rocks (ranging about 1 cm to 7 cm in size)
newspaper
metre rule
Method
1 Spread the newspaper under the shallow tray.
2 Place a fairly thick layer of flour in the tray, and smooth it.
3 Cover this with an even, thin layer of chocolate icing sugar to
represent an outer layer of rock.
4 Drop the rocks onto the flour from a height of one metre.
Remove them after each drop.
5 Increase the height to two metres and repeat.
6 Record the diameter of each crater and its shape for the three
rocks.
chocolate icing sugar
flour
Fig 8.2.10
Questions
1 Make a list of the factors that affected the type of crater
formed.
2 Did the same rock make the same size crater every time?
3 The experiment assumes that all objects hit planets or moons
vertically. Design an experiment to see the effect of an impact
at an angle.
255
The Moon
Phases of the Moon
Aim
To construct a flip book to show the main phases of the Moon.
Method
1 Record the phases of the Moon every third night for one
month, using copies of a record box like the one in
Figure 8.2.11.
2 If the sky is cloudy, you will have to guess what the Moon
may look like.
3 Paste the diagrams onto stiff cardboard.
Date
4 Place the pages in order from a new moon and secure them to
make a small booklet.
Time
5 Flip the pages with your thumb to see the Moons phases.
256
Fig 8.2.11 Moon view record box
Unit
8.3
context
The Sun
Our Earth depends on the Sun to supply

the energy that life on this planet needs
to flourish. With care, scientists can
observe features on the Suns surface,
particularly during solar eclipses. Although

these occur every year, each eclipse can be
observed only from certain parts of Earth.
Our nearest star

The Sun (also known in astronomy as Sol) is
our nearest star. Being about 4.5 billion years
old, the Sun is currently in middle age, with
another 4.5 billion years or so of life left.
Astronomers believe that the Sun is a secondgeneration star. This means that it formed after
a previous star collapsed. Its debris then
combined with interstellar gas to form the Sun.
Vital for life

The Sun is our source of heat and light energy.
Plants use light energy from the Sun to carry
out photosynthesis, a process during which
they make the food they need for growth and
reproduction. One of the by-products of this
process is oxygen. Animals rely on plants since
they breathe in the oxygen that plants
produce. Many animals also feed on plants.
Other animals feed on those animals.
Ultimately, the Sun is essential to the
continuation of life on Earth.
The Sun is vital for life in many other ways, too.
We release the Suns energy whenever we burn
fossil fuels, such as oil, coal, gas and petrol. The
bodies of dead plants and animals in the Earths
crust have been converted over millions of years
into these fossil fuels.
Fig 8.3.2 A simple food chain shows that all life

on Earth ultimately depends on the Sun.
Fig 8.3.1 The Sun is the closest star to planet Earth. This image shows a
spectacular solar flare extending 588 000 kilometres from the Suns surface.
O2
CO2
257
The Sun
Fig 8.3.4 Since late 2008, solar collectors have provided all 100
residents of the small Queensland town of Windorah with all the
electricity they need.
Fig 8.3.3 Fossil fuels, such as petrol, store in their chemicals energy
that came from the Sun many millions of years ago.
Heat from the Sun is felt directly in the warmth

you feel when you are outside in the sunlight.
The Earth itself is warmed by this radiation.
Different parts of the Earth heat up by different
amounts, creating pressure differences in the
atmosphere. These in turn create winds that
increase evaporation, leading to rainfall.
Some of the sunlight falling on Earth is
reflected back and would escape into space if
not for the Earths atmosphere. Greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere trap some of this heat
and so the atmosphere and Earths surface is
kept warm enough for life. The atmosphere and
Earths magnetic field also protect the planet
from other, more harmful radiation from the
Sun, such as ultraviolet (UV) radiation.
The Sun provides the massive gravitational
force necessary to keep the Earth and other
planets in orbit around it.
Solar technology
Solar energy has long been used to dry clothes and warm
houses. Simple technologies, such as clothes lines and
north-facing windows, have allowed us to use this free
and limitless source of energy. More recently, energy
from the Sun has been used as an alternative to using
fossil fuels. Swimming pools are often warmed by
placing coils of black tubes on nearby roofs, and some
houses are now using solar panels to warm water for use
inside. Others are using solar power to generate their
own electricity, and some towns are using solar
collectors for their power.
258
Energy production in the Sun

Like all stars, the Sun produces energy due to nuclear
reactions in its core. The intense temperature and
pressure at the core causes the nuclei of hydrogen atoms
to fuse, joining together to form helium. This reaction
releases a huge amount of energy and is called nuclear
fusion.
Go to
Solar statistics
The Sun is a star, but because it is much closer than
other stars, it appears much larger and brighter.
Science
Fact File
The Sun
Mass
333 400 times the mass of the

Earth
Diameter
1 392 000 km
( = 109 Earths diameter)
Gravity
28 times that on Earth
Surface
temperature
4500 to 2 000 000C (average

6000C)
Core temperature
15 000 000C in the core
Period of rotation
(day)
Equator 26 days
Poles 37 days
Tilt of axis
122
Scale model
Diameter
300 mm
Unit
Features of the Sun
Sun
Fig 8.3.5 A total of 109 Earths would fit in a line across the Suns
diameter. A total of 1.3 million Earths would fill its interior!
The Sun itself orbits around the centre of the Milky

Way, the galaxy in which we live. It takes 225 million
years for the Sun to complete its orbit and so scientists
have agreed that the Sun is stationary for all practical
purposes.
Missions to the Sun

There have been over 30 missions to the Sun and many
more are planned to take place by 2014.
Missions to the Sun (known as heliophysics
missions) aim to understand the effects of the Sun on
Earth. A typical mission was the Ulysses space probe
launched in 1990. Ulysses passed by the Suns south pole
in 1994 and again in 2000. It passed the Suns north
pole in 1995 and again in October 2001.
Safety
Although you can see the features of the Sun
from Earth, you should never look directly at it. Its
intense brightness can permanently damage your
eyes, leading to blindness.
Several features of the Sun may be observed from the

Earth using special solar telescopes.
Sunspots and solar flares were first observed on the
Suns surface by Galileo in 1611. Sunspots are
depressions on the Suns surface that appear darker
because they are several thousand degrees cooler
than the surrounding gas. The number of observable
sunspots follows an 11-year cycle, and varies from
zero to about 200 in a year.
Solar flares come from sunspots and can reach a
height of hundreds of thousands of kilometres above
the Suns surface. Solar flares can cause interference
with mobile phone, radio and television reception on
Earth.
Prominences are a larger type of solar eruption and
consist of a streamer of glowing gas. They can be
observed from Earth during a total solar eclipse.
Solar winds are formed by streams of particles being
constantly emitted by the Sun into space. They
travel at speeds of about 500 kilometres per second.
8.3
Earth
Corona: a faint halo extending

out a great distance from the Sun
(1 000 0002 000 000C).
The corona includes clouds of
gas called prominences.
Chromosphere: a thin ring
around the edge
(45001 000 000C)
Photosphere:
the visible surface
of the Sun (5000C)
Sun
Fig 8.3.6 The Suns atmosphere has three main layers

photosphere, chromosphere and corona.
Science
Science
Clip
Passengers on aircraft zapped!

A typical solar flare releases energy
that is equivalent to one billion
hydrogen bombs and throws 100
billion tonnes of dangerous particles
into space. The magnetic field of Earth
normally protects us from all this. Due
to a solar flare, aircraft passengers
can receive radiation equivalent to that
of one medical X-ray.
Clip
Rotation rates
Different parts of the Sun rotate at
different rates. The solar equator
rotates once every 26 days,
whereas the Suns polar regions
rotate once every 37 days.
Prac 1
p. 261
259
The Sun
a
Fig 8.3.7 a Solar winds send particles towards the

Earths North Pole and South Pole regions, where they
interact with gas particles in the atmosphere to cause a
spectacular light display called an aurora.
b Aurora australis is often called the southern lights.
g
solar wind
aaurora
au
uro
ur
ror
ora
ra
b
day
nnight
ight
ht
atmosphere
aaurora
au
aur
uro
ro
ror
orraa
ora
Solar eclipses
total solar eclipse
Sun is
behind
Moon
Moon
partial solar eclipse
solar corona
now visible
annular solar eclipse
Moon
Sun
Moon
Sun
Fig 8.3.8 There are three types of solar eclipse. Solar eclipses can
There are three types of solar eclipse:

A total solar eclipse is when the Sun is covered by
the Moon.
A partial solar eclipse is when the Moon covers
only part of the Sun.
An annular solar eclipse occurs when the Moon is
at its greatest distance from
Science
the Earth.
All solar eclipses occur when the
Moon comes between the Earth
The Sun has
and the Sun and the Moons
abandoned me!
shadow falls on the Earth.
Clip
Worksheet 8.3 Sunrise, sunset
occur up to twice a year, but do not all happen in the same place.
8.3
QUESTIONS
Remembering
260
The word eclipse comes

from the Greek word for
abandonmentthe eclipse
was seen as the Sun
abandoning the Earth!
Understanding
1 List the following in order from closest to most distant from

the centre of the Sun: chromosphere, photosphere, corona.
6 Plants and animals both depend on the Sun for food. Explain
how.
2 State a harmful type of radiation from the Sun.

3 Name two types of energy provided by the Sun.
7 Explain why there would also be no oil deposits inside the

Earth if there was no Sun.
4 Name Earths nearest star and its distance from Earth.
8 Explain what each word means in the term nuclear fusion.
5 State the maximum temperature that is thought to be reached

within the Sun.
9 Describe three features of the Sun.

10 Explain how the Sun affects:
a rainfall
b wind.
>>
c minute
Applying
d hour.
15 Specify how many kilometres a light year is equivalent to.
12 Identify the region of the Sun that is:
16 Calculate how many minutes it would take light to travel from

the Sun to Earth.
a hottest
b coolest
c its visible surface.
Evaluating
13 If the Earth is drawn as a circle of diameter 1 mm, calculate

how large the Sun would need to be if drawn to the same
scale.
17 Imagine the Sun has just died. Propose what would happen
to Earth and life on it over the next few:
a hours
b days
c years.
Analysing
Creating
The distances in space are so huge that kilometres are not used to
measure them. Instead, distances are measured in light years. A
light year is the distance a beam of light will travel in one year, or
365 Earth days. Light travels at a speed of 300 000 kilometres per
second (km/s).
18 Construct a drawing to demonstrate the view from Earth during:

a a partial solar eclipse
b an annular solar eclipse.
8.3
INVESTIGATING

1 Find out where an aurora other than aurora australis occurs.
What is it called?
3 Find out when the next solar eclipse will occur that can be
seen from your local area. Produce an advertisement to get
people out to watch the eclipse, but make sure you inform
them about how they can view the event safely without
damaging their eyes. L
2 Find out more about the Ulysses probe. Construct a labelled

diagram of its structure to show what it can do.
8.3
PRACTICAL ACTIVITY
The sunspot cycle
Method
1 The approximate numbers of sunspots recorded over a
14-year period are given below. Use these data to construct a
sunspot line graph. Place the years on the horizontal axis.
Place the number of sunspots on the vertical axis. N
Aim
Use existing data to predict the number of sunspots up to the year
2013.
2 If the graph follows a similar cycle for the next 11 years,

sketch the predicted number of sunspots up to the year 2013.
Equipment
8.3
14 Use this information to calculate how far light travels in one:

a day
b year
Unit
11 The Sun is less dense than Earth. Explain how this can be
when the Sun is much bigger and has a much larger mass.
graph paper
3 How many sunspots do you predict for the year 2013? If

possible, check your prediction using the Internet.
Year
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
Sunspots
157
142
146
94
54
30
18
22
64
93
120
111
104
261
Unit
8.4
context
The solar system
Look up into the sky on a clear night and

you will see many of the planets that the
ancient astronomers saw. You might also
see an assortment of space junk and
satellites that move across the night sky
like slowly moving stars. Modern
astronomers make closer observations of
the planets and the stars beyond using
telescopes. Space probes have been sent to

many of the planets in the solar system to
collect even more information about them.
This new knowledge has given us a much
greater understanding than before of Earth
and the seven other planets of our solar
system.
Science
Clip
Pluto: The non-planet
Fig 8.4.1 The relative sizes of the planets are shown. The rings of the
gas giants are not shown. Until recently, there were nine planets in the
solar system. In 2006, Pluto was re-classified as a dwarf planet,
meaning that there are eight official planets in the solar system.
Eight planets of the solar system

The term solar system takes its name from Sol
(the Greek word meaning Sun), the star at its centre.
The planets of our solar system orbit around the Sun.
At the same time, each planet rotates on its own axis.
The time taken for a planet to spin once on its axis is
called its day. The time taken for a planet to orbit the
Sun once is called its year. All the planets have days and
years of different lengths.
The four innermost planets (i.e. Mercury, Venus, Earth
and Mars) are termed terrestrial planets, meaning
262
Until 2006, Pluto was considered

to be the ninth planet of the solar
system. In that year however, the
members of the International
Astronomical Union (IAU) agreed
to create a new class of dwarf
planets. Dwarf planets are like
other planets in that they have
enough gravity to pull them into
roughly spherical shapes. They
differ, however, from normal
planets in how they affect small
masses in their paths. Normal
planets have enough gravity to
sweep their orbits clear of debris,
whereas the gravitational pull of
dwarf planets is insufficient to do
so. Pluto has been classified as a
dwarf planet, along with the
asteroid Ceres and Eris (formerly
known as 2003UB313), which
orbits the Sun three times further
out than Pluto. The dwarf planet
list will keep growing as new
celestial bodies are found that fit
into this category.
that they are Earth-like. All the terrestrial planets

move around the Sun in the same plane (a large
imaginary flat surface) in almost circular orbits.
The larger outer planets (i.e. Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus
and Neptune) are known as the gas giants because of
their outer layers, which are composed of gases such as
hydrogen and helium. The gas giants move in elliptical
or oval orbits. They, too, move in the same plane as all
the other planets.
Unit
8.4
Sun
Mars
Earth
Venus
Jupiter
Saturn
Uranus
Neptune
Mercury
Fig 8.4.2 The distances in this diagram are to scale, but the sizes
of the planets are not.
1 AU
1 AU
Sun
Sun
Fig 8.4.3 An astronomical unit

(AU) is the distance from Earth to
the Sun.
The terrestrial
planets
Earth
Earth
Science
Each planet is given a symbol by modern

astronomers. These symbols were invented by the
Greeks who imagined each planet to be a god.
Science
Clip
Fact File
Hey you, AU!

The average distance from
the Earth to the Sun is
called an astronomical unit
(AU) and equals
149 600 000 kilometres.
If you travelled at
100 kilometres per hour,
then it would take about
170 years
rs to get from the
Earth to the Sun!
Mercury, Venus, Earth and

Mars all can be seen
without a telescope. For
this reason they were
known to most ancient
civilisations. The
terrestrial planets could be easily
referred to as the ancient planets.
Diameter
measurements
are made at the
equator for each
planet. For
comparison, the
diameter of the Sun
is 1 392 000 km.
Mercury
Mass
Moons
None
Di
Diameter
4878 km ( = 0.38 Earths diameter)
Su
Surface
Similar to Earths Moon, with craters,

lava-flooded plains and smooth
mountains
At
Atmosphere
Mainly helium, which blows past

Mercury from the Sun
Gr
Gravity
Su
Surface
te
temperature
Drops to 170C at night and rises

to 430C in the day
Pe
Period of rotation
(d
(day)
59 Earth days
Tilt of axis
Distance from Sun
Time to orbit Sun

(year)
88 Earth days

Diameter
1 mm
Distance from Sun
12.5 m
Mercury
Fig 8.4.4 Mercury shows its heavily cratered surface.
Mercury was known in ancient Sumer (now Iraq) some

5000 years ago. This planet moves very quickly across
the sky. It was named after the Roman god, Mercury,
who was the swift messenger of the gods.
263
The solar system

Mercury is the closest planet to the Sun, so close
that it is often difficult to observe. One time that it is
very visible is in the dark of the morning or evening.
For this reason it appears as a morning and evening star.
Despite its proximity to the Sun, Mercury is not the
hottest planet in the solar system.
Mercury is the smallest planet of the solar system,
being about the size of Earths Moon. Like the Moon, it
has a very old surface containing craters and plains.
Much of our knowledge of Mercury comes from the
American spacecraft Mariner 1. In the 1970s it flew
past Mercury three times, photographing and mapping
roughly half the planets surface. In 2004, the Messenger
spacecraft was launched to investigate the geology,
atmosphere and magnetic field of the planet Mercury. It
took three and a half years for Messenger to get to
Mercury, flying within 200 kilometres of its surface. In
2008, it pulled itself onto a path that will lead it to back
to orbit Mercury in 2011. It takes ten minutes for
Messengers radio signals to reach Earth and its flight
controllers at NASA.
Science
Fact File
Venus
Mass
Moons
None
Diameter
12 103 km ( = 0.95 Earths

diameter)
Surface
Extensive cratering, volcanic

activity, mountain ranges, a
1500 km trench.
Atmosphere
80 km thick layer of carbon

dioxide with some water
vapour. Clouds contain
concentrated sulfuric acid
droplets.
Atmospheric pressure
90 times that on Earth

(enough to crush early
Space probes)
Gravity
Surface temperature
460C
243 Earth days
Tilt of axis
30
Distance from Sun
Time to orbit Sun (year)
225 Earth days
Venus
Venus was recorded by the Babylonians in
approximately 3000 BCE and it is also mentioned in
the astronomical records of the ancient civilisations of
China, Central America, Egypt and Greece.
Fig 8.4.5 A radar image of Venus sent from the Magellan mission.
264
Diameter
2.6 mm
Distance from Sun
23.3 m
Venus is the hottest planet in the solar system and is

the planet closest in size to Earth. Venus has an acidic
and crushing atmosphere that would make it impossible
for life to exist on it. When visible, Venus is the third
brightest object in the sky after the Sun and Moon.
It is so bright that it is known as the morning and
evening star.
Venus spins from east to west, a direction opposite to
the spin of Earth and the other planets. This opposite
spin is called retrograde movement. Venus also
revolves very slowly. A day is longer than its year.
Scientists are curious about why Venus developed so
differently from Earth and the other planets. One
thought is that a comet or asteroid may have crashed
into Venus in the distant past and that this collision
slowed its rotation and reversed its spin.
Fact File
Earth
Mass

(5 980 000 000 000 000 000
000 000 kg)
Moons
One (known as the Moon)
Diameter
12 756 km
Surface
Two-thirds water, one-third land
Atmosphere
78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 1%

carbon dioxide, argon and water
vapour and other gases
Gravity
Surface
temperature
Average 22C
Period of rotation
(day)
1 day
Tilt of axis
23.5
Distance from Sun
1 AU (150 million kilometres)
Time to orbit Sun

(year)
365.25 days
Earth
Earth is the third planet from the Sun. Seventy per cent
of Earths surface is covered by water and so the planet
is also known as the blue or water planet.
Earth is the only planet currently known to support
life. It has a molten core, upon which float the massive
rocky tectonic plates that make up its surface. Earth is
orbited by its Moon and many artificial communication
satellites.
8.4
The surface of Venus cannot be observed directly

using telescopes because of its thick, acidic cloud layer.
Most of our knowledge of Venus comes from the
Magellan mapping probe that left Earth in 1989 and fell
into orbit around Venus in 1990. The images it sent
back showed sharp-edged craters and massive volcanoes,
and were used to map 98 per cent of the planets surface.
The Venus Express, which was launched by the
European Space Agency in 2005, continues to send
back scientific data about the planet.
Unit
Science

Diameter
2.7 mm
Distance from Sun
32.2 m
Mars
Fig 8.4.6 Earth showing Australia and snow-covered Antarctica.
Mars is named after the Roman god of war. Mars is

known as the red planet and has been the subject of
many science fiction movies and books. Mars would be
accurately called the rusty planet, as its red appearance
is due to rust (iron oxide) in its surface soil and rocks.
There are some similarities between Earth and Marsa
Martian day is only 30 minutes longer than an Earth
day and its 25.2 tilt causes seasons similar to Earths
(only twice as long).
Many space probes have been sent to Mars to collect
data on its rocks and weather, and to see if there is any
evidence of past or microscopic life. Some of the most
important missions were Viking 1 and 2, Pathfinder, the
Mars Global Surveyor (which found that water once
existed on Mars) and Odyssey (which discovered ice
under its surface). These were space probes that
collected data about the rocks, weather and any
evidence of microscopic life. In 2007, the Phoenix Mars
Mission was launched as a budget Mars Exploration
Program. This mission was designed to determine the
existence of water and the habitability and potential
biology on the planet.
265
The solar system

Science
Fact File
Mars
Fig 8.4.7 Mars showing red earth and polar caps.
Mass
Moons
Two (Phobosdiameter 23 km,

Deimosdiameter 10 km)
Diameter
6794 km ( = 0.53 Earths

diameter)
Surface
Soft red soil containing iron oxide

(rust), giving the planet its red
appearance. Cratered regions, large
volcanoes, a large canyon and
possible dried-up water channels.
Polar caps of frozen carbon dioxide
and water.
Atmosphere
Very thin, mainly carbon dioxide
Gravity
Surface
temperature
120C to 25C
Period of rotation
(day)
1.03 Earth days
Tilt of axis
25.2
Distance from
Sun
Time to orbit Sun

(year)
687 Earth days
Fig 8.4.8 The Mars Phoenix mission. The landing system on Phoenix
allows the spacecraft to touch down within 10 kilometres of its
targeted landing area.
The asteroid belt

The asteroid belt is made up of thousands of small
rocky metallic bodies and dust in orbit around the Sun.
The largest asteroid is Ceres, having a diameter of about
1000 kilometres. Researchers have found several nearEarth asteroids, but none are predicted to crash into
Earth in the near or distant future.
Fig 8.4.9 Thousands of asteroids lie in a belt between Mars and
Jupiter. One is Ida, an asteroid big enough to have a gravitational
field that has trapped its own orbiting moon, Dactyl.
266
Diameter
1.4 mm
Distance from
Sun
49.1 m
Unit
The gas giants
Science
Jupiter is the largest planet in the solar system with a

diameter more than 11 times that of Earth. Ancient
astronomers named the planet Jupiter, after the ruler of
the gods in the Roman state.
Hooked on astronomy
Robert Hooke (16351703) was the English scientist who
discovered cells. He was also one of the first men to build a
reflecting telescope. He used this telescope to discover a
previously unknown star in the constellation of Orion. His
observations with his telescope led him to suggest in 1664
that Jupiter rotated on its axis just like Earth. His detailed
sketches of Mars were used two hundred years later to
determine how fast it spun.
8.4
Clip
Jupiter
Science
Fact File
Jupiter
The Great Red Spot is

a giant hurricane
about three times the
size of the Earth.
Mass
318 times that of Earth
Moons
Over 60 moons and four

rings, including the four
largest moons: Io, Ganymede,
Europa and Callisto. These are
known as the Galilean
moons.
Diameter
142 984 km ( = 11.21

Earths diameter)
Surface
Liquid hydrogen
Atmosphere
Hydrogen (84%) and helium

(15%). Upper layer contains
white clouds, probably
composed of solid ammonia.
Gravity
Surface temperature
Cloud top 150C
Period of rotation
(day)
9 h 55 min
Tilt of axis
3.1
Distance from Sun
5.2 AU (778 million

kilometres)
Time to orbit Sun

(year)
11.8 Earth years
Fig 8.4.10 Jupiter showing alternating east and west wind belts.
In March 1979,
Voyager 1 flew by Jupiter
and detected a faint series
of rings around the planet,
measuring 29 kilometres
thick and 6400 kilometres
wide. The first active
volcano outside Earth was
also observed on Io, one of
Jupiters sixty or so moons.
In July 1994, the Hubble
space telescope photographed the collision of
the comet ShoemakerLevy 9 with Jupiter.
Science
Clip
Shoemaker puts the

boot in
The Shoemaker-Levy 9
comet that struck Jupiter
in 1994 was actually a
series of 21 comets! The
explosions caused by the
impacts had the equivalent
power of an atomic bomb
going off every second for
five or six years. Some of
the resulting dust clouds
were bigger than Earth.

Diameter
30 mm
Distance from Sun
168 m
267
The solar system
Fig 8.4.11 Saturn showing the cloudy

atmosphere and the separation between the
two bright rings (called the Cassini Division).
Worksheet 8.1 Saturns rings
Saturn
Uranus
Saturn is the second-largest planet in the solar system. It

was named after the Roman god of agriculture and is
most easily recognised by its impressive ring system.
This system was discovered by Galileo in 1610. The
space probe Voyager 2 detected over 100 000 rings when
it flew by Saturn in 1981. The rings are only tens of
metres thick, spread out to a diameter of 270 000
kilometres and are thought to be composed of particles
of ice and ice-covered rock, ranging from tiny particles
to large rocks. Like Jupiter, Saturn is a world of gasa
planet so light that it would float on water.
The English astronomer William Herschel accidentally

discovered Uranus in 1781. Uranus was named after the
Greek god of the heavens. Uranus is a strange planet
because its axis is tilted at an angle of 98an angle
that makes it virtually lie on its side as it orbits the Sun.
Science
Fact File
Saturn
Mass
Moons
At least 30 moons and rings in seven

bands
Diameter
120 536 km (= 9.45 Earths diameter)
Surface
Liquid hydrogen. Winds up to 1800 km/h
Atmosphere
Very thick layer of hydrogen and helium
Gravity
Surface temperature
180C
10 h 39 min
Tilt of axis
26.7
Distance from Sun
Ancient and modern planets
29.5 Earth years
Although the other planets of the solar system were known to

ancient civilisations, Uranus and Neptune were discovered only
relatively recently. This is because they can be seen only by using
a telescope. Neither of these planets appear in any of the
textbooks printed before Captain Cook landed at Botany Bay in
1770. These books show only six planetsthe ancient planets.

Diameter
25 mm
Distance from Sun
307 m
268
Fig 8.4.12 Uranus, showing the vertical rings and moons (white
spots) orbiting the planet.
Science
Clip
Science
Planet George
When William Herschel
discovered Uranus in
1781, he first thought it
was a comet. When he
then found it was a planet,
he wanted to name it
George, after the British
King George III.
Neptune was identified by German astronomer Johann

Galle in 1846 after it was noticed that Uranus had
strayed from its orbit. The cause was the gravitational
attraction of nearby Neptune. Neptune is sometimes
referred to as the twin of Uranus and is named after the
Roman god of the sea.
Voyager 2 flew past Neptune in 1989, examining its
rings. These are the least known and understood of all
the ring systems.
8.4
Clip
Neptune
Unit
This tilt gives Uranus

the strangest seasons of all
the planets, with each
season lasting 21 years! Like
Saturn, Uranus has a large
number of moons, and a
ring system that is quite
faint in comparison.
Voyager 2 discovered
additional moons and rings
when it flew by in 1986.
Science
Fact File
Uranus
Mass
Moons
At least 21 moons and 11 rings
Diameter
51 200 km (= 4.01 Earths

diameter)
Surface
Likely to be frozen hydrogen

and helium
The Great Dark Spot is a

huge cyclonic storm with
winds up to 2400 km/h.
Hydrogen, helium and very
<<insert Fig 8.4.18<update

turbulent, with winds of over
600 km/h
existing>>
Atmosphere
Gravity
Surface temperature
220C
17 h 14 min
Tilt of axis
98
Distance from Sun
84 Earth years

Diameter
10.1 mm
Distance from Sun
618 m
Fig 8.4.13 Neptune, showing its blue-green atmosphere.

The Great Dark Spot seen at the centre is about 13 000 kilometres
by 6600 kilometres in size.
Science
Clip
Extrasolar planets
Science
Clip
Zombie bums
Author Andy Griffiths description of
Uranus in his novel Zombie Bums from
Uranus is partly accurate. It does have
an explosive methane atmosphere
(with added hydrogen for extra bang!),
but its surface is definitely not sticky
and poo-like!
Since July 2003, about 117 planets

have been located revolving around
other stars outside our solar system.
Several of these are in what are called
habitable zones around their parent
stars, where the temperature would
permit water to remain in a liquid
state. Perhaps life exists on one of
these planets.
269
The solar system

Science
Science
Fact File
Clip
Planet X
Neptune
Mass
Moons
Eight moons and five rings
Diameter
49 528 km ( = 3.88 Earths

diameter)
Surface
Frozen hydrogen and helium
Atmosphere
Mainly hydrogen, helium. Very

high winds of over 600 km/h
Gravity
Surface temperature
220C
16 h 7 min
Tilt of axis
29.3
Distance from Sun
165 Earth years
For several years, many scientists believed

there was an undiscovered planet, Planet X,
beyond Pluto that was responsible for
unexplained deviations in the orbits of Uranus
and Neptune. When Voyager 2 provided more
accurate information about the masses of
Uranus and Neptune, it was discovered that
both planets were heavier than first thought.
New calculations using these more accurate
masses were then able to explain the
deviations in orbit, ending any support for the
existence of Planet X.

Diameter
9.7 mm
Distance from Sun
968 m
8.4
Prac 1
p. 273
Prac 2
p. 273
Prac 3
p. 274
QUESTIONS
Remembering
1 List the planets in order from:
a largest to smallest
b closest to most distant from the Sun
c lowest to highest gravity.
2 Name the planets known as the gas giants.
3 Name three spacecraft, and at least one planet visited by
each.
Understanding
4 a Name the body in the solar system that lost its
status as a planet in 2006.
b Explain why it is now regarded as a dwarf planet.
c Name two other dwarf planets.
5 Clarify what is meant by a terrestrial planet.
6 Explain why there is less information available about the outer
planets than the inner ones.
Applying
7 Identify the following planets by unscrambling their names:
a PETENUN
b SUNEV
c ARMS
d RATUNS
e ITUPREJ
f SUNRAU
g TEHAR
h RECYRUM
8 Identify which planets could be called:
a ancient planets
b modern planets.
9 Identify which planet:
a is the hottest
b is the coldest
c has a giant hurricane raging that is larger than the Earth
>>
270
Unit
e Saturn: Divide your age by 29.5.
e spins the opposite way to all the others
f Uranus: Divide your age by 84.
f has a day length similar to that of Earths
g Neptune: Divide your age by 165.
g spins on its side as it orbits the Sun
Analysing
h has a crushing atmosphere
12 Calculate the range of surface temperature on Mercury. N
i has a rusty surface

j is covered by a thick yellow layer composed mainly of
carbon dioxide
k is two-thirds under water
l has the most impressive ring system
m was discovered because it was noticed that a neighbouring
planet strayed from its orbit
n has a day that is longer than its year
o has the strongest gravity
p is known as the morning and evening star
q is the most dense.
10 Identify which planets have:
8.4
d has an atmosphere that blows past it from the Sun
Evaluating
13 Propose a reason why it is unlikely that life exists or has
existed on planets other than Earth.
14 Discuss the evidence that early astronomers used to support
the idea that life may exist on Mars. Is this evidence still
relevant? Justify your answer.
Creating
15 The year is 3000 and you are on holiday at a resort on another
planet in the solar system. Construct a postcard with a stamp
and write a letter describing your holiday to someone back
home on Earth.
16 Construct a scale diagram of the solar system showing:
a atmospheres
a the relative sizes of the planets
b a moon or moons
b the relative distances from the Sun to the planets. N
c ring systems
Your diagram must fit neatly onto poster paper, so you will
need to scale down the planet sizes and distances to make
them fit. Explain why it is not convenient to have the same
scale in a diagram of the solar system for both size and
distance.
d methane in their atmosphere.

11 Calculate your age on the following planets: N
a Mercury: Multiply your age by 365 then divide by 87.97.
b Venus: Multiply your age by 365 then divide by 225.
c Mars: Multiply your age by 365 then divide 687.
17 Choose any three planets. Construct a table like the one below
and enter the data for each planet.
d Jupiter: Divide your age by 12.
Planet name
__________________
__________________
__________________
Mass
Diameter
Surface
Atmosphere
Gravity
Surface temperature
Moons
Period of rotation
Distance from Sun
Time to orbit Sun
>>
271
The solar system

18 Much of the information we know about the outer planets
came from the Voyager 1 and 2 missions. Use the information
in the table to construct a scaled timeline for each mission. N
Date
Mission
20 August 1977
Voyager 2
Launches
5 September 1977
Voyager 1
Launches
5 March 1979
Voyager 1
Flies by Jupiter
9 July 1979
Voyager 2
Flies by Jupiter
12 November 1980
Voyager 1
Flies by Saturn
25 August 1981
Voyager 2
Flies by Saturn
24 January 1986
Voyager 2
Flies by Uranus
25 August 1989
Voyager 2
Flies by Neptune
1998
Voyager 1
Most distant human-made object
2002 and beyond
Voyager 1 & 2
Exploring past Pluto
8.4
INVESTIGATING
INVESTIGATING

including pictures of each planet and the person or object the
Money spent on space exploration would be better spent on
272
What happened?
e -xploring
We
To find out more about the solar system, a list of
b Desti nation
web destinations can be found on Science Focus 1
Second Edition Student Lounge. There, you will also find a link to
a website that allows you to construct a model of a space probe,
such as the Cassini spacecraft that was sent to explore Saturn.
Unit
PRACTICAL
P
RACTICAL A
ACTIVITIES
CTIVITIES
Construct a model solar

system
8.4
8.4
Aim
To represent the relative sizes and distances of the planets.
5 Go outside and place the Sun in position.
Equipment
6 The inner planets should be placed in position from the Sun

within the school grounds. Measure the distance for each
planet using a trundle wheel.
modelling clay
play dough or plasticine
scale model information from Unit 8.4
a basketball to represent the Sun
photocopy of street map of the local school area
trundle wheel
Method
1 Get into small groups of students.
2 Copy the scale model information from the fact file for each
planet into one table.
3 Using clay, play dough or plasticine, make a model of each
planet according to the size in the scale model.
4 Obtain a street map of the local school area. Decide where the
Sun will be located and use the scale of the map to find the
position of the outer five planets. N
7 Ask your teacher whether your group may place the outer
planet models in position outside the school grounds. Measure
the distance for each planet using a trundle wheel and check
your street map to see if this is correct. Otherwise, mark on
the street map where the other planets should be located.
Questions
1 For the outer planets, did the distance measured by the
trundle wheel agree with the position marked on your street
map?
2 Compare the spacing of the inner planets to that of the outer
planets.
Classify the planets
2
Aim
Questions
To classify the planets using different criteria.
1 Explain why Pluto is no longer classified as a planet.
Method
2 Name the classification now given to Pluto.
1 Classify the planets according to the following rules:

a Size: Small planets have diameters less than
13 000 kilometres, and large planets greater than
13 000 kilometres.
b Composition: Rocky or terrestrial planets, and gas planets.
c Distance from the Sun: The inner planets and the outer
planets. The asteroid belt is the separating boundary.
2 Write a key for identifying the planets from their descriptions.
3 Use someone elses key to identify the planets and evaluate
whether their key is effective.
273
The solar system
Jumping on other planets
7 To calculate your average jump: N

Add: Jump 1 + Jump 2 + Jump 3
Aim
Divide by 3.
To observe what a change in gravity does to your jump.
8 To calculate the height that you could jump on other

planets: N
Equipment
metre ruler or tape measure
calculator
Divide: Your average jump Gravity.
Questions
Method
1 Identify the planet where you could jump:
1 Select a safe, clear space, perhaps outside.

2 One of your laboratory partners needs to hold the metre ruler
vertically, with the zero end touching the ground.
3 Another partner needs to be crouched down, with their eyes
level with the ruler.
4 Stand next to the ruler and jump as high as you can.
a the highest
b the lowest
c about the same as on Earth.
2 Explain why would jumping on the Moon be easier than on
Earth?
5 Your lab partner must read off the height that your feet reach
in the jump.
6 Repeat three times and record your information in the table
below.
Jump 1
(cm)
274
Jump 2
(cm)
Jump 3
(cm)
Average
jump (cm)
Planet
Gravity compared
to Earths
Mercury
0.38
Venus
0.9
Earth
1.0
The Moon
0.16
Mars
0.376
Jupiter
2.525
Saturn
1.064
Uranus
0.903
Neptune
1.135
Height you could jump on this

planet (cm) (column 4 column 6)
Unit
Early astronomy

People in the city do not see many stars when they look
into the sky on a clear night. There is no light pollution
in the bush and outback Australia, and that is where you
can obtain true darkness. It is only then that you can get
an awe-inspiring, clear view of the stars and planets. It is
easy to understand, then, why ancient peoples were
fascinated by the stars and planets.
8.4
Science
Focus
Astronomy and Indigenous Australians

The Australian Aboriginals were keen
observers of the movement of the Sun,
Moon and stars. Like the Inca people in
South America, some Indigenous tribes saw the Milky
Way as a pathway to the ancestors and the Dreaming
spirits. The Aboriginal tribes used the motion of the
stars across the night sky to predict the seasons and the
time when certain food sources would become available.
The constellations of the Southern Cross (Crux) and
the seven sisters (Pleiades) are known to be of special
significance to the Aboriginals. Each tribe often had
different names and Dreaming for them.
Fig 8.4.14 The Milky Way is very clear and bright when there are no
city lights.
Astronomy is the study of the motion of the stars and

planets. For thousands of years, ancient astronomers had
seen points of light that appeared to move amongst the
starsthey called these planets, meaning wanderers.
Nearly all early cultures had their own ideas on the stars
and planets. Most studied the way they moved across the
night sky, and many planets were worshipped or named
after their gods (the names of Greek and Roman gods
are still used in naming those planets known in ancient
times). Other cultures used their observations of the
motion to make predictions about events such as the
seasons. Astronomy seems to have begun around
3000 BCE when the Mesopotamians, Egyptians and
Chinese grouped stars together into collections known
as constellations. Large structures like the pyramids of
Egypt and Stonehenge in Great Britain (both
constructed about 2500 BCE), show how important the
motion of the Sun and other objects in the night sky
was to these ancient peoples.
Fig 8.4.15 The seven sisters, known as Pleiades, as seen by the

Aboriginals.
The Pitjantjatjara tribe originally inhabited the

Western Desert area. To them, the first appearance of
Pleiades in the east just before dawn was a signal that
the dingoes would be having pups. The people would
then know that newly born pups could be found if they
searched the dingo lairs. For the Aboriginal tribes in the
south-east of Australia, their Dreaming story for the
Pleiades had the stars as seven young women. They
believed that the young women had shown a lot of
courage by insisting on doing all the tribal initiation
rites that the men had to do. In honour of their bravery,
they were placed into the heavens together after their
life on Earth. There they acted as a role model for
others.
>>
275
Early astronomy
Theories of the solar system

The geocentric model
Pythagoras (575495 BCE) was a Greek scientist and
mathematician. Although he is best known for his
important and useful rule for right-angled triangles,
Pythagoras proposed a theory we now know to be
wrong. He suggested that the Earth was the centre of
the universe. Aristotle (384322 BCE), Hipparchus
(190120 BCE) and Claudius Ptolemy (83168 CE)
proposed more detailed models in which Earth was
placed at the centre of the solar system. This type of
model is known as a geocentric model (geo is a Greek
word meaning Earth).
Ptolemy developed his geocentric model of the solar
system using star measurements taken by Hipparchus. In
his book, titled Almagest, produced in Babylon in about
150 CE, Ptolemy provided the first reasonably accurate
way to predict how various bodies moved across the sky.
Those who used the information in the Almagest were
able to predict, within about a hand span, where a star
or planet would be in the night sky at any date and
time.
Ptolemys model was based on Aristotles idea that
the objects of the heavens were all perfect, and moved
in perfect circular orbits around the Earth. This is not
totally correct and so Ptolemy needed to make changes
to enable his model to predict the motions more
accurately.
ls
stia
ele
containing all
the
phere
s
tar
Fig 8.4.17 The Ptolemy model predicted that Antares, a red star in
the constellation of Scorpio, should be in the position where the thumb
tip is. Ptolemys model was accurate enough to predict that Antares
would be found somewhere within the circle that is formed when the
hand is rotated around the thumb.
The influence of culture and religion

During the fifteenth century, the growing Christian
church adopted the geocentric model as religious truth,
and believed it to be in line with biblical teachings.
The issue of having Earth at the centre the universe,
however, was to prove very difficult.
Mars
Venus
Moon
Jupiter
Earth
Mercury
Sun
Saturn
Ptolemy model
Fig 8.4.16 The geocentric model by Ptolomy.
276
Fig 8.4.18 Ptolemy with Urania, the goddess of astronomy. Ptolemy

is holding a quadrant used for measuring the altitude of stars. In the
bottom left corner is an astrolabe for measuring the altitude and
position of stars and planets.
Unit
Another ancient Greek, Aristarchus (310230 BCE)

questioned the geocentric model and proposed instead a
model in which the Earth and other planets revolved
around the Sun. This is known as a heliocentric model
(helio is the Greek word meaning Sun). Aristarchus also
thought that the Moon went around the Earth.
banned in 1616 and placed on the Churchs official

Index of forbidden books, where it remained until 1835.
8.4
The heliocentric model
Saturn
Saturn
Jupiter
Jupiter
Mars
Moon
Earth
Earth
Venus
Venus
Mercury
Mercury
Fig 8.4.20 Pages from the book published by Copernicus in 1543,

which described the heliocentric model of the solar system.
Sun
Copernicus model
Fig 8.4.19 The heliocentric model of Copernicus.
The geocentric model continued to be favoured by

scientists and philosophers until the end of the fifteenth
century. People who opposed this model were often in
danger of being imprisoned or put to death by the
religious authorities, who thought that humankind and
Earth had to be the centre of everything.
In the 1530s, Polish astronomer Nicolas
Copernicus (14731543) began to examine all the
available astronomical data and Ptolemys model.
Copernicus thought that Ptolemys model needed too
many modifications to make it accurate. He suggested
that this model was too complex and could not truly
reflect a perfect design from God. In 1514, Copernicus
produced instead that the Sun was at the centre of the
solar systemthe heliocentric model. The ideas of
Copernicus were frowned upon and viewed by many
as heresy (against the teachings of the Church).
Copernicus continued to work on his heliocentric
theory, completing a book on it in 1530, which took
another 13 years to get published because of Church
opposition. Copernicus saw a printed copy of the book
only on the day he died. The book was eventually
Slow to change
The Italian mathematics professor Galileo Galilei
(15641642), known simply as Galileo, was a strong
supporter of Copernicus ideas. Despite the banning of
Copernicus book, copies of it were available and Galileo
was able to get a copy. Galileo thought that its
heliocentric model made sense and he became a strong
supporter of it. In 1609, Galileo constructed a telescope
and used it to examine the Moon and Jupiter. He proved
that there were mountains and craters on the Moon and
that there were moons orbiting around Jupiter. His
observations exposed mistakes in the geocentric model
and contradicted what the Church was teaching.
Galileo was condemned by the Church and forced to
publicly declare that he was wrong in his support of the
heliocentric model. He was also forced to state that he
made up the images others had seen through his
telescope. He was kept under house arrest for the rest of
his life. The Pope officially reversed the Churchs stand
against Galileo in 1983.
>>
Fig 8.4.21 Galileo demonstrating his telescope in 1609.
277
Early astronomy
About the same time, the
Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe
(15461601) took many detailed
measurements of the positions of
stars and planets in an attempt to
improve the geocentric model and
disprove the heliocentric model.
Ironically, the German astronomer
Johannes Kepler (15711630)
used Tycho Brahes data to finally
show that Copernicuss idea of a
heliocentric model was correct
after all!
Worksheet 8.2 Space exploration timeline
Fig 8.4.22 Jupiter and the two Galilean

moons, named after Galileo. He was the
first person to view them through a homemade telescope.
STUDENT ACTIVITIES
1 We know only a few of the ideas and stories that Aboriginal
people had regarding the stars and planets.
a Propose reasons why this is so.
b Compare your ideas with those of your classmates.
c To find out more information about Aboriginals
and astronomy, a list of web destinations can
be found on Science Focus 1 Second Edition
Student Lounge.
We
b Desti nation
2 The Milky Way is spectacular when seen from a very dark

location.
a Investigate the Milky Way. Explain what it is and why it
lights up the night sky so brightly.
b Find a story that involves the Milky Way and retell it by
writing a picture story book or drawing a series of
cartoons.
3 Galileo used a poem to describe his ideas about the motion
of the planets and stars. Unfortunately, this got him into
even more trouble with the Catholic Church. Imagine you
are Galileo and first see the Moon with a telescope. Using
the image of the Moon, write a short poem to try to describe
it. L
278
4 a Describe three reasons why most ancient peoples, and

church officials, could not believe that the Earth was in
orbit around the Sun.
b Design and perform an experiment or measurement to
prove that the Earth is moving around the Sun and not the
Sun around the Earth.
5 One of the brightest stars in the night sky is Alpha Centauri.
This star is one of the Pointers that point towards the
Southern Cross. Use the Internet to investigate Alpha
Centauri. List some reasons why it might be considered
special.
CHAPTER REVIEW
Remembering
a tides
1 List the planets in order, starting with the one closest to the
Sun.
b seasons
2 State the things that make it possible for us to survive on

Earth.
d year
3 State the scientific definitions of the terms day and year.
f solar wind.
4 Specify the term for when day and night are of equal length.
5 Specify the word starting with the letter l that is used to
describe aspects of the Moon.
6 Name the astronomer who first used a telescope to find errors
in the geocentric model.
7 Use the fact files in this chapter to answer the questions
below.
c day/night
e lunar eclipse
19 Describe how cultures depend on the Sun and Moon for
survival.
20 State which planet would be easiest to move to if we had to
leave the Earth? Explain why.
Applying
21 Calculate whether the year 2500 will be a leap year.
a Name the planets with more than 15 moons.
22 Draw a diagram to demonstrate an annular eclipse.
b List the terrestrial planets.
Analysing
c Name the planets that have methane in their atmosphere.
23 The geocentric model was accepted before the heliocentric

model. Compare these two models of the solar system.
d Name the planet that is most similar to Earth and explain

your reasons for choosing this planet.
e State how long a day and a year is on Mars.
f Name the planet that looks red and explain why this is the
case.
8 Name two space probes and state which planet(s) they
explored.
9 Name the planet that has an orbit which overlaps that of
another.
Understanding
10 Describe one aspect or fact about each planet.
11 Outline three examples of our dependence on the Sun.
12 Define the term nuclear fusion. L
24 Classify the following as supporters or opponents of the

heliocentric solar system model:
Aristotle, Copernicus, Ptolemy, Brahe, Kepler.
Evaluating
25 Could any other planets in the solar system support life?
Propose reasons why.
26 Propose why scientists did not support the heliocentric model
for a long time when they knew it to be a better model than
the geocentric model.
27 Of the eight planets and the Sun, identify which is the most
important body in the solar system. Give reasons for your
answer.
13 Explain why sunspots appear dark when they are obviously

very hot.
Creating
14 Clarify how long it takes the Moon to orbit the Earth.
29 Construct a table that shows the distance from the Sun, the
day length and the year length for each planet.
pt
18 Explain the following phenomena. Include a description of

what each phenomenon is and what are its cause and effect.
Give examples where appropriate.
Ch
17 Use a diagram to describe what causes an aurora.
Worksheet 8.5 Revising the facts
16 Explain the differences between a prominence and a solar

flare.
on
15 Describe gravity on the Moon.
28 Construct a drawing of the eight main phases of the Moon.
er R
sti
ev i ew Q u e
279
Our planet Earth
Prescribed focus areas:

The implications of science for society and the environment
Current issues, research and developments in science
Key outcomes
Additional
Essentials
4.4, 4.5, 4.9.3, 4.9.4, 4.9.5, 4.9.6
The Earth has an inner structure of

core, mantle, crust and lithosphere.
The main gases that make up the air

are nitrogen, oxygen and carbon
dioxide.
Greenhouse gases keep Earth warm

enough for life to exist on Earth.
Rocks are composed of minerals.
Igneous rocks are volcanic in origin;

sedimentary are layers packed into a
whole; and metamorphic rocks are
igneous or sedimentary rocks changed
into another form.
There are a broad range of careers in

geology.
Changes in the atmosphere can be

detected using different methods.
Evidence suggests that climate change

is related to an increase in CO2 in the
atmosphere.
Sedimentary rocks are layers of

sediment being laid down, pressed
together and bound by chemical
processes.
Rocks can be weathered by physical

and chemical changes.
Unit
9.1
context
Our Earth
The structure of our planet Earth is

something that scientists are still trying to
understand. Most of the evidence they
have comes from measuring the vibrations

caused by earthquakes and making inferences
about what might be inside our planet.
Structure of the Earth

The crust
Quick Quiz
The crust is the layer of Earth upon which all living

things live. It contains the land and seas. The first
thing encountered when digging into the crust is a
thin layer of soil and sand. Underneath this is a layer
composed mostly of solid rock.
Just like the shell of an egg, the crust is brittle and
can crack or break easily. Since its formation roughly
4.5 billion years ago, the crust has cracked to form
twelve major pieces or tectonic plates.
The crust is thickest under the continents (about
70 kilometres thick) and thinnest under the oceans
(about 11 kilometres thick). Diagrams showing
Earths inner structure are never to scale since the
crust would be invisible if they were. In reality, the
crust is extremely thin when compared to the
diameter of the Earthlike a postage stamp stuck on
a basketball.
The temperature of the crust increases from
an average of 20C at the Earths surface, to
about 500C at its maximum depth.
Prac 1
p. 285
Fig 9.1.1 The lava that explodes from a volcano is one piece of
evidence that suggests that the inside of Earth is made of molten rock.
Science
crust
(864 km thick)
mantle
(2800 km thick)
outer core
(2300 km thick)
inner core
(1400 km radius)
Clip
Journey to the centre of

the Earth
Fig 9.1.3 The stories told in A
Fig 9.1.2 The inner structure of the Earth (not to scale).
Journey to the Centre of the Earth

and The Core could not happen
due to the intense heat and
pressures experienced there.
In 1872, French author Jules

Verne wrote a world-wide bestselling novel called A Journey
to the Centre of the Earth, in
which dinosaurs fought to the
death deep inside a hollow
Earth. In 2008, a 3D movie was
released, starring Brendan
Fraser and loosely based on
Vernes original book. A similar
far-fetched film about a journey
to the centre of the Earth was
The Core, released in 2003.
281
Our Earth
The mantle
The core
Conditions of extreme heat and pressure mean that

humans have never travelled deeper than the crust. The
deepest mines are still in the crust and no hole has ever
been drilled as far as the next layer, known as the
mantle. This layer is about 2800 kilometres thick, with
temperatures of 500C near the crust and 3000C nearer
the core. The mantle has three layers:
The upper mantle is solid, very much like the crust.
The upper mantle and the crust together form a
rigid layer of rock called the lithosphere.
Below the lithosphere is a narrow layer of semimolten (soft or liquid) rock called the
asthenosphere.
Below this is the lower mantle, which is solid due
to the extreme pressure from the material above.
At the centre of the Earth is the core. The core itself is

made up of two parts: a liquid outer core measuring
2300 kilometres thick, and a solid inner core that is
2800 kilometres thick.
The outer core is made of continually moving,
molten metal. Although solid at normal
temperatures, the iron and nickel found in the outer
core has melted from intense heat inside the planet
to become a sludgy liquid. The movement of this
metal gives the Earth its North and South Poles and
its magnetic field. This field acts as a cosmic
shield for the Earth, protecting us by deflecting
large doses of cosmic rays from the Sun. The
temperature of the outer core varies from 4000
to 6000C.
The remaining 1400 kilometres to the centre of the
Earth is made up of the inner core, where
temperatures range from 4000 to 7000C. At these
temperatures the iron and nickel that make up the
inner core should be liquid, but these metals are
kept solid by the extremely high pressures from the
weight of all the layers above.
Worksheet 9.1 Our Earth
Shifting plates
Fig 9.1.4 Even the deepest of mines only ever scratch the crust. They
never get near the mantle. You can, however, feel a little of its heat when
you descend deep down in a mine.
282
The crust of the Earth looks as if it could never move,

but bits of it are moving all the time. The lithosphere is
broken into huge slabs of rock called tectonic plates.
These plates float on the semi-molten rock of the
asthenosphere below them. Currents in the
asthenosphere slowly move the semi-molten rock and
also carry the plates along with itthe plates are
continually moving. The idea that the Earths lithosphere
is made up of shifting plates was first introduced in 1969
and is known as the theory of plate tectonics.
The plates move until they eventually crash into one
another, break away from each other or slip along or
under each other.
This sliding is not smoothrocks stick and jam.
Pressure builds until the rocks can take no more. Then
the layers suddenly slip past each other, explosively
releasing the stored energy. An earthquake happens, and
the most severe damage occurs at the edges of the plate.
When two surfaces rub over each other, the friction
between them generates heat. Sometimes, the friction
between the rocks causes some of them to melt.
Sometimes this molten rock will emerge as a volcano. For
this reason, volcanic activity and earthquakes tend to
both happen along the edges of the tectonic plates.
Unit
Shifting continents
9.1
Shifting plates also suggest that the continents must be

moving slowly. When Alfred Wegener, a German
meteorologist, suggested in 1912 that continents could
shift, the idea sounded so ridiculous that it was not
believed at first. There are clues, however, that the
continents were once stuck together as super-continents
and that they have slowly shifted to their current
positions. These clues include the shapes of the continents
and the types of rocks and plant life found on them, as
well as stripes of magnetic material on the ocean floor.
Science
Clip
A changing Earth
The map of the world will look very different in the distant
future. The continents are on shifting plates, so they are
travelling slowly across the surface of the Earth. Australia is
drifting north by about 5 centimetres each year. The
Mediterranean Sea is slowly being squeezed shut, the Atlantic
Ocean is getting wider and the Himalayan Mountains are getting
higher. Mt Everest is now about 50 centimetres higher than
when Tenzing Norgay and Edmund Hillary climbed it in 1953.
Fig 9.1.5 The edge of a tectonic plate. The San Andreas fault causes up
to five tremors a day through California, USA.
Eurasian plate
North
American
plate
Caribbean
plate
African plate
Pacific plate
Cocos
plate
Nazca
plate
Indian
Australian plate
Earthquake site
Volcano
South
American
plate
Antarctic plate
Fig 9.1.6 Earths plates move in different directions as they split, bang and scrape
together. Volcanoes and earthquakes occur much more often near plate boundaries.
283
Our Earth
9.1
QUESTIONS
Remembering
1 List the layers of the Earth from inside to outside, specifying
the thickness of each layer.
Understanding
11 Use the information in the table to accurately plot a line graph

showing how temperature changes as we dig into the crust.
Depth (km)
Temperature (C)
20
87
153
220
286
2 Clarify what is meant by the crust of the Earth.

3 Outline what causes an earthquake and where they are most
likely to occur.
they become true.
a 1 km
b 5 km
a The inner core of the Earth is solid.
c 10 km
b The iron and nickel in the crust give the Earth its magnetic
field.
d 20 km.
c The crust is very thick compared to the total volume of the

Earth.
d Mines are often deep enough to go into the mantle.
5 Describe how life on Earth would be affected if there was no
magnetic field.
Applying
6 Identify where the crust is:
a thickest
b thinnest.
7 Identify which of the layers of the Earth is:
a the thickest
b the hottest
c mainly made of iron and nickel
13 Use the graph to roughly determine the depth at these

temperatures: N
a 50C
b 100C
c 200C
d 300C.
Creating
14 Imagine you have invented a machine that will dig 100
kilometres towards the centre of the Earth every hour. The
journey will take a little over two and a half days. Create a series
of four diary entries for the time of day when you enter each
new layer of the Earth. Calculate how long it will take to get
through each layer and describe the conditions found in each.
15 Construct and label a diagram of the inner structure of planet
Earth which outlines the positions of:
d liquid
a the Poles
e solid.
b the equator
8 Identify two events that are caused by the plates of the Earth
crashing into each other or moving apart.
Analysing
9 Australia is drifting northwards at 5 centimetres each year. This
means that, eventually, Sydney will be where Newcastle is now!
Calculate how long this will take if the distance between
Newcastle and Sydney is 100 kilometres. N
Evaluating
10 Scientists want to explore the Earths structure by digging a
hole through the crust into the mantle. Assess the advantages
and disadvantages of choosing central Australia for the dig.
284
12 Use your graph from Question 11 to estimate the temperature

at these depths: N
c the direction it spins

d the crust
e the outer and inner core
f the outer and inner mantle
g the lithosphere and asthenosphere.
Unit
INVESTIGATING

Internet etc.) to:
1 Find the position on Earth where a hole would emerge if you
dug from where you live, straight through Earth to the other
side.
2 Investigate the seven continents of the world and identify the
highest mountain on each.
4 Use an atlas to find the spot on Earth where you would expect
the crust to be:
9.1
9.1
a thickest
b thinnest
c thinnest while you are still standing on land.
Explain why you chose these three sites.
3 a Investigate and write a short report on how the journeys of

these sailors assisted us in thinking the Earth was not flat
but spherical.
i Christopher Columbus in 1492
ii Magellan and his ship Victoria in 1519.
b Compare what they found to the work done by Eratosthenes
of Cyrene in about 250 BCE.
9.1
1
PRACTICAL ACTIVITY
The crust is like an eggshell
Aim
To observe first-hand a model of the Earths plates.
Questions
1 Describe what happens to the cracks in the shell.
3 Explain how this cracked egg is similar to the Earth.
Equipment
a fresh hard-boiled egg
Method
1 Tap the egg firmly so that the shell cracks, but do not peel off
the shell.
2 Squeeze the egg gently but not enough to destroy the egg.
3 Try to slide one piece over another.
Fig 9.1.7 The cracks are in the eggs shell only.
4 If an ant was standing on one of the cracks while you were

performing the experiment, describe what it would experience.
285
Unit
9.2
context
Rocks and minerals
Geology is the study of the Earth,

including its rocks and minerals. Rocks
are made from various kinds of minerals,
combined in various ways, and are
important for mining, construction and other

industriesas well as supporting all living
things on the Earths surface.
Minerals
Minerals are natural substances in which the particles are
arranged in patterns. Sometimes the patterns form
beautiful shapes known as crystals. Metals, gems and
industrial materials of many kinds are made from
minerals.
Just eight chemical elements make up 98% of all
mineralsoxygen (element symbol O), silicon (Si),
aluminium (Al), iron (Fe), calcium (Ca), sodium (Na),
potassium (K) and magnesium (Mg).
The two most common elements that make up the
Earth are oxygen and silicon, so it is not surprising that
these elements are also common in minerals. Quartz, for
example, is made up of silicon and oxygen.
Native metals are minerals made up of only one
metal element, such as gold, silver or platinum.
Fig 9.2.1 Geologists study the Earth, its rocks, ore and minerals.
Seismologists are geologists that study earthquakes, and vulcanologists
study volcanoes.
quartz
mica
Fig 9.2.3 Native silver is a mineral that consists of only one element,
silver (Ag).
feldspar
Fig 9.2.2 Minerals are made of various chemical elements, and have their particles arranged in regular patterns.
286
Unit
Properties of minerals
9.2
Several different properties are used to classify minerals

into families.
Science
Crystals
Many minerals have a
distinctive crystal
structure and colour,
and so different minerals
will usually reflect light
differently. Lustre is a
term that refers to the way
a mineral reflects light.
Science
Clip
Cool as crystal
The word crystal comes from
the Greek word kyros,
meaning icy cold. In ancient
times, it was believed that
quartz crystals were composed
of water that had frozen so
solid that it could never melt.
Clip
Piezoelectricity
When two brothers,
Pierre and Jacques Curie,
sandwiched a thin slice of
quartz between two layers
of tin and applied pressure
to it in 1880, they detected
a short pulse of electricity.
This so-called
piezoelectricity can be
generated using tiny quartz
crystals, and is used to
keep time in watches and
clocks. The sparks in many
barbecue lighters are also
caused by piezoelectricity.
Prac 1
p. 291
monoclinic
(augite)
cubic
(diamond)
triclinic
(plagioclase)
hexagonal
(emerald)
orthorhombic
(olivine)
tetragonal
(zircon)
cleavage plane
Fig 9.2.6 Several cleavage planes can be
seen in these calcite crystals.
Colour and streak
Science
Fact File
Cleavage planes
Some crystals have an internal
structure that causes them to
break apart more easily in
particular directions. These are
called cleavage planes.
Some minerals have a very

distinctive colour. Malachite, for
example, has a deep green colour.
Nevertheless, colour is not reliable
enough to use as a way of identifying the mineral. A
better method is to crush the mineral into a powder.
The colour of a powdered mineral is called its streak
and often can be seen by rubbing a mineral on an
unglazed white tile. Some minerals do not produce a
streak, whereas other powdered minerals have a differentcoloured streak than the mineral itself.
Fig 9.2.4 Crystals often have distinctive shapes that allow them to be
identified. Shown are the most common shapes found in crystals.
Fig 9.2.5 The distinctive flat crystals of wulfenite.
Fig 9.2.7 This azurite (a copper compound) sample contains a bright

blue pigment.
287
Rocks and minerals

Minerals used by
Aboriginal artists
Hardness
Powdered minerals are used by various native tribes

around the world as decorations and paint materials.
The Australian Aboriginals collected their minerals
as weathered (broken
Science
down) rocks. These
minerals are called ochres
and are crushed to a
Colours of the body
powder by the artists, using
The colours used by the
a grindstone.
Aboriginals often had special
Charcoal, for example,
meanings. For some, the
is commonly mixed with
ochres represented the
colours of the body. White is
kaolin to make grey. The
the colour of bones, brown
powders are also mixed
is the colour of skin, red is
with egg, juice or blood to
the colour of blood (a sacred
make a paste that can be
colour) and yellow is the
then painted onto rocks or
colour of body fat.
the body.
Clip
One property that can be used to identify a mineral is its

hardness. A mineral is harder than another if it can
scratch it, without getting scratched itself. Frederic Mohs
(17731839) invented a scale of hardness from 1 to 10,
10 being the hardest and 1 being the softest. A mineral
can scratch another only if it is higher on Mohs scale.
Mohs scale of hardness
ess
coin 3.5
steel knife 6.5
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Ochres (minerals) used in Australia

10
Where ochre is
collected
Name of ochre
Colour of streak
Haematite
Red
Found as pebbles
Kaolin
White
In creek beds
Limonite
Yellow
(or brown)
Water-worn
pebbles in
creek beds
Charcoal
Black
Produced in fires
Talc
Gypsum
Calcite
Fluorite
Apatite
Orthoclase
se
Quartz
Topaz
Ruby,
sapphire
(corundum)
m)
Diamond
fingernail 2.5
iron nail 5.5
emery board 9.5
Fig 9.2.9
Different colours in minerals are caused by the

different chemicals in them. The red colour of haematite,
for example, is caused by iron oxide (more commonly
known as rust). These ochres are often mixed to make
other colours.
Fig 9.2.10
A dentists drill has
diamond pieces on its
surface. Diamond is
the hardest substance
on Mohs scale, with
a hardness of 10.
Tooth enamel has a
hardness of about 5.
Science
Clip
Conflict-free diamonds
These are diamonds guaranteed not to have been obtained through
the use of violence, human rights abuse, child labour or
environmental destruction, from the initial stage of mining right
through to cutting and polishing. Today, only two diamond mines in
the world, both in Canada, produce certified conflict-free diamonds.
Fig 9.2.8 Aboriginal rock art that was painted using powdered ochre.
288
Uses
Common salt
Food preservative, source

of sodium and chlorine
Graphite
Lead in pencils, brushes

in electric motors
Phosphate
Matches, fertilisers
Tungsten
Light bulb filaments, saw

blades and drill bits
Sulfur
Used to make sulfuric acid,

fertiliser
Rocks
Petrology is the study of rocks. A petrologist collects
rock samples, looks at their properties and works out
which minerals they contain. Granite, for example, is a
rock made from three minerals (quartz, mica and
feldspar), whereas limestone is another type of rock and
contains just one mineral (calcium carbonate). Clay and
sand are also types of rock but have been broken into
much smaller pieces than most other rocks.
Petrologists study the minerals in rocks and work out

whether it is worthwhile getting them out of the Earth.
Ores are rocks or minerals that contain elements that
can be extracted profitably. For example, iron is
extracted from an ore called haematite, and aluminium
from the ore bauxite.
Australia has large mines for extracting aluminium,
iron, uranium and many other elements from rocks.
Ore
9.2
Mineral
Unit
Ores
Common uses of minerals
Element that may be extracted
Azurite
Copper
Bauxite
Aluminium
Carnotite
Uranium
Cassiterite
Tin
Chalcopyrite
Copper
Galena
Lead
Haematite
Iron
Fig 9.2.11 Granite is made up of the minerals quartz, mica and feldspar.
Prac 2
p. 291
Fig 9.2.12 Haematite (iron ore) occurs in several forms, including this
so-called kidney ore.
289
Rocks and minerals
9.2
QUESTIONS
Remembering
1 List:
a four examples of minerals
b four characteristics of minerals
c three examples of rocks.
2 List the following minerals in order from softest to hardest:
apatite, calcite, talc, quartz, diamond.
Understanding
3 Describe:
a what a geologist does
b what a petrologist does.
4 Clarify the following terms and give an example of each:
a minerals
b rock
c ore.
5 Explain what Mohs hardness scale is used for.
6 Explain how a native mineral is different from most other minerals.
7 Describe what ochre is and what it has been used for.
8 Explain how ochre is prepared before being used for painting.
9 The following statements are incorrect. Modify each so that it
becomes true.
a A mineral is any substance found in the ground.
b The two most common elements that make up the Earth are
oxygen and aluminium.
c Gold and silver are metals, not minerals.
d Mineralogy is the study of minerals.
Applying
10 Gneiss contains feldspar, quartz, mica and hornblende. Identify
which of these:
a are minerals
b is a rock.
9.2
13 Use Figure 9.2.9 on page 288 to predict whether:

a orthoclase would scratch gypsum
b quartz would scratch topaz
c calcite would scratch your fingernail
d diamond would scratch glass.
14 Gold has a hardness of 2.5 on Mohs scale of hardness.
Use this information and Figure 9.2.9 on page 288 to identify
materials that would scratch:
a the band of a gold ring
b the sapphire in a gold ring.
Analysing
15 Discuss whether an ore is a rock or a mineral. Could it be both?
Evaluating
16 Propose a reason why kitchen cleaning pastes (e.g. Jiff)
should not be used to clean a silver ring.
Creating
17 a Construct a line representing Mohs scale of hardness from
1 to 10.
b Predict where each of the following would go on the line and
mark them on it:
i glass (rated 6 on Mohs scale )
ii tungsten carbide, a type of abrasive (8.5)
iii gold (2.5)
18 Write a short, short storyit can be a mystery, spy story, science
fiction story or any other genre you likein which the hardness
of two different materials (e.g. tooth enamel and diamond or steel
and glass) is the key point in how the story is resolved.
INVESTIGATING
INVESTIGATING

Internet etc.) to:
1 Find information about different types of gemstones, their
characteristics and where they are found.
2 Research the location of Australias major known mineral
deposits. Draw a poster-sized map showing the location of these.
Include pictures of different minerals, ores and mines in Australia.
3 Present information in a chart showing how an ore is processed
to produce a pure metal.
290
11 Identify the ore that contains:

a iron
b aluminium.
12 Identify two ore types that contain the same element. Name the
element.
e -xploring
We
b Desti natio
To learn more about the uses of minerals in Australia,
a list of web destinations can be found on Science Focus 1
Making a crystal
Aim
To grow a crystal and observe its structure.
Equipment
copper sulfate
250 mL beaker
icy pole stick
Petri dish
Bunsen burner
tripod
gauze mat
bench mat
9.2
Unit
9.2
4 Carefully decant some of the solution into a shallow layer in a

Petri dish and allow this to cool overnight. Keep the rest of the
solution in the beaker.
Part B: Growing a large crystal
1 Obtain a small seed crystal from the Petri dish (or ask another
group for one if yours did not produce any).
2 Tie it to a length of cotton thread and suspend it in your cooled
copper sulfate solution.
3 Observe the crystal every few days for a week or so.
Questions
1 Your initial solution was saturated. Explain what this means.
2 Sketch the fully grown crystal.
Method
Part A: Obtaining a seed crystal
icy pole stick
1 One-third fill a 250 mL beaker with water and dissolve as much

copper sulfate in it as possible.
2 Heat the solution and add more copper sulfate in small amounts
until no more will dissolve.
seed crystal
3 Remove the solution from heat and allow it to settle and cool
for about 5 to 10 minutes.
copper sulfate solution
Fig 9.2.13
3 Identify whether copper sulfate crystals have obvious cleavage

planes.
Observing rocks
Method
To examine the characteristics of various rocks and minerals.
Construct a table of results and comment on as many of the

following characteristics as you can for the rock samples: colour,
streak, lustre, crystal structure, hardness, density.
Equipment
Questions
Aim
a selection of rock and minerals

copper coin
steel nail
unglazed white tile
1 Of the substances you examined, identify those that had a

streak that was a different colour from the mineral itself.
2 Calculate what percentage of your samples was harder than
steel. (Divide the number of samples that scratched steel by the
total number of samples, and then multiply the answer by 100.)
291
Unit
9.3
context
Types of rocks
Classification is one of the important skills

that scientists use when studying the
world around us. Geologists have found it
hard to classify all the different rocks that
are found on Earth based on their crystal
shape, colour or hardness and so, instead,

they classify rocks according to how they
were formed. This classification system
results in three main classes of rocks:
igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic.
Igneous rocks
Igneous rocks are formed when molten
material from within the Earth cools and
becomes solid.
Molten material is called magma
when it is below the Earths surface, and
lava when it is above the Earths surface.
Magma reaches the Earths surface when
volcanoes erupt.
When magma cools slowly below the
Earths surface, intrusive igneous rocks
containing large interlocking crystals are
formed. Intrusive means forced in, and is
a good description of underground
igneous rocks that have squeezed between
other rock layers. Granite is an example
of a slow-cooling igneous rock in which
crystals are easy to see.
Fig 9.3.1 Rocks are classified as either igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic.
volcano
lava
extrusive igneous rock
dyke
Fig 9.3.3 Lava solidifying to form extrusive

igneous rock
sill
intrusive igneous rock
292
magma
Fig 9.3.2 Extrusive igneous rocks are formed above the surface when lava from volcanoes
cools quickly. Intrusive igneous rocks form beneath the Earths surface when liquid magma
forces its way into gaps in solid rock and then cools slowly.
Uses of granite
Uses of basalt
Bridges
Bridges
Buildings
Buildings
Kitchen bench tops
Crushed and placed under

railway sleepers
Gravestones
Crushed and covered with

tar to make bitumen roads
Sedimentary rocks are made from sedimentsmall,

broken-down bits of other rocks or the remains of
animals and plants. This material is compressed and stuck
together in a process known as lithification. There are
two main stages in lithification:
sediment builds up in a layer (e.g. at the bottom of a
riverbed or the sea). The pressure of material above
it squeezes the sediment at the bottom of the layer.
This pressure reduces the air gaps and the particles
interlock
water seeping through the compressed sediment
carries with it minerals that cement the sediment
particles together even more strongly.
9.3
Uses of igneous rocks
Sedimentary rocks
Unit
Lava cools more quickly than underground magma

because it is above the Earths surface. This causes the
crystals formed to be smaller or non-existent.
Extrusive means pushed out. Basalt is an
example of an extrusive igneous rock
containing tiny crystals and is the main rock
Prac 1
p. 299
forming the ocean floor crust.
Ancient tools
Aboriginal people have a very rich and
deep understanding of the rocks in the
regions in which they live. In the past, this was important
when making tools and weapons. This knowledge is still
used in making the different coloured ochres used as
paints. Different rocks are identified for different
purposes, depending on their hardness, ability to flake
and form sharp edges, ability to be ground or worn down,
and their colours.
Very hard igneous rocks were suitable for making tools
such as axe-heads. At Mount William in Victoria, volcanic
greenstone was mined for axes. It had the hardness,
toughness and fine grain needed to make heavy-duty axes
with a sharpened edge. Greenstone from such quarries was
traded with many other tribes around Australia.
Axes made from igneous rocks have also been found
in ancient Aboriginal quarries near volcanic outcrops in
Kakadu National Park, Northern Territory. These axes
have been dated using scientific methods and found to be
over 20 000 years old.
Fig 9.3.4 Aboriginal axe-heads made from igneous rock.
Fig 9.3.5 Horizontal sedimentary rock layers are obvious in the

cliffs of the Blue Mountains.
293
Types of rocks
Science
Substances that form sedimentary rocks

Sedimentary rock
Clip
Made from
Sandstone
Sand
Mudstone
Mud
Conglomerate
Particles of different sizes
Limestone
Remains of sea organisms

(e.g. fish, corals)
Chalk
Skeletons of tiny sea animals
Coal
Compressed plant material
Uses of sedimentary rocks

Sedimentary rocks are easy to split because of their layered
structure. Sandstone comes in a variety of colours, and
blocks of it are used to make bridges and buildings.
Limestone may be
Science
ground to make cement,
which in turn is a key
ingredient in concrete, one
Tourist-attracting rocks
of the most important
Kata Tjuta (the Olgas) is a
building materials of all.
group of thirty or so huge
Coal is a form of rock
rocks in Central Australia that
made from ancient plant
are the weathered remains of
sedimentary rocks. They
material that has been
consist of both sandstone
heated and compressed
and conglomerate rock. The
under the ground until it is
largest of these rocks
solid. It is burnt to provide
reaches 546 metres above
power for electricity
the surrounding ground level.
generation and heating.
Oyster mortar
Fig 9.3.6 Conglomerate rock

found in the Bungle Bungle Ranges,
Western Australia.
The first white settlers of

Sydney had no limestone
from which to grind lime
for mortar used in
bricklaying. Instead they
collected oysters, which
were abundant around
Sydney Harbour, and
burned and crushed them
to produce the lime needed.
Facts
Prac 2
p. 300
Fig 9.3.7 Stalactites and stalagmites are formed when slightly acidic
rainwater dissolves calcium carbonate (lime) out of sedimentary rock.
This lime solution may then drip from the roof of a limestone cave,
leaving deposits on the ceiling (stalactites) and floor (stalagmites)
when the water evaporates.
Fig 9.3.8 Kata Tjuta, meaning many heads

in the local Anangu language, is a series of
domes made of sedimentary rock.
Fig 9.3.9 Sydney has many buildings made of sandstone, a type of

sedimentary rock.
294
Unit
9.3
Metamorphic rocks
Sedimentary and igneous rocks may be changed by heat,
pressure or a combination of both within the Earth to
form metamorphic rocks. A rock made this way is
stronger than the original material because its particles are
fused together. This is similar to the process of squeezing a
snowball to make it stronger. Metamorphic rocks can also
undergo further changes due to heat and pressure.
Types of metamorphic rocks
Original rock
Original rock
type
Limestone
Sedimentary
Heat
Granite
Igneous
Heat, pressure Gneiss
Shale
Sedimentary
Pressure
Slate
Metamorphic
Heat, pressure Schist
Schist
Metamorphic
Heat, pressure Gneiss
Changed by
Metamorphic
rock
Marble
Slate
Science
Clip
In the barrel of a gun

In the late 1700s, geologists Sir
James Hall and James Hutton
set out to prove that heat and
pressure could change
limestone to marble. They
sealed some limestone in a gun
barrel and roasted it over a fire.
When they examined the
contents later, the limestone
had, indeed, turned to marble.
Fig 9.3.10 Gneiss (pronounced nice) is a metamorphic rock that

frequently contains bands of different minerals. Bends in the bands
indicate where enormous pressure has folded the rock.
Uses of metamorphic rocks

Marble is a popular material for paving, table tops, statues
and ornaments because of its beautiful patterns and dense
composition.
Slate is used for roofing tiles, floor tiles and billiard
table tops.
Fig 9.3.11 The Taj

Mahal in India is made of
white marble. It was built
by the Mughal emperor
Shah Jahan as a tomb for
his beloved wife, Mumtaz.
The rock cycle

It seems logical that if sedimentary and igneous rocks are
being converted into metamorphic rocks, there should be
more and more metamorphic rocks and less of the other
kinds over long time periods. This does not happen
because processes such as weathering or melting also
break down rocks. Melted rocks become new igneous
rocks, and rocks that have been broken down into small
particles by weathering settle into layers of sediment and
form new sedimentary rocks. Together, these processes are
known as the rock cycle. For example, metamorphic
rocks that are forced deep below the Earths surface may
be melted when they come in contact with magma,
whereas part of the same metamorphic rock that remains
on the surface may be weathered down to sand.
Worksheet 9.2 Rocks
295
Types of rocks
Heat
Fig 9.3.12 The rock cycle involves a

set of processes by which rocks are
formed, sometimes changed (undergo
metamorphosis), broken down and
then formed again.
Career
Profile
Geologist
Geologists study the composition and structure of the

Earth. This allows them to locate materials and minerals.
Geologists work in laboratories and in the field, usually as
part of a team. Fieldwork can involve spending time in
remote deserts, or in tropical or Antarctic areas.
Geologists can be involved in:
advising on suitable locations for tunnels and bridges
examining rock samples using electron microscopes
studying the nature and effects of natural events like
weathering, erosion, earthquakes and volcanoes
taking rock samples for analysis
finding the age of rocks and fossils.
A good geologist will be able to:
work as a team member or alone
keep accurate records and prepare reports
work safely in a number of different environments.
296
Fig 9.3.15 Geologists studying sedimentary rock layers in the field.
Unit
9.3
sediments fall to the bottom

of rivers and oceans
weathering breaks down

rocks, erosion occurs
ocean
crust
mantle
continental crust
igneous rocks formed
from molten rock
heat and/or pressure form

new, metamorphic rocks
sediments build up and

compact to form layers
of sedimentary rock
sediments pulled deeper

by movement of tectonic plates
Fig 9.3.13 This diagram shows a variety of paths that rocks can take
through the rock cycle, depending on their environment and where they are.
Career
Profile
Palaeontologist
A palaeontologist examines, classifies and describes

animal and plant fossils found in sedimentary rocks.
This helps us understand the history of life on Earth.
Palaeontologists can be involved in:

locating sites where fossils may be found
carefully digging fossils out of the rocks in which
they are found
preparing fossils for display or storage
dating fossils to work out their age
using information about fossils to study other things,
such as oil exploration or the history of life on the
Earth.
A good palaeontologist will:
be able to work safely as a team member or alone
be able to work very carefully and patiently, as it can
take years to remove fossils from rocks
have a good eye for detail
love fossils.
Fig 9.3.14 One of the jobs of a palaeontologist is to inspect fossils

and ancient skeletons, such as this fossilised dinosaur skull.
297
Types of rocks
9.3
QUESTIONS
Remembering
1 List the three basic types of rocks and briefly state how each is
formed.
2 Specify what type of rock you would use for:
a a kitchen bench top
c replacing the roof on an old home.
3 State the age of some of the ancient Aboriginal axe-heads
found in Kakadu National Park.
Analysing
12 Compare the following terms:
a magma and lava
Understanding
4 The particles in a sedimentary rock have to stick together.
Explain two ways in which this can occur.
5 Copy and complete Figure 9.3.16, which is a schematic diagram
summarising the rock cycle.
igneous rocks
sio
n
heat/pressure
b intrusive and extrusive rocks.

13 Classify the following types of rocks as igneous, sedimentary
or metamorphic and attempt to name each rock.
a Commonly known as bluestone, this rock has small crystals
and is found where volcanoes used to be in New South
Wales.
b Used for tiling floors, this rock breaks easily into layers.
er
o
me
ltin
co
oli
n
10 The rate of cooling of molten rock affects crystal formation.

Explain how this occurs and identify whether fast or slow
cooling forms the biggest crystals.
11 Identify two things that may cause rocks to change in the
Earths crust.
b mortar to cement bricks together
c two types of metamorphic rocks, and name their parent

rocks.
c This rock is white and made up of the remains of millions of

sea creatures.
d Formed inside the Earth by heat and pressure, this rock has
layers of minerals that are visible.
melting
e This rock forms where muddy rivers flow into lakes.
su
re
s
ero
es
lt
me
ing
ion
f This rock has large, easily seen crystals and forms inside
volcanoes.
pr
at/
he
Fig 9.3.16
6 Granite is formed underground and yet, often, granite boulders

are seen above ground in many areas of Australia. Explain how
this could happen.
14 Compare the work of a geologist with that of a paleontologist

by listing the similarities and differences in what they do.
Evaluating
15 Stalactites and stalagmites often occur in pairs. Propose a
reason why this occurs.
7 Draw a sketch to explain the difference between a stalactite and

a stalagmite.
16 Although coal is made from plant material, a lump of coal

burns much longer than a similar-sized piece of plant material.
Propose a reason why this might happen.
8 Clarify the meaning of these terms:
Creating
a sediment
b lithification.
Applying
9 Identify:
a two types of igneous rocks
298
g This rock was mined by Aboriginal people and used for axeheads.
b two types of sedimentary rocks and describe what they are

made from
17 Imagine you are a piece of magma in a volcano. Write and

draw a short graphic novel that describes what happens to you
as you erupt from the Earth and form a rock. Follow your life
through the rock cycle as you become different types of rock.
Unit
INVESTIGATING

Internet etc.) to:
1 a Research from what type of rock Uluru (formerly known as
Ayers Rock) is made.
b Draw a diagram to demonstrate how Uluru was formed.
c Describe the cultural history of Uluru and its mythology to
the Australian Aboriginals.
d Discuss with your teacher how to present your findings.
2 Investigate in more detail how coal is formed, and explain the
difference (besides colour) between brown and black coal.
Present your information as a poster that includes the key
stages in coal mining.
9.3
1
3 Investigate the properties of artificial sedimentary rocks made

from various combinations of sand, dry clay, small stones,
plaster mix and water.
9.3
9.3
e -xploring
To explore animations of how the main types of rock
are created, and learn more about the rock cycle, a list
We
b Desti nation
Crystals and cooling rates
Aim
6 Allow each to stand overnight and pour off any excess solution
from the 100 mL beakers.
7 Observe any crystals formed.
To observe the effect of cooling rates on crystal size.
Equipment
copper sulfate
two 100 mL beakers
two 500 mL beakers
250 mL beaker
stirring rod
Bunsen burner
tripod
gauze mat
bench mat
safety glasses
Method
1 One-quarter fill the 250 mL beaker with cold water, and dissolve
as much copper sulfate in it as possible.
2 Heat the solution and add more copper sulfate in small amounts
until no more will dissolve. You now have a saturated copper
sulfate solution.
3 Carefully place half of the solution in each of the 100 mL beakers.
4 Place one 100 mL beaker inside a 500 mL beaker with some
cold water, as shown in Figure 9.3.17.
5 Place the other 100 mL beaker inside an empty 500 mL beaker.
cold water
saturated copper
sulfate solution
air only
Fig 9.3.17
Questions
1 Describe and sketch any crystals formed in the small beakers.
2 Compare the contents of the beakers to see if there are any key
differences between them. If so, describe them.
3 Explain what caused larger crystals to form.
299
Types of rocks
Concrete evidence
Concrete is made from a combination of two or more of the

following: cement, sand, crushed rock and water. Cement is made
from limestone, baked at high temperature. Concrete has many
properties in common with sedimentary rocks.
Aim
To make various types of concrete.
Equipment
cement (dry, powdered)

sand
finely crushed rock
plastic teaspoon
paper or plastic cups
water
Method
1 In one cup, place three teaspoons of sand and three teaspoons
of cement. Label this cup 3S, 3C.
2 In another cup, place four teaspoons of sand and two
teaspoons of cement. Label this cup 4S, 2C.
3 In another cup, place two teaspoons of sand and four
teaspoons of cement. Label this cup 2S, 4C.
4 In another cup, place three teaspoons of finely crushed rock,
two teaspoons of sand and one teaspoon of cement. Label this
cup 3R, 2S, 1C.
5 Now gradually add a small amount of water to the first cup and
mix until you get a thick, even paste. Repeat for the other cups.
6 Leave each cup to dry overnight.
7 Design your own test for the strength of each concrete sample.
Questions
1 Explain why it was important to have the same total amount of
ingredients in each case.
2 Identify which sample was strongest.
3 Identify whether you think concrete setting is a
physical or chemical change. Explain why.
300
DYO
Unit
9.4
context
Weathering and erosion
Soil, sand, pebbles and boulders are

simply rocks that have been broken down
into smaller particles. The natural
processes of rocks breaking down are
caused by wind, water, temperature and
other factors. Humans also can speed up

these changes through their actions, some of
which can have negative effects on the
environment.
Break it down
The process of breaking down rocks into smaller pieces is
called weathering.
Once weathered, any material that is loose can be
moved away by the wind; water from rain, creeks and
rivers; and the ice of glaciers. This movement is called
erosion. The material that is washed away is called
sediment and is the first step in making sedimentary rocks.
Rocks seem tough but can be broken down in a
variety of ways.
Fig 9.4.2 Surf is constantly pounding away at the rocks making up

the coast. This is physical weathering in action.
The small particles of soil and sand that are carried

away by wind and water have an abrasive action, which
can act like sandpaper on other rocks that they scrape
across. Farming and drought loosen the soil and
can speed up erosion by the wind.
Chemical weathering
Fig 9.4.1 Extreme erosionwind dumped 140 000 tonnes of soil from
farmland on Melbourne in 1983.
Physical weathering
Physical weathering (sometimes called mechanical
weathering) is when rocks break into smaller pieces.
Waves crashing on rocky shores break down our coasts.
Dramatic changes in temperature break rock into small
flakeswater expands when it freezes and can split rocks
if it freezes in cracks on frosty nights.
Prac 1
p. 305
Chemical reactions can also happen to rocks,

changing their composition and properties, and even
dissolving them. Such reactions are known as chemical
weathering.
Burning fossil fuels and other industrial activity adds
harmful pollutants to the air. Some of these pollutants
are acidic and can dissolve in rainwater to form acid
rain. Acid rain is a product of pollution that can speed
up the process of chemical weathering. It can also have
many effects on the environment, including:
301

Gases dissolve in water vapour
and form sulfuric acid
Wet deposition (acid rain)
can cause die-back of new
growth, leaf fall, and root
damage to trees and crops.
It increases soil acidity
and releases poisonous
chemicals into soils,
lakes and rivers
Smoke and fumes from power

stations and factories
Sulfur dioxide
(SO2)
Lakes acidified
Dry deposition
smoke and soot blacken
buildings. Sulfur dioxide
corrodes metal and stone
and damages plants
Fig 9.4.3 Industrial waste gases pollute the water cycle, forming acid rain.
dissolving statues and buildings made of certain

rocks, such as marble
killing fish and animals in rivers and lakes
killing forests, leading to erosion
making soils too acidic for plants and crops
Prac 2
p. 305
to grow.
Biological weathering
Other weathering can be caused by animals scratching
and breaking apart rocks with their tracks, as they look
for food and when they build burrows. Seeds can settle
and grow in small cracks in rocks, and tree roots can
search out cracks for a better grip. As these plants grow,
so do their roots, forcing the crack wider until eventually
the rock splits.
Any weathering due to living things is called
biological weathering.
Earth with roads, houses and cities.

Exhaust gases from cars and factories have added
destructive gases to the air. These can slowly chemically
weather away rock on mountainsides and the rock used
for city buildings.
Building houses, roads and their cuttings, breakwaters
and piers in the sea, and ploughing on farms all change
how water and wind flow. Without careful planning, these
changes can increase the amount of soil and sand that is
washed away. Plant cover and the roots of trees help to
keep soil bound together and make it less likely to be
eroded. Drought, overgrazing and forest clearing can
remove grass and plant cover, allowing the wind and water
to remove the soil.
Worksheet 9.3 Weathering
People and erosion

Science has produced many inventions. These need to be
built and fuelled, often from materials found in the
Earths crust. Humans have changed the surface of the
Earth dramatically, particularly in the past 200 years since
the Industrial Revolution.
We have physically broken down rocks by mining
them, sometimes using explosives, and by landscaping the
302
Fig 9.4.4 An example of biological weatheringthe growing roots

of this tree will soon split open the rock.
Career
Profile
Fig 9.4.6
Kangaroos have
soft feet that cause
less weathering
and erosion of dry,
fragile Australian
soils than the hard
hooves of cattle.
9.4
Human activities, including scientific and technological

activities, have played a role in increasing erosion and in
causing other kinds of environmental damage. Science
and technology can also play an important role in
protecting the environment and developing solutions to
environmental problems.
Contour ploughing (where furrows run around a hill
and not down it) on farms, gutters and the sealing of roads
are all used to direct water in order to minimise erosion.
Livestock numbers are monitored, particularly in times of
drought, to minimise overgrazing. Wind speed can be
reduced by windbreaks and stands of trees.
Models of buildings, piers and breakwaters can be used
to simulate erosion and plans can be changed to minimise
problems before building starts.
Choosing to walk or ride instead of driving a car can
mean that you are producing less harmful gases that will
form acid rain and contribute to climate change.
Modern car exhaust systems must have catalytic
converters that reduce the amount of pollutants pumped
into the air. New hybrid petrol/electric cars are available
that produce less than half the pollution of normal cars.
Industrial chimneys can have scrubbers attached to
remove some of the dangerous chemicals discharged from
them, and industrial processes can be changed to release
less harmful pollutants.
There are things we can all do to help. Think about it!
Unit
What can we do?
Science
Clip
Roo steaks and burgers

Animals such as sheep and cattle are well adapted for moist climates
like England because they have hard hooves, but their hooves can
break down the soil in Australias drier climate and contribute to
weathering and erosion. Kangaroos are well adapted to living in
Australia and have softer feet that dont damage the soil. Many people
are realising that, as well as being tasty and nutritious, kangaroo
meat can also be a better environmental choice than beef or lamb.
Environmental scientist
Science has had a large impact on our society and

especially on the environment. Environmental scientists
have the important job of measuring, recording and
finding methods to control the harmful effects of human
activity on our environment.
Environmental scientists can be involved in:
investigating the effects of chemical spills and
accidents on the environment
assisting farmers, industry and others in methods to
reduce their negative effect on the environment
testing pollution in water, soil and air
assessing the environmental impact of new housing
estates and industrial developments
upholding anti-pollution laws.
A good environmental scientist will be able to:
work as part of a large team
communicate by writing clear, accurate reports
apply the scientific method to an investigation
be passionate about environmental issues.
Fig 9.4.5 Environmental scientists often research and gather data

about wildlife populations.
303
9.4
QUESTIONS
Remembering
12 In your own words, summarise what an environmental

scientist does.
1 List three different kinds of weathering, stating what each one

involves.
Applying
2 State what type of weathering is involved in:
13 Identify three causes of:
a mechanical weathering
a mechanical weathering
b decomposition.
b biological weathering.
3 List four ways in which weathered material can be moved.
Understanding
4 Clarify the meanings of the following terms: L
a soil
b decomposition
c weathering
d sediment.
5 Explain the difference between erosion and weathering.
14 Identify the chemical released into the air that speeds up

chemical weathering. Explain how this chemical gets into the
air.
15 Identify two things that you can do that will help stop or slow
weathering and erosion.
Analysing
16 Compare the similarities and differences between sand and
boulders.
6 Describe what happens to water when it freezes.
Evaluating
7 It is dangerous to leave a filled glass bottle in the freezer.

Explain why.
17 Propose who should take responsibility of stopping the

weathering caused by humans.
8 Explain two ways in which humans and science have

accelerated weathering.
18 Develop an argument and justify your position as to why you

think humans have or have not sped up erosion and
weathering.
9 Describe how acid rain speeds up chemical weathering.

10 Many ancient statues in cities have changed shape in the past
50 years. Propose a reason why. Identify which parts of a
statue are most likely to be weathered and explain why.
11 Chemical weathering is more likely in the city than the country.
Explain why.
9.4
Creating
19 The Environment Protection Authority (EPA) has responsibility
for protecting the environment. An environmental scientist
employed by the EPA gets up and watches a morning news
report that there has been an oil spill in Sydney Harbour.
Write a diary describing their day, starting from when they
hear the news.
INVESTIGATING

Internet etc.) to:
1 a Research ways of minimising erosion in one of the
following situations:
in rivers
on beaches
b Use this information to go out and find examples of these

methods. Take some photographs of them.
c Produce a poster with your photos to show how these
methods work. L
2 Describe what these geographical features are and how they
form:
on farms
a river deltas
around building or road construction sites.
b sandbanks and sandbars in rivers.

3 Produce a crossword about weathering and erosion. L
304
Unit
Youre cracking me up!
Aim
4 After about a minute, carefully drop the hot rock into the water.
To investigate the effect of changing temperature on rocks.
5 Carefully observe what happens.
Equipment
6 Once cool, repeat two to three times with the same rock,
recording your observations.
9.4
9.4
large tin
Bunsen burner
bench mat
matches
safety glasses
tongs
sample(s) of rock (e.g. granite, sandstone or shale)
Questions
1 Identify the type of weathering you are simulating.
2 Draw a conclusion about the effect of changing temperatures on
rock.
3 Explain other ways that temperature changes can crack rock.
Method
1 Put on your safety glasses.
2 Three-quarters fill the tin with cold water.
3 Hold a small piece of rock in a blue Bunsen burner flame with
tongs.
Acid rain
Aim
To simulate the effect of acid rain on various rocks.
Equipment
safety glasses
watch-glass
eyedropper
dilute sulfuric acid
samples of rock (e.g. limestone, marble, sandstone, shale,
granite, basalt)
three 100 mL beakers
hammer
Part 2
1 Measure out three identical samples of limestone or marble
chips.
2 Use a hammer to make the particle sizes in one pile large,
another medium and the last small.
3 Place each pile in a 100 mL beaker.
4 Add the same volume of dilute sulfuric acid to each.
5 Record the time required to dissolve the limestone completely.
Questions
1 Identify the type of weathering you are simulating.
Method
2 Draw a conclusion about the effect of acid on rock.
Part 1
3 Draw a conclusion about how the size of a rock affects the rate
at which it is damaged.
1 Place the rock sample on the watch-glass.

2 Place two to three drops of acid on the surface of the rock.
305
Unit
9.5
context
The atmosphere
We live in a thick layer of gases that

surrounds the Earth. This mixture of
gases is known as air and the layer itself
is known as the atmosphere. The
atmosphere moves and swirls about us,
often quite violently, with winds, storms,
cyclones and tornadoes. It stretches several

hundred kilometres upwards from the Earths
surface, providing us with oxygen to breathe
and clean water to drink. It also protects us
from harmful radiation from the Sun and from
stray meteorites.
Fig 9.5.1 Cyclones are extreme weather, causing the atmosphere to swirl violently around an eye in its centre. This is a satellite image of a cyclone
off the coast of North Queensland.
Layer upon layer

Although the atmosphere can be considered to be about
800 kilometres high, it is very thin at the top and much
more dense down where we live at the Earths surface.
306
Ninety-nine per cent of all the air in the atmosphere is

found in the first 80 kilometres from the surface, with
little left for the remaining 700 kilometres or so.
Unit
The final layer is the

exosphere, which begins
at about 600 km and
extends out into space.
9.5
exosphere
re
120
110
100
thermosphere
e
At the outer limits of the

atmosphere we find the
largest of the layers, the
thermosphere. This is a
region of increasing
temperature and few air
particles.
mesosphere
re
Above the stratosphere

is the mesosphere,
which extends to about
80 km and where the
temperature again falls
to 93C.
90
The region called the

ionosphere begins
near the top of the
stratosphere and
extends through the
mesosphere and
thermosphere, but is
most noticeable at
altitudes above about
80 km. The ionosphere
is also where meteors
begin to burn up and
where harmful gamma
rays from the Sun are
screened out.
80
Altitude (km)
70
60
50
The stratosphere is the next layer and extends
to 50 km high, with temperatures gradually
increasing to 10 C at the top. It is a region of
very low air pressure and fast jet-stream winds.
Most commercial aircraft fly here. Within the
stratosphere is the all-important ozone layer.
This blocks out almost all harmful solar
radiation, which, if allowed through, could injure
or kill most living things.
40
stratosphere
e
30
ozone
20
10
Mt Everest
0 sea level
100
80
60
40
20
Temperature ( C)
troposphere
e
20
40
We live in the troposphere, the layer that

touches the Earths surface. This is where
three-quarters of all air is found and where the
clouds and weather occur. The troposphere has
a height of about 10 to 13 km, and as you climb
higher the temperature drops from an average
of 17 C to 52 C.
Fig 9.5.2 Layer upon layerthe Earths atmosphere. The temperature at

each level is shown as the solid curve.
Science
Whats in air?
Shooting stars
The air we breathe is made up of more

than ten different gases.
One of the most important gases in
the air is oxygen (O2). This is the gas
that humans and all other animals
breathe. Although it only makes up
21 per cent of the atmosphere, it is
constantly being replaced by plants.

Like animals, plants also use some of
the oxygen in air to produce energy.
Only a tiny 0.03 per cent of the
atmosphere is carbon dioxide (CO2).
It is vital to plants since they use it to
make their own food. Carbon dioxide
Fact File
A shooting star is actually a

meteorwhat you are seeing is a
small rock, maybe the size of a
walnut, burning up because
it is travelling extremely fast in the
atmosphere 100 kilometres or so
above the Earth.
307
The atmosphere
Australians alone add 70 million tonnes (1 tonne =
1000 kilogram) of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere
each year.
At 78 per cent, nitrogen (N2) is the most abundant
gas in the atmosphere. Nitrogen gas is almost chemically
inertthat is, it doesnt participate easily in chemical
reactions. The fact that nitrogen in the air dilutes the
concentration of oxygen is vitally important to life on
Earth. Pure oxygen can be poisonous to animals and
plants. Too much oxygen can cause extreme fires,
making almost everything flammable.
nitrogen N2
78%
oxygen O2
21%
The greenhouse effect

ozone O3, carbon dioxide CO2, other gases
these make up just 1% of air
Fig 9.5.3 Although carbon dioxide makes up only 0.03 per cent of
the atmosphere, it keeps the planet warm through the greenhouse
effect. Increase its proportions and climate change may result due to
the enhanced greenhouse effect.
is also one of the gases animals breathe out. It is a natural

part of our environmentin fact, it is an essential part.
Living things could not exist without it since all living
things get their energy from plants that make their food
using carbon dioxide.
Carbon dioxide in our atmosphere is increasing,
changing the natural balance, as a result of:
1 Forest depletiontrees use up carbon dioxide and
every tree that is cut down increases the amount of
this gas in the atmosphere by reducing the amount
removed from the air.
2 Fossil fuelsevery time fossil fuels, such as petrol, oil,
gas and coal, are burnt in car engines, factories,
homes and power stations, carbon dioxide is
produced.
3 Rotting garbage in tips breaking down to release
carbon dioxide.
CO2 concetration (parts per million)
360
350
340
The greenhouse effect

During the night, this stored heat is released slowly back
into the air, keeping it warm. If all this heat escaped
back to space, we would freeze at night. Clouds, water
vapour and gases such as carbon dioxide and methane
reduce this loss to space and keep the atmosphere warm.
Carbon dioxide is very effective in trapping this heat.
This greenhouse effect keeps the Earth at a temperature
that can support life. It is a natural and essential
phenomenon. On our neighbouring planets, Venus is
extremely hot (average temperature over 460C) because
it has a much greater concentration of greenhouse gases
in its atmosphere, and Mars is cold (140C) because it
has almost no greenhouse gases.
330
320
310
300
Fig 9.5.4 Carbon dioxide has been increasing in concentration.
290
280
1850
308
The Sun does not warm the atmosphere directly. If it

did, the atmosphere would be hotter at the top than the
bottom and snow would never be found on
mountaintops. Instead, the Sun mostly warms the surface
of the Earthboth land and oceanwhich then warms
the atmosphere.
The part of sunlight that we can see (called visible
light) and the part of sunlight that gives us heat (called
infrared or IR radiation) mostly pass straight
through all the layers of the atmosphere. The
sunlight falls on the Earths surface and is
absorbed, heating up the rocks, water and
Prac 1
p. 312
buildings that it hits.
Continued burning of fossil fuels will increase its concentration

even more.
1900
Year
1950
2000
Unit
9.5
Radiation passes straight

through glass
Radiation passes straight

through atmosphere
greenhouse
Heat cannot escape easily through carbon

dioxide so atmosphere stays warm
Heat energy
cannot escape
through glass
easily so
greenhouse
stays warm
The greenhouse
The atmosphere
Fig 9.5.5 The greenhouse effect got its name from similarities between the way some gases
in the atmosphere trap heat and the way glass or clear plastic in greenhouses traps heat.
The enhanced greenhouse effect is caused by an

increase in the amount of carbon dioxide (and some other
pollutant gases) in the atmosphere. The amount of carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere has increased by 37 per cent
since the early 1800s. Many scientists believe that this
increase has led to increased energy in the Earths climate
systemsglobal climate change. Glaciers have been
gradually retreating (melting and getting smaller), huge
icebergs are breaking off Antarctica more than ever
before, and the ice has been getting thinner in Greenland.
Science and technology have led to many inventions
and activities that add carbon dioxide to the air. We do
not yet fully understand the implications this might
have for society and the environment in the future.
Australian scientists predict that some of the following
changes may occur:
The melting of much of the polar ice caps would
raise sea levels, flooding coasts, cities and some
entire island countries.
Expansion of the water in the oceans would also
raise sea levels, causing further flooding.
Increases in the numbers of wild storms and
cyclones. Cyclones could move further south.
More droughts and heatwaves.
More bushfires.
Less rain and snow. Ski resorts may go out of
business. People will need to collect their own
water with tanks.
The places animals and plants live in will change.
Some may become extinct.
Increased temperatures may cause bacteria to grow

faster, causing more disease in humans and other
animals.
Some plants may grow faster with higher
temperatures. This would be good news for farmers.
But less rain may mean that farmers can grow
fewer plants and fewer varieties.
Increased heat may cause more humans to suffer
from heat stroke and illness.
With all these possible changes to the
environment, it is clear that we must start
reducing the amount of greenhouse gases
Prac 2
we release into the atmosphere.
p. 312
1.2
Change in average temperature (C)
The enhanced greenhouse effect
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
1880
1900
1920
1940
Year
1960
1980
2000
Fig 9.5.6 Average global temperatures are increasing, but this does
not mean that all areas will get hottersome years and some
countries may get colder. Most will experience more extreme weather
events, such as cyclones and droughts.
309
The atmosphere
Career
Profile
Environmental engineer
Environmental engineers work to design ways to do

things better, so that we reduce the impact of humans on
the environment. Some environmental engineers
specialise in climate change issues. They provide advice
and services on energy management and greenhouse gas
reduction to companies and the government, as well as
advising companies on the probable impacts of climate
change on their business. Environmental engineers are in
one of the fastest-growing job areas as we try to find ways
to live without harming the Earth.
Environmental engineers can be involved in:
measuring greenhouse gas emissions
carrying out environmental audits
reviewing facilities to identify where environmental
improvements can be made
finding ways for companies to reduce greenhouse
gas production.
A good environmental engineer will be able to:
work as part of many different teams
communicate with people from many different
backgrounds
9.5
apply the scientific method to collect and analyse

data
give people clear advice on how to improve what
they are doing
be passionate about environmental issues.
Fig 9.5.7 An environmental engineer completing air sample testing in

the laboratory.
QUESTIONS
Remembering
1 State whether the greenhouse effect is a natural phenomenon or
one caused by humans.
f The ozone layer is part of the stratosphere.
2 State what these chemical formulae stand for:
h Most of the air is in the ionosphere.
a O2
b N2
c CO2
Understanding
3 Copy the following, and modify any incorrect statements so that
they become true:
a Humans live in the ionosphere.
b Commercial aircraft travel in the stratosphere.
c Oxygen is the most common gas in the atmosphere.
d Meteors burn up in the troposphere.
e The ionosphere protects us from X-rays and gamma rays.
310
g Weather happens in the troposphere.

4 Describe what happens to the air temperature as we go higher
in the:
a troposphere
b stratosphere
c mesosphere
d ionosphere.
5 a List the main gases in the air, giving the percentage of each.
b Describe a purpose for each gas you have listed in part a.
6 Describe why it is important that we have a greenhouse effect on
Earth.
7 Describe two effects that the enhanced greenhouse effect may
have on the Australian environment.
>>
Unit
d Describe three ways in which humans are adding CO2
to the atmosphere.
9 The troposphere is the atmosphere of Earth. Explain why

this statement:
e Discuss three ways in which you could reduce the amount

of carbon dioxide you produce every day.
a is wrong
b has some truth in it.
14 Analyse Figure 9.5.6 to determine which 20-year period

showed the greatest increase in Earths temperature. N
Applying
Evaluating
10 Identify the layers of the atmosphere that could be

considered the:
15 The atmosphere does not escape into space. Propose a

reason why.
a hottest
Creating
b coldest
16 The enhanced greenhouse effect is a very serious problem. L
c thickest.
11 Identify the cause of the enhanced greenhouse effect. N
12 Use Figure 9.5.6 to find the increase in the average
temperature of Earth between the years: N
a 1880 and 1940
b 1940 and 2000.
Analysing
13 Sea levels are expected to rise in the future.
a State a possible reason for this.
b Identify where the water would come from.
c Describe the possible effects of this.
9.5
9.5
8 Describe two effects that the enhanced greenhouse effect

may have on Australian society.
a As a class or in large groups, organise an information display

about the enhanced greenhouse effect and global warming.
You should include information to teach people about:
what is the greenhouse effect
what is the enhanced greenhouse effect and its causes
the possible effects of the enhanced greenhouse effect
on Australia
how they can help reduce the problem through everyday
decisions.
b Your display should use different ways to communicate, such
as signs, posters, pictures, video, sound and activities. Make
it fun!
c Get your display set up in the science area or during Science
Day, Open Day or even at a local shopping centre.
INVESTIGATING
1 Record in a diary the day and night temperatures reached over

a week and the amount of cloud cover each night. Which days
had the greatest difference between day and night
temperatures? What was the cloud like on those days?
Summarise your findings. L
2 Investigate your available resources (e.g. textbooks,

a Find how sunscreens work. What does the SPF number on a
sunscreen indicate?
b Examine reasons why Australians are more likely to develop
skin cancer, and recommend ways to minimise the risk.
Produce a sign/poster for use at the beach to inform
sunbathers of the skin cancer risk and solutions. L
311
The atmosphere
9.5
An already wet planet
Questions
Aim
To calculate the percentage of water on the Earths surface.
Equipment
1 Did you count the number of squares covered by lakes and

rivers, islands and small land masses? If not, explain why.
2 About 29 per cent of the Earths surface is land, whereas the
other 71 per cent is water (97 per cent of that is salt water and
2 per cent is stored as ice in Antarctica and Greenland).
Describe any difference between the percentages that you
calculated and the percentages given here.
A4 map of the world

graph paper
calculator
Method
1 Trace or copy the main continents from a map of the world onto
graph paper or paper divided into grids.
3 State three suggestions as to why your percentages may be

different to those given.
2 Count the number of squares covered by the continents.

3 Do not count squares that are less than half-filled. Count
squares that are more than half-filled as full squares.
4 Use subtraction to calculate the number of squares covered by
water. N
5 Use a calculator to find the percentage of the Earth that is land
by completing this calculation: N
100 Earth
Total no. squares
6 Calculate the percentage of water on Earth. N
An even wetter planet
Aim
To examine what would happen if the sea level rose.
1 Identify which pieces of land have completely disappeared.
Method
2 Describe six problems that would occur in a shrunken world

like this.
1 On the map from the previous activity, extend inland all the
oceans, seas and bays by one graph square.
2 Reduce the lands covered in ice by two graph squares.
312
Questions
3 Identify what could cause this to happen in reality.
Unit
Global climate change

Implications for society and the
environment
Is global climate change a serious
cause for concern?
Scientists and governments around the world generally
agree that human activities are leading to global
warming, although there is a vocal minority who agree
that warming is occurring but believe that it has other
causes. A number of different gases, including methane,
contribute to climate change, but carbon dioxide is the
largest contributor.
Evidence in the ice

Scientists collect ice cores from Antarctic ice by drilling
down as deep as 4.7 kilometres. The deeper they drill,
the older the ice is, as each year new snow falls on top.
As snow builds up, tiny air bubbles are trapped in the
ice. Scientists can study these trapped gases to work out
the amount of carbon dioxide that was in the
atmosphere more than 400 000 years ago.
9.5
Science
Focus
Fossil fuels
Fig 9.5.9 This piece
from an ice core shows
tiny bubbles of trapped
air from the atmosphere.
Predicted level CO2 in 2100
650
600
550
500
450
400
Current level
CO2
Temperature
CO2 (ppm)
CO2 and temperature over 420 000 years
Temperature (C)
The main cause of increasing carbon dioxide levels in the

atmosphere is the burning of fossil fuels, such as coal and
oil. Petrol, diesel and kerosene (jet fuel) are all distilled
from oil, and are also fossil fuels. These substances are
actually made from vegetable matter that grew on the
surface of the Earth millions of years ago. It was covered
by sedimentary rocks and compressed and transformed by
heat in the Earths crust into very dense sources of energy.
When fossils fuels are burned this ancient carbon is
released into the atmosphere as extra carbon dioxide.
350
20
300
10
250
A
B
200
0
10
400 000
150
100
300 000
200 000
100 000 now
Years before present
Predicted
temperature
rise by 2100
A It is normal for the level of carbon dioxide to go up and down,

but the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is now at the
highest level ever. Notice that the Earths temperature changes in
line with changes in the amount of carbon dioxide in the air.
B On the temperature line, the troughs represent the Ice Ages,
during which the average temperature on Earth was up to six
degrees lower than today. The peaks are when warmer periods
occurred on Earth.
Fig 9.5.10 Carbon dioxide levels over the past 420 000 years.
Fig 9.5.8 Fossil fuels, such as petrol and coal, release massive
amounts of carbon dioxide when they are burned.
The graph shows a prediction for the year 2100 if humans keep
increasing carbon dioxide levels at the current rate.
313
Global climate change

Evidence of surface temperatures
To find out what the temperature on Earth was in the past,
scientists use evidence from such sources as tree ring
growth or coral cores. These sources, combined with
historical records, can produce results going back only
about 1000 years. That is because this is the age of the
oldest living trees and corals. These measurements also
confirm that the Earths average temperature is rising to its
highest level ever. Ice cores give evidence of temperatures
going back further than these records from living things
because the depth and density of the ice layers allows
scientists to calculate temperatures in the past.
Evidence from changing weather

patterns
The increase in unpredictable weather around the Earth,
and the increased frequency of the el Nio/la Nia
weather patterns (alternating droughts and wet periods),
has caused many people around the world to consider
carefully what the effect of global warming may be.
Meteorology (the science of weather and climate) is one
of the sciences in which it is most difficult to make precise
predictions. It is difficult to make accurate predictions of
exactly what will happen as the Earth warms.
One thing that is clear is that the Earth is slowly warming,

and there is new and stronger evidence that most of the
warming observed over the past 50 years has been caused
by human activities.
Go to
Evidence from coral reefs

Over the past decade, there have been increasing records
of coral bleaching. Corals have single-celled plants or algae
living in their coral tissue which help them to survive.
When ocean temperatures increase above 30C, the algae,
which are essential to the corals health, begin to die. This
in turn kills the coral. The most recent evidence is of
particular concern. Many parts of the Great Barrier Reef
are beginning to be bleached. Previously, this had been
observed only closer to the equator.
Fig 9.5.12 This section of the Great Barrier Reef has been bleached
and is now dead. The cause was increasing ocean temperatures.
Summary of scientific information
Fig 9.5.11 There is already worldwide evidence that glaciers are

receding and shrinking back up the mountains.
One prediction is that the polar ice caps on Earth will

begin to melt and sea levels will begin to rise, possibly
flooding many low-lying and coastal communities. This
has already created great concern for communities on
many small islands. These people are worried that as the
oceans rise their whole islands may be lost below the water.
Many models of global climate change predict that
Australia will become drier as temperatures slowly increase.
314
Atmospheric carbon dioxide changes:

Atmospheric carbon dioxide has increased by 31 per
cent since 1750.
About three-quarters of the carbon dioxide emissions
produced by humans during the past 20 years has been
from the burning of fossil fuels (currently about
6 600 000 000 tonnes per year).
A lot more has been caused by land clearing.
As carbon dioxide levels go up, so does the Earths
temperature.
At present, the land and the ocean absorb about half
of human carbon dioxide emissions. The rest remains
in the atmosphere.
Unit
1 A lot of Australias electricity and transportation is now

produced by the burning of fossil fuels such as coal.
Australians possibly produce more greenhouse gases per
person than anyone else in the world.
a List the ways that you produce greenhouse gases like
carbon dioxide.
b List the ways that you, as an individual, can contribute to
reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
c Choose one of the items on your list and make an effort to
do this activity.
d Report back to the class about how successful you have
been in reducing the amount of carbon dioxide you produce.
2 Many people think that the contribution of an individual will
make no difference. But it is definitely true that many little
contributions will quickly add together to ultimately make a
large contribution. Discuss this topic in small groups.
a Explain why some people think that an individual cannot
make a difference.
c Describe why many people, such as friends and family, may

find it difficult to make any changes to reduce their use of
fossil fuels and electricity use.
9.5
STUDENT ACTIVITIES
d List ways that you can help others make small contributions
that collectively will reduce the greenhouse emissions
created by your school, your home and your community.
3 To answer the questions below, a list of web
destinations can be found on Science Focus 1
Second Edition Student Lounge. Use the links
available to find answers to the following
questions:
We
b Desti nation
a Which countries produce the most greenhouse gases?

b Which countries produce the greatest amount of
greenhouse gases per person?
c What is the predicted rise in sea levels over the next
50 years?
d Which locations and countries are most at risk from rising
sea levels?
b Describe a number of examples to prove that lots of little

contributions can add up to be very significant.
315
Unit
9.6
context
Weather
The weather affects everyday decisions,

such as what we wear, how we travel and
where we go. Extreme weather causes
floods, drought and often destruction.
The Earths equator receives a lot more concentrated

heat and light energy from the Sun than do the North and
South Poles, causing the air over the equator to rise and
the air over the Poles to drop. Convection currents take
warm air to the Poles and cooler air back to the equator.
The atmosphere is also swirled around by the spin of the
Earth, creating a series of winds called tradewinds.
light and
heat from
Sun
equator
hot air rising
Fig 9.6.1 Not many people enjoy bad weather.

air moving in
to replace air
that has risen
Wind
As air is heated, it expands and becomes lighter or less
dense. Cold air is heavier and more dense than warmer
air. Because of this, hot air rises whereas cold air drops.
This process is called convection and happens in our
houses, the kitchen oven and in the atmosphere.
Sunlight is more
concentrated at
the equator
Sunlight spreads further

at the poles
316
Fig 9.6.2 The Suns heat is spread over a smaller area at the
equatorthis makes the equator hotter than the rest of the planet.
cold air sinking
warm air
moving to
cooler region
Fig 9.6.3 Global movement of air.
Looking at the situation simply, this would cause winds

that always blow roughly in the same direction, but winds
dont actually do this. The Sun heats different materials at
different rates. Land areas heat up more quickly than lakes,
oceans and the seas. Dark colours increase in temperature
faster than light colours. This means that bitumen roads,
car parks, newly ploughed fields and dark-coloured rocks
(such as basalt) heat faster than sand and marble, fields of
crops and shiny metal roofs. Convection currents and
winds are created because of differences in temperatures
and air pressures in local areas, as well as globally.
Unit
9.6
If the clouds cool further by being pushed upwards or

over colder regions, the tiny droplets begin to join to make
bigger drops that will fall as rain or, if it is cold enough,
sleet or snow. Tiny specks of high floating dust often
start the process. Sometimes it is cold enough for the
water vapour to cool just above the ground, forming fog.
Hail formation is still not fully understood. One
explanation is that the supercooled raindrops freeze on
the surface of dust particles or snow. These small
hailstones are blown up and down inside the cloud by
the storms wind. They gradually gather more water and
increase in size until they become too heavy and fall to
the ground. Another explanation is that they grow in size
as they fall through the storm cloud.
clouds form
Fig 9.6.4 Wind patterns over the Earth.
water droplets
fall as rain
pressure variation
water
evaporates
rain water
run-off
high air pressure
rain water run-off

sea or lake
low air pressure
Fig 9.6.6 Clouds are cooled water vapour. This is called condensation.
surface wind
Fig 9.6.5 Local winds are caused by different heating rates,

and differences in air pressure.
Looks like rain!

Water is constantly evaporating from anything wet on
Earth, whether it is a lake, the ocean or the washing on a
clothesline. More water evaporates from the oceans and
seas than anywhere else. This warm water vapour
rises, cooling as it gets into higher and colder
levels of the atmosphere. When cold enough, it
condenses back into liquid water, forming clumps Prac 1
p. 321
of small droplets that we normally call clouds.
If the drops are heavy enough, they fall as rain. This flow of water from sea
to clouds to rain, then run-off from land to sea, is called the water cycle.
Science
Clip
Severe thunderstorms
These usually develop in the late afternoon when the atmosphere
is moist and unstable. High cumulonimbus clouds rapidly develop
along with lightning, thunder, severe wind gusts, heavy rain and
large hail. Many thunderstorms are short-lived (about one hour)
and limited in size. Thunderstorms can travel large distances
and cause significant damage. A thunderstorm in Sydney in 1999
was unusual in that it lasted over five hours, with hailstones
measuring up to 9 centimetres. The rain, hail and wind affected
22 000 properties, with $2 billion in insurance losses.
317
Weather
Too much movementcyclones
Cumulus clouds do not

produce rain.
Altocumulus clouds
produce light showers.
In the Southern Hemisphere, winds move in a clockwise

direction around a low on a weather map, and
anticlockwise around a high.
A cyclone (known as a hurricane in the USA and a
typhoon in Asia) begins as an intense low over a stretch of
ocean, usually in the tropics. The warm humid air begins
to spiral clockwise and upwards, cooling and condensing
as it goes. Energy is released and the air is warmed again,
forcing it to go even higher, reducing the air pressure at
ground level even more. Air is sucked in from the seas
around, bringing high-speed winds and torrential rain.
The cyclone usually keeps going until it passes over land
and loses its supply of water and its energy.
Science
Clip
Its raining fish!
Stratocumulus clouds
produce drizzle.
Cirrus clouds consist of ice

crystals, and do not produce rain.
There have been over 20 reports of fish raining down over

Australia in the past 50 years. A man on the northern coast of
NSW woke up to find fish all over the roof of his house. In 1989,
sardines showered down on sunny Ipswich in Queensland. Three
fish storms occurred in the same month in Killarney, 320
kilometres inland from the Northern Territory coast. A cyclone can
suck up water from a lake or the ocean, taking fish with it. The fish
are carried into the thunderstorm clouds and fall with rain. If the
storm goes high enough into the atmosphere, the fish can be
carried for hundreds of kilometres in jet-stream winds. They can
rain down from clear skies hundreds of kilometres from the ocean
or storms. Many other animals have been reported as rain,
including snails, eels, mussels, frogs, spiders and even snakes.
Fig 9.6.8 A satellite image of a low pressure weather system off

Stratus clouds produce
drizzle or fine rain. They
may form fog at low levels.
Cumulonimbus clouds
produce thunderstorms
with lightning.
Nimbostratus clouds produce

heavy rain or snow.
Cirrocumulus clouds do not

produce rain.
Australias southern coast. The winds spiral clockwise and move

towards low pressure.
L
Fig 9.6.7 Types of clouds
winds
Worksheet 9.4 Cloud types
318
Unit
9.6
dry air sinking
cooled air sinking

spiralling moist air
eye
rain
warm moist air sucked in
Fig 9.6.9 Tropical cyclones cause massive amounts of air to shift.
Career
Profile
Meteorologist
Meteorologists forecast the weather and study the

atmosphere to improve our understanding of the Earths
climate. Meteorologists can have a major effect on both
society and the environment. Their weather predictions
affect our society every day, especially when the forecast
is inaccurate. Their advance warnings for dangerous
weather can save both lives and property.
A meteorologist can be involved in:
using different scientific instruments to forecast the
weather
examining satellite images of clouds for dangerous
weather
preparing special reports for shipping, agriculture,
fishing and flying
issuing warnings of cyclones, storms, floods, frosts,
fire dangers and strong winds
reporting air pollution.
A good meteorologist will be able to:
record and analyse many different types of data
be part of a team
use different instruments to gather data in the field
write accurate reports.
Fig 9.6.10 A meteorologist releasing a weather balloon to

measure temperature and humidity in the atmosphere.
319
Weather
9.6
QUESTIONS
Remembering
Applying
1 List the other names used for cyclones.
13 Identify the types of clouds most likely to cause rain.
2 State the name of the winds that circle the world, caused by the
Earths rotation.
14 Identify what causes a cyclone to lose strength.
Understanding
they become true:
a Hot air rises and cold air drops.
b The equator receives more concentrated heat energy from
the Sun than the Poles do.
c Hot air circulates away from the Poles to the equator.
d Tradewinds are local winds.
15 Gliders often increase their height by riding thermals (rising

hot air). Identify where these might be found.
16 Draw a simplified diagram to demonstrate the water cycle.
Analysing
17 Gather weather maps from the newspaper for one week.
Then analyse each map to complete the following:
a Draw arrows on the maps to indicate the directions you
would expect the winds to blow.
b Shade areas in red where it would be warmer; shade in blue
where it would be cooler.
e All rocks heat up at the same rate.
c Draw water drops or snowflakes where you would expect

rain or snow.
4 Explain what is needed to cause a cloud to rain.

5 In your own words, describe what the water cycle is.
6 Describe what causes a cyclone to begin.
7 Explain why the North and South Poles would be even colder if
there were no convection currents.
8 Predict whether the temperatures at the equator would be
higher or lower if there were no convection currents.
9 Plants are also involved in the water cycle. Describe how you
think they fit in.
10 The water in your body could once have been in the body of a
great scientist. Explain how this could be possible.
d Interpret the maps and your findings to describe Australias

weather over the week.
Evaluating
18 Deduce why it is unwise to eat snow.
Creating
19 Imagine that you are a water molecule in the Pacific Ocean.
Create a first-person account (e.g. I was just floating around
when) describing your adventures in the water cycle. L
11 In your own words, summarise the role of a meteorologist.

12 Predict the direction of the winds in the areas shown in
Figure 9.6.11.
forest
bitumen
Fig 9.6.11
320
sea
land
road
black rocks
white sand
Unit
INVESTIGATING
1 Keep a diary and record the types of clouds you see over the
next week and any rainfall that occurs (i.e. none, rain, drizzle,
spitting). L
2 Investigate your available resources (e.g. textbooks,
encyclopaedias, Internet etc.) to find how tornadoes form and
why they are rare in Australia but common in the United States.
Find out how storm chasers in the United States collect
information about tornadoes.
9.6
eb D
esti natio
To explore satellite photos of the weather and learn
more about forecasting, a list of web destinations can
be found on Science Focus 1 Second Edition Student Lounge.
Method
1 In the beaker, heat about 100 mL of water until boiling.
Aim
To determine what conditions are needed to make clouds.
Equipment
e -xploring
PRACTICAL ACTIVITY
Making clouds
9.6
9.6
3 Observe and note in your results what happens.

4 Repeat the experiment, but this time place ice cubes in the
evaporating dish, as shown in Figure 9.6.12.
400 mL beaker
ice cubes
evaporating dish
Bunsen burner
bench mat
tripod
gauze mat
matches
safety glasses
ice cubes
2 Turn off the gas and cover the beaker with an evaporating dish.
5 Write your observations in your results.
Questions
1 Explain what water vapour is.
2 Describe what happens to water vapour as it cools.
3 Explain how cooling water vapour could cause a cloud.
evaporating dish
400 mL beaker
Fig 9.6.12
321
CHAPTER REVIEW
Remembering
Understanding
1 State whether each of the following is true or false:

a The radius of the Earth is approximately 12 800 kilometres.
a is the hottest
b The thickest layer of the Earth is the mantle.
b is about 2025C, on average
c Sedimentary rock is a type of mineral.
c is made of liquid rock
d Rocks can contain a number of different minerals.
d is where the jet-stream winds occur
e The mantle is where most volcanic and earthquake activity

occurs.
e contains most of the air
f The crust is thickest under the continents.
f is made mostly of iron and nickel.

5 Use a diagram to explain why:
g The moving around of pieces of rock by wind and water is

called weathering.
a the Mediterranean Sea is being slowly squeezed shut
h The layer of the atmosphere that humans and animals live in

is called the stratosphere.
c the Himalayan Mountains are getting higher
i The magnetic field of the Earth comes from movements in

the outer core.
j Winds move in a clockwise direction around a low.
k Condensation is the name given when water turns from
liquid to vapour.
l Hot air is more dense than cold air.
m Water heats up more quickly than rock.
n The Sun heats up the atmosphere.
o Australians add 70 tonnes of carbon dioxide to the
atmosphere each year.
p At night the Earth releases heat back into the atmosphere.
q Greenhouse gases trap heat in the atmosphere.
r More carbon dioxide in the atmosphere traps more heat.
s Clouds help trap heat in the atmosphere on cold nights.
2 Recall the different types of rocks by matching a rock type to
its correct description.
b the Atlantic Ocean is getting wider

6 Describe the effects in the future if:
a carbon dioxide concentrations increase further
b acids are continually released into the air.
7 Describe two uses that Aboriginals had for rocks.
8 a Explain the term ochre.
b Describe how ochres were prepared and used by the
Aboriginals.
9 Copy and complete this table to summarise the science careers
covered in this chapter.
Job title
Main tasks
Skills required
Geologist
Palaeontologist
Environmental
scientist
Greenhouse
engineer
Rock type
Description
sedimentary
formed from molten material
metamorphic
made from broken-down particles

compressed into layers
Applying
igneous
made from other rocks changed by

heat and/or pressure
10 On Mohs scale of hardness, a particular mineral has a

hardness of 6.5. Identify a mineral it would:
3 List the layers of the Earth and atmosphere in the correct order,
starting from the centre of the Earth:
outer core, stratosphere, troposphere, mantle, inner core,
ionosphere, mesosphere, troposphere, crust.
322
4 From the list in Question 3, clarify which layer:
Meteorologist
a be able to scratch
b not be able to scratch.
19 Classify each of the following as either sedimentary, igneous or

metamorphic:
a the rock cycle
a shale
b the water cycle
b sandstone
c the Earths structure
c granite
d the greenhouse effect
d limestone
e acid rain.
e conglomerate
12 Identify the element that may be extracted from chalcopyrite.
f gneiss
13 Identify two uses for examples of each of the three major types
of rock.
g basalt.
15 Make a sketch to demonstrate the air movement around a

cyclone.
Analysing

pt
17 Compare the following items:
20 What kinds of evidence are there to suggest that humans are

one of the main causes of the global climate change that
scientists are observing? Critically evaluate the various kinds of
evidence. Which piece of evidence do you find most convincing,
and why?
Ch
16 List eight types of cloud and classify them in order from those
most likely to give heavy rain to those that will not bring any
rain.
Evaluating
14 Draw a diagram to demonstrate the wind direction around a

low pressure system.
on
11 Draw simplified diagrams to demonstrate any three of the

following:
er R
sti
ev i ew Q u e
a rock and mineral

b crystal and mineral
c pigment and streak
d rock and ore.
18 Classify in order from hardest to softest:
calcite, quartz, corundum, topaz.
323
Ask
Sci
ci Q Bu
Busters team
B
Chalk talk
The big Moon
Hot versus cold
Chalk talk
The big Moon
Hot versus cold
Chalk talk
Hi Q Busters,
I was at school yesterday when there was a loud squeal coming from the chalk as the teacher wrote on
the blackboard. What causes this? Can you suggest anything I can pass on to our teacher so she
doesnt do it again? Its driving the whole class mad!
Best wishes, Isabella
REPLY
Cereal sounds
Stormy weather
Hi Isabella,
The frequencies of the squealing chalk depend on

the following things:
Thats one theory anyway. There is another, which

is based on impurities in the chalk stick. These
small hard bits of grit scratch against the
blackboard much like your fingernails would.
And what about the solution? Well, you can ask
your teacher to try these:
Snap the chalk in two. This should double the
frequency of the sound and therefore should
not be heard.
where the chalk is held by the fingers
at what angle it is held
Push down heavier onto the blackboard.

This should rub the grit off quickly and the
lesson should be squeak free.
how tightly the piece of chalk is held
Use the whiteboard.
the length of the piece of chalk.
Or maybe you could

experiment yourself,
and then pass on the
results to your teacher.
If a piece of chalk is held incorrectly, it first sticks

to the blackboard and then suddenly crumbles. The
chalk then slips and vibrates, causing the loud
squeal. As the vibrations die down and the chalk
dust falls out of the way, friction between the chalk
and the board increases until the chalk sticks once
again and the cycle is repeated.
For example, if the chalk is held just above the

blackboard contact point and at right angles to it,
the frequencies are higher than if the chalk is held
at a 45 angle. In the first case, vibrations are
generated along the length of the chalk. In the
second case, the chalk vibrates by bending.
Happy chalking!
The Q Busters Team
The big Moon

Dear Q Busters,
The other night when we had a full moon it looked enormous just as it rose, but then got smaller later in the
night. How can this be? I thought the Moon was the same distance away from the Earth all of the time!
From Rachel
REPLY
Hi Rachel,
Many theories have been put forward, and many
experiments have been conducted. The findings
suggest that its only an optical illusion.
324
To prove this for yourself, hold a ruler at arms

length and measure the Moon as it rises. Make a
note of this measurement, and then wait awhile
until the Moon is higher in the sky. Measure it

again, compare your measurements, and youll
find its more or less the same size no matter
where it happens to be in the sky.
One theory suggests that the mind judges the
size of an object based on its surroundings.
With a low Moon the trees and houses near you
appear smaller against the moon which, in turn,
makes it appear bigger than it really is.
Pic of full moon?
Another way to prove it is to look at the low

Moon though a rolled-up piece of paper. This
will block out the surroundings and the illusion
should vanish.
Happy Moon gazing!
The Q Busters Team
Hot versus cold

Dear Q Busters,
Someone at school said she heard on the TV that hot water freezes faster that cold water.
This cant be true, can it? Please help as I am now confused about freezing water.
Regards, Alexandra
REPLY
Hi Alexandra,
This would seem to be completely wrong by what
you have been taught so far in Science. This
phenomenon, where hot water appears to freeze
faster than cold water, actually has a special name.
Its called the Mpemba effect. It is named after the
Tanzanian high school student, Erasto Mpemba, who,
in 1963, discovered it when experimenting at school.
There is still great debate out there over whether
this is fact or fiction, but here are the two main
theories at present.
the surface. Well, this is removing most of the

dissolved gases in the water. The gases actually
reduce waters ability to conduct heat.
Therefore, with less dissolved gas in the water,
it can cool faster.
But we still dont know for certain.
Happy freezing!
The Q Busters Team
1. Evaporation. As you know, when hot water is

placed in an open container it begins to cool
with steam coming off. This will reduce the
amount of water in the container. With less
water to freeze, the process can take less time.
2. Dissolved gases. When you are boiling water,
Alexandra, you know that its boiling because
you can see the bubbles rising and popping on
Insert pic
325
Ask
Sci
cii Q Bu
Busters team
Chalk talk
The big Moon
Hot versus cold
Cereal sounds
Stormy weather
Cereal sounds
Stormy weather
Cereal sounds
Hi Q Busters,
Ive always been fascinated by the sound my breakfast makes when I add cold milk to it. Mum said Im not
allowed to use product names when I write to you, so Im calling them rice thingos. They make different
soundscrispy, crunchy sounds. My obvious question ishow does this happen?
Yours truly, Hamish
Hi Hamish,
This question relates to two separate thingshow
the rice was cooked and what happens as you pour
in the milk.
Lets look first at how they are made. Grains of white
rice are first steamed and then followed by heating
in an oven, making them all crisp and crunchy. This
makes the little starch granules in them expand and
this gives a unique structure of tiny air-filled pockets
and tunnels inside the outer shell.
So, when you pour milk over your cereal, the cereal
absorbs the milk. As the milk flows into the crispy
outer shell of the rice thingos, it puts pressure on
the air inside. The air shoves back against the walls
until they shatter. This shattering makes a sound
that you hear.
REPLY
If you look very carefully, you will also see tiny

air bubbles coming to the surface of the milk.
Once the rice thingos are wet enough and all
of the air pockets have burst, the sounds stop,
letting you finish your soggy cereal.
The Q Busters Team
Stormy weather
Dear Q Busters,
I have always been fascinated by thunder and lightning. Mum and Dad told me about the dangers
of lightning when I was little so I know that standing under a tree in a lightning storm is a really bad
idea, but I love watching the free fireworks show in the sky.
The other day we had a big storm and the lightning was around us for about an hour. While I was
watching from a safe place, it got me thinking. I hope you dont mind two or three questions, but
I need to know whats going on up there.
Here goes:
How is thunder made? One of my teachers said
it was the lightning breaking the sound barrier,
another said that it was clouds colliding.
How is it that some thunder is a sharp crack
and others just seem to roll on for a long time?
Sometimes I can see lightning, but dont hear it.
Whats going on here?
Sorry for the question overload.
Thanks, Miya
326
REPLY >>
Hi Miya,
We love thunder and lightning, too, and theres
some really interesting science behind these
phenomena. We will answer each of your
questions in turn.
1 Thunder happens because lightning is really
hotabout five times hotter than the Suns
surface. Its so hot that it causes the air very close
to it to be superheated. The air rapidly expands in
a fraction of a second. This rapid expansion of the
air creates a compression sound wave that you
hear as thunder.
2 The reason thunder rumbles is due to
two things.
The first is that lightning is really a big spark

about eight kilometres in length that zig-zags
all over the place. It can have many branches
coming out in all different directions, which
can look really cool. What happens is that the
sound waves created by each lightning branch
reach you at different times. The sound wave
that has travelled a greater distance will be
softer and arrive later than the lightning closer
to you, so you hear it as rumbles that go on
and on.
If you have had lightning strike very close to you

the thunder sounds more like an explosion. This is
because the sound waves didnt have a chance to
bounce off many things before you heard it.
3 Its actually impossible to have lightning
without thunder and its impossible to have
thunder without lightning. If you see lightning but
dont hear thunder, its simply that you are too far
away to hear it. Lightning is pretty bright and can
be seen for many kilometres, but sound (such as
thunder) is a wave and will dissipate over both
distance and time. Under normal conditions you
usually cant hear thunder any more than about
eight kilometres away.
Phew! There you go, Miya. Three questions for the
price of one!
Happy storm watching!
The Q Busters Team
The second thing is that the thunder (sound

waves) will bounce aroundoff the clouds, the
ground and other nearby objects. Its the same
way that your voice echoes in a large hall.
Put these two things together and the result is that

some of the noise arrives at the same time, giving
the loud sound, and then they fade away, softening
the sound. Then other bits arrive so the sound
gets loud again, and so on. This is the rumbling
that you hear.
Subject
Got a question? Email the Sci Q Busters team at:

SciQBusters@pearson.com.au
327
Index
Page numbers in bold refer to key
terms in bold type in the text
A
abbreviations, measurement units see
units of measurement
Aboriginals see Indigenous Australians
absorption 82, 181
accelerate 207
accelerated 206
acceleration 207, 225
acid rain 3012
activated sludge process 89
adult stem cells 1635
aerofoil 225
aerosol 68
air 104, 180, 214, 2312, 30610, 316
19
air foil 225, 226
air resistance 220
aircraft, forces on 2256
airhole (Bunsen burner) 10
amoebas 158, 159
amphibians 11920, 130
analysis 26
angiosperms 1278
animals 1025, 11012, 115, 11723,
13031, 1556
annelids 123
annular solar eclipse 260
arachnids 121
Aristarchus 277
arthropods 121, 131
asexual (reproduction) 105
asking questions 3
asteroid belt 266
asthenosphere 282
astronauts 220, 25052
astronomical unit 263
astronomy 2758
atmosphere 30610
attraction (magnetism) 2367
attracts 218
aurora 260
autotrophs 103
axis 245
B
bacteria 131, 139, 158
balance 220
balanced forces 2246
ball bearings 213
bar magnets 238
beam balance 1920, 220
328
bimetallic strips 52
binomial name 112
biological weathering 302
bioluminescent 189
birds 119, 130
blastocyst 164, 165
boiling 46
boiling point 46
bonded 36
bone cells 156
bony fish 120
botany 12731
branches 3
branching keys 96
Brown, Robert 43, 141
Brownian motion 39, 43, 141
bryophytes 111, 129, 131
Bunsen burner 1011
Bunsen, Robert 11
buoyancy 231
C
calendar year 246
calorie 170
carbon dioxide 104, 150, 30710, 313
carnivores 171
carnivorous plants 104
cartilage 120
Cassini division 268
cathode ray oscilloscope 199
cell membrane 149, 155
cell nucleus 149, 155
cells 106, 13843, 149
animal 1556
plant 14951
single and groups 15860
stem 1635
cell theory 141
cellular respiration 103, 150
cellulose 149
cell wall 149, 159
Celsius, Anders 177
centipedes 122, 131
centrifuge 75
centrifuging 75
changes of state 457
characteristics 102
characteristics of life 1026
chemical energy 16970
chemical weathering 301
chlorine 86
chlorophyll 149
chloroplasts 149, 15051, 159
chordata 117
chordates 117
chromatography 82
chromosphere (Sun) 259
ciliates 158, 159
circular keys (classification) 97
circulatory system 160
classification 957, 1026, 11012,
11423, 12731, 2927
list, living things 13031
cleavage plane 287
climate change 308, 30910
clouds 31719
cnidarians 122, 131
cohesion 232
collar (bunsen burner) 10
colloid 67
colour (minerals) 287
common solutions 66
compass 238
compound microscope 141
compression 1967
concentrated 66
condensation 46, 317
conducting cells 151
conduction 177
conductors 1778
conifers 128, 131
conservation of mass 65
contact (force) 206
contract 36
contraction 51
controlled variable 30
convection 179, 316
convection currents 180
conventions 19
Copernicus, Nicolas 277
coral reefs 314
core (Earth) 282
corona (Sun) 259
corrosive 4
cosmic rays 282
cosmic shield 282
cross-section 10
crude oil 81
crust (Earth) 281
crustaceans 121, 131
crystal structure 287
crystallisation 80
crystals 286
cycads 128, 131
cyclone 31819
cytoplasm 149, 155, 159
day (Earth) 2456

day (planet) 262
decanting 74
decelerate 207
decelerated 206
deduction 43
density 579
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) 165
dependent variable 30
diagrams 1011
dichotomous (keys) 96
differentiation 163
diffuse (reflection) 190
diffusion 38, 150
digestive system 160
dilute 66
disciplines 3
discovery 43
discussion 26
dispersion medium 67
dissolving 736, 8082
distance 219
distillate 81
distillation 81
distillation apparatus 81
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) 165
domains (magnetism) 237
drag (force) 225
drawing forces 208
dry deposition 302
E
Earth 265, 2813
and Sun 257
as magnet 238
axis 2457
heliocentric model 277
in space 2457
Ptolemy model 276
statistics 265
see also atmosphere; planets;
solar system; weather
earthquake 282
echo 198
echolocation 198
eclipse 253, 257, 260
ectothermic 103
ectotherms 103
efficient 170, 213
elastic 206
elastic potential energy 169
electrical energy 169
electricity, magnetism 76
electrolytes 87
electromagnetic waves 181
electron microscope 141, 143, 213
electrostatic precipitator 76
electrostatic separation 76
embryonic stem cells 1635
emulsifier 68
emulsion 67
endocrine system 160
endothermic 103
energy 16871
as work 169
chemical 169, 170
defined 168
elastic potential 169
electrical 169
gravitational potential 169
heat 168, 170, 17682
joule 170
kinetic 168
light 169, 18891
nuclear 169, 171
potential 168
solar 25760
sound 169, 170
energy conservation 170
energy conversions 170
enhanced greenhouse effect 309
environmental engineer 310
environmental scientist 303
equator 2467, 316
equinoxes 247
southern autumn 247
southern spring 247
equipment 911, 25, 81
erosion 296, 3012
error 1819, 26
instrument 18
parallax 18
reading 18
zero 19
evaporation 46, 8081, 317
excretion 104
excretory system 160
exoskeleton 121
exosphere 307
expand 36, 45, 316
expansion 513
expansion chamber 53
experiments 2930, 43
extrasolar planets 269
extrusive igneous (rock) 292
F
fair tests 2930
fat cells 156
ferns 129, 131
fertile 112
field of view 142
filter 74
filtration 745, 76
fish 120, 130
flagellates 158, 159
flatworms 123, 131
flight 226
floating and sinking 589
floating dust 317
floc 87
flocculation 87
flowering plants 1278, 131, 160
fluoride 87
foetus 164
fog 317
food chain 257
forces 20638
action / reaction 214, 224
magnetic 2368
push, pull, twist 206
see also Newton
fossil fuels 171, 258, 308, 313
fossils 119
fractional distillation 81
fractions 81
freezing 46
freezing point 46, 53
frequency (wave) 199200
friction 21214
froth 76
froth flotation 76
full moon 252
fungi 129
Index
G
galaxy 259
Galilei, Galileo 251, 268, 277
Galle, Johann 269
gangue 76
gas giants 262
gases 35, 378, 47, 513, 657, 149,
30610
gel 68
genus 111
geocentric 276
geocentric model 276
geologist 296
geology 2869
germs 158
ginkgo 129, 131
global climate change 308, 30910
glucose 103, 150, 171
gravitational force 21819, 253
gravitational potential energy 169
gravity 21820, 250, 253
gravity separation 75
greenhouse effect 308, 30910
grouping 11416, 117
see also classification
329
hail 317
hardness 288
heat 45, 513, 80, 16871, 17682, 296
friction 21214
Sun 25760
see also global climate change;
greenhouse effect
heat energy 169, 170, 17682
heat, conductors 1778
heatstroke 103
heat transmission 181
heliophysics 259
hemispheres 247
herbivores 171
hermaphrodites 105
Herschel, William 268, 269
heterotrophs 103
highlands (lunar) 251
high (pressure system) 318
history, science 11416, 2759
Hooke, Robert 13840, 267
hovercraft 213
hyperthermia 103
hypothermia 103
hypothesis 30
jawless fish 120

jellyfish 123
jet-stream winds 307
joule 170
Joule, James 170
Jupiter 267
Ptolemy model 276
I
ice 313
igneous rocks 2927
image (microscope) 142
incandescent 189
incompressible 36, 37
independent variable 30
Indigenous Australian classification 114
Indigenous Australians
astronomy 275
early tools 293
minerals 288
inefficient 170
infection 158
inference 17
infra-red radiation 181, 308
inner core 282
insects 121, 131
insoluble 65
insoluble substances 736
see also mixtures
insulation 179
insulators 178
intrusive igneous (rock) 292
invertebrates 111, 1213, 131
involuntary muscle cells 156
ionosphere 307
irregular shapes 58
IVF 165
330
K
Kelvin, Lord 47
Kepler, Johannes 278
keys (classification) 96
kinetic energy 168
kinetic theory of matter 43
kingdoms 110, 115, 12731
L
laboratory safety 34
lateral inversion 191
lava 281, 292
Moon 251
law of conservation of energy 170
law of reflection 190
leaf structure 14951
liberation 76
life, cell theory of 141
life characteristics 1026
lift (force) 225
light 16871, 18891
speed of 189
Sun 25760
light energy 169
light microscope 1412
lime 87
Linnaeus, Carl 11416
liquid 35, 378, 456, 513, 657, 75
lithification 293
lithosphere 282
lodestone 2378
longitudinal waves 197
low (pressure system) 318
lower mantle 282
lubricating 213
luminous 188
lunar eclipse 253
lunar landscape 251
lunar statistics 250
lustre 287
lymph system 160
M
magma 292
magnet 76, 2368
magnetic field 2378, 282
magnetic force 2368
magnetic separation 76
magnetite 237
magnification 142
major groups 111, 130
mammals 118, 130
mantle (Earth) 282
maria (lunar) 251
Mars 2656
Ptolemy model 276
marsupials 118
mass 19, 57, 65, 219
and weight 219
materials see equipment
matter 19, 35, 218
measurements 9, 1720, 18, 26
see also units of measurement
mechanical weathering 301
medium 82
medusa 123, 131
melt 45
melting point 45
meniscus 19
Mercury 2634
Ptolemy model 276
mesosphere 307
metamorphic rock 2957
meteor 307
meteorologist 319
method, experimental 25
metric system 18
microbes 158
microorganisms 158
microscope 9, 13843, 141
microscopic 138, 141
Milky Way 259, 275
millipedes 122, 131
minerals 2869
mirrors 19092
mistakes 1819, 26
mitochondria 140
mitochondrion 149, 155
mixtures 658, 736
models 35, 45
molluscs 122, 131
monera 129, 131
monocular microscope 1412
monotremes 118
Moon 25053, 3245
missions 25051
phases 252
Ptolemy model 276
solar eclipse 260
moonshine 188
motion 168
Mpemba effect 325
multi-celled organisms 159
N
naming organisms 116
naming species 112
native metals 286
negative acceleration 207
Neptune 26970
nerve cells 156, 164
nervous system 160
new moon 252
Newton, Sir Isaac 208, 218, 253
newtons (N) 208
night 2456
nitrogen 308
non-contact (force) 206, 218, 219
non-luminous 188
normal (imaginary line) 190
North Pole 238, 245
north pole (magnetism) 236
Northern Hemisphere 247
notochord 117
nuclear energy 169, 171
nuclear fusion 258
nucleus 140
O
objective 38
observations 1720, 26, 2930, 43
ochres 288
opaque 189
optical illusion 324
orbit 246
Earth around Sun 247
Moon around Earth 252
ores 289
organelles 149, 155
organism/s 102, 116, 15860
see also classification
organs 160
osmosis 150
outer core 282
ovule 128
oxygen 104, 149, 307
ozone layer 307
P
palaeontologist 297
panning 75
parallax error 18
parasitic 123
partial solar eclipse 260
particle model 359, 43, 57
particles 51, 667, 756, 177, 232
penumbra 190
petrologist 289
petrology 289
phases (matter) 35
phases (moon) 252
photosphere (Sun) 259
photosynthesis 103, 150, 171, 257
photosynthetic cells 151
phyla 111
phylum 111
physical properties 36
physical weathering 301
pistil 128
Pitjantjatjara 275
placental mammals 118
plane mirror 191
planets 26270
see also Earth; solar system; Sun
planning experiments 30
plant systems 160
plants 1035, 115, 12731, 14951, 257
platypus 118
Pluto 262
point source 190
poisonous 4
poles (magnetic 2367
polishing 213
pollution 3012, 3079
polyps 123, 131
potential energy 169
prediction 17
prescribed focus areas 434, 11416,
1635, 2759
producers 103
prominences 259
protists 130, 139, 158
Ptolemy model 276
pull of gravity 224
Pythagoras 276
Q
qualitative 17
quantitative 17
questions, asking 3
R
radiation 181
solar 258
UV 258
rain 31719
rainwater 86
rarefactions 1967
rays 189
reading error 18
red blood cells 156
reflection 181, 190
regular (reflection) 190
regular shapes 58
religion 276
reporting 256
reproduction 105, 1289, 1635
reptiles 119
repulsion (magnetism) 2367
residue 80, 81
resonance 200
respiration 104
respiratory system 160
response 105
results 26
retrograde movement 264
reverberation 199
rock cycle 2957
rocks 2869, 2927
rollers 213
root hairs cells 151
R ratings 179
roundworms 123, 131
Index
multicellular 159
muscle cells 164
music 200
S
safety 4, 11, 25
safety flame (Bunsen burner) 10
salt 80
sap 149
saturated 66
Saturn 268
Ptolemy model 276
scanning electron microscope (SEM)
138, 143
Schleiden, Matthias 141
science
asking questions 3
branches of 3
defined 3
history 11416, 2759
nature/practice of 43
scientific
classification 957
diagrams 10
drawing 1011
method 25
models 35
reporting 256
scientific report 25
seasons 245247
sediment 67, 293, 301
sedimentary rock 2934
segmented worms 123, 131
separating substances 736, 8082
septic tank 87
sewage 869, 87
sewerage 87, 89
sexual (reproduction) 105
sieving 74
simple microscope 141
single-celled organisms 158
sinking/floating 589
skeletal system 160
skin cells 164
331
332
sleet 317
snow 317
soda ash 87
soil degradation 302
Sol (Sun) 257, 262
sol 67
solar eclipse 257, 260
solar flares 257, 259
solar system 26270, 2759
solar technology 258
solar winds 25960
solidification 46
solids 356, 457, 513, 657
solstice 247
southern summer 247
southern winter 247
soluble 65, 736, 8082
soluble substances 8082
see also mixtures
solute 38, 656, 80
solute particles 38
solutions 656, 736, 8082
solvent 38, 656
solvent particles 38
sonar 198
sonic boom 198
sound 16871, 196200
sound energy 169, 170
sound graphs 199200
sound wave 1967
South Pole 238, 245
south pole (magnetism) 236
southern autumn equinox 247
Southern Hemisphere 247
southern spring equinox 247
southern summer solstice 247
southern winter solstice 247
space 2457
see also planets; solar system; Sun
species 110112
specimen 142
speed 207, 225
spiders 121
spinal cord 164
spine 117
spores 129
sporozoans 158
stamen 128
stars 25760, 2758
see also solar system
state, changes of 457
states of matter 35
stem cells 163
stereo microscope 1412
sterile 112
stimulus 105
stomata 104, 151
stored energy 169
stratosphere 307
streak (mineral) 287
streamlined 212
sublimation 47
Sun 171, 2457, 252, 25760
features 259
missions 259
Ptolemy model 276
statistics 258
see also solar system; weather
sunrise/sunset 2456
sunspots 259
surface tension 231, 232
suspension 67
synchrotron 207
system (organs) 160
T
tabular keys (classification) 967
taxonomist 110
taxonomy 110
tectonic plates 281, 2823
telescopes 9, 139
temperature 176, 17682, 314
see also global warming
terrestrial planets 2623
theory of plate tectonics 282
thermos flask 182
thermosphere 307
Thomson, William 47, 177
thrust 225
tides 253
tissue 160
total solar eclipse 260
tradewinds 316
translucent 189
transmission electron microscope (TEM)
143
transparent 65, 189
troposphere 307
U
umbra 190
unbalanced forces 2246
unicellular 158
units of measurement
day (Earth) 2456
day (planet) 262
distance 18
energy 170
force 208
heat 177
height 18
length 18
light 189
mass 18, 219, 220
sound 1978
speed 18, 189
temperature 18
time 18
volume 18
weight 220
year (Earth) 246
year (planet) 262
upper mantle 282
Uranus 2689
V
vacuole 149, 155
van Leeuwenhoek, Anton 13940
vaporisation 467
variables 29, 30
vascular bundles 127
vascular plants 111, 1279, 131
vectors 208
Venus 2645
Ptolemy model 276
vertebrates 111, 11719, 130
vibration, sound 1967
viscosity 36
visible light 308
volume 58
W
water 35, 53, 58, 81, 103
forces in 2312
tides 253
water supply 869
waves
longitudinal 197
sound 196
transverse 197
waxing 213
weather 314, 31619, 3267
weathering 295, 296, 297, 3012
weight 219, 224, 225
and buoyancy 231
and mass 219
weightlessness 218
wet deposition 302
wheel 213
white blood cells 156
wind tunnel 214
winds 180, 31619
work, and energy 169
working scientifically 2930
worms 123, 131
Y
year (Earth) 246
year (planet) 262
Z
zero error 19
zoology 117
zygote 163, 164

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1

The comprehensive science suite

Science Focus 1 Second Edition

978 1 4425 1122 4

978 1 4425 1525 3

Rickard Burger Clarke Geelan Loveday

How to use this book

Unit 1.1 Science and safety

Unit 1.2 Equipment

Unit 1.3 Observations and measurement

Unit 1.4 Reporting

Unit 1.5 Working scientifically

Solids, liquids and gases

Unit 2.1 The particle model

Science focus: Observation and discovery

Unit 2.2 Changes of state

Unit 2.3 Expansion

Unit 2.4 Density

Mixtures and their separation

Unit 3.1 Types of mixtures

Unit 3.2 Separating insoluble substances

Unit 3.3 Separating soluble substances

Unit 3.4 Water supply and sewage

Unit 4.1 Why classify?

Unit 4.2 Living or non-living?

Unit 4.3 From kingdom to species

Science focus: Grouping living things

Unit 4.4 Classification of animals

Unit 4.5 Plants and other kingdoms

Unit 5.1 Cells and the microscope

Unit 5.2 Plant cells

Unit 5.3 Animal cells

Unit 5.4 Single cells, groups of cells

Science focus: Stem cells

Heat, light and sound

Unit 6.1 Energy

Unit 6.2 Heat

Unit 6.3 Light

Unit 6.4 Sound

Unit 7.1 What are forces?

Unit 7.2 Friction

Unit 7.3 Gravity

Unit 7.4 Balanced and unbalanced forces

Unit 7.5 Forces in water

Unit 7.6 Magnetic forces

Unit 8.1 Earths movement in space

Unit 8.2 The Moon

Unit 8.3 The Sun

Unit 8.4 The solar system

Science focus: Early astronomy

Our planet Earth

Unit 9.1 Our Earth

Unit 9.2 Rocks and minerals

Unit 9.3 Types of rocks

Unit 9.4 Weathering and erosion

Unit 9.5 The atmosphere

Science focus: Global climate change

Unit 9.6 Weather

Science Focus Second Edition

Student books with student CD

Teacher editions (including teacher edition CD and student CD)

The innovative teacher edition contains a wealth of support

How to use this book