Statistical Process Control

SPC

QUALITY PRODUCTIVITY MANAGEMENT CONSULTANCY

(QPMC)

STATISTICAL PROCESS CONTROL (SPC)

Synopsis:
Statistical Process Control (SPC) is the technique, adopted by most of the companies; which
helps to predict variation, using sample measures by determining the amount of common cause
& detect special / assignable causes of variation in the process through control chart.
SPC should be used as an operators tools to make quality visible (as for example,
through capability indices, control chart, data display, using different types of light / color code,
pictorial diagram etc.) for continuous improvement by documenting statistical evidence, in
Preventive-based-System throughout the organization.
Control chart helps to reflect the performance of the process & monitor output of the
process, and give a good indication of whether any problem are likely to be correctable locally or
will require action on the system.
A machine or process is under statistical control if it demonstrates stability and
consistency over a period of time, when all opportunities for special / assignable causes of
variation have had a chance to occur.
Process capability is an indication of prediction of the level of quality (or a measure of
the inherent uniformity) a machine ( or manufacturing process) can produce.
Case study on control chart and Process Capability clarify how to take sample and get a
clue of the problem systematically.

Purpose
The purpose of this workshop is to provide individuals and teams with the knowledge and skills
to X and R statistical process control chart, Process capability indices. The training program
covers defining variation, source of variation, review of methods of data gathering, organizing
and analyzing and construction of X bar and R chart.

Objectives:
After completion of this workshop, participant will be able to:
1. Explain the importance of thinking.
2. Understand variability.
3. Understand and apply the Control charts.
4. Able to calculate Cp and Cpk
5. Able to take decision on process variation.

Precaution:
The participant manual was designed for use in the context of an instructor-led workshop and as
a reference outside the workshop. All graphical presentations are in transparent sheet material. It
was not designed as a self-study text.
This material should not be photocopied without the permission of author. Also this material
should not be shown or given to any Consultant or Consultancy Organization.

Dr. S Bhuniya
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STATISTICAL PROCESS CONTROL (SPC)

FOUNDATION CONCEPT
What is quality?
Quality is fitness for use. - JURAN
Quality should be aimed at the needs of the customer at present and future. - DEMING
Quality is the totally of features and characteristics of a product or service that bear on its ability
to satisfy stated or implied needs of the customer(s). - ISO 9000
Quality is the loss (from function variation and harmful effects) a product causes to society after
being shipped, other than any losses caused by its intrinsic functions. - Taguchi

What are the different dimensions of quality?

Dimension of
Product / Service

Meaning

Measures
Product Example
Signal-to-noise
ratio, power

Performance

Primary product or service

characteristics

Features

Remote control

Reliability

Added touches, bells and

whistles, secondary
characteristics
Consistency of performance
over time

Durability

Useful life

Useful life ( with

repair)

Serviceability

Ease to repair

Response

Aesthetics

Reputation

Cost

Resolution of problems and

complaints
Characteristics of human-tohuman interface (timeliness,
courtesy, professionalism etc.)
Sensory characteristics (e.g.
Sound, feel, look etc.)
Past performance and other
intangibles
Competitive cost compared to
other competitors similar type of
product(s)

Mean time to
failure

Courtesy of
dealer
Ok-finished
cabinet
Public opinion,
Advertisement
Moderate cost

Service Example
Time to process
customer
requests
Automatic bill
paying
Time variability
to process
requests
Keeping pace
with industry
trends
Resolution of
errors
Courtesy of teller
Appearance of
bank lobby
Past Experience
Reasonable
processing time

What customer will expect from TV manufacturer?

Customer expects the manufacturer of the TV to do the best possible job of all these things so
when we decide to watch the set, it will function the way we expect.

What is Quality Control?

Quality control is the process through which we measure actual quality performance, compare it
With a standard, and act on the differences.
- Taken from quality Planning and Analysis by Juran

Product Control Vs Process Control

(1)

Product Control
Keep product characteristics
within specification

Process Control
Identify those process parameter, which are
affecting variation in product characteristics;
control them on target with minimum
variation .

(2)

Maintain outgoing product

Maintain continuous quality and

productivity improvement

(3) Detect nonconforming units in final stage

Prevent production of nonconforming units

Why should we now be concerned with quality?

Customer satisfaction
To improve productivity
To improve competitive position
To stay in business

Variation
The purpose of using capability analysis is to measure / predict the amount of variation. But, in
order to do that, we must understand variation. There is always variation in everything we do,
even though it may be slight. No two tools are sharpened the same. We would like to completely
get rid of variation but we know that cant be done. We have to predict how big it is, whether it is
bigger than, what we can tolerate and what to do about if it is too big.

Types of Variation
Natural Variation (Common Causes): Variation comes from inherent variation or from common
causes.
Assignable Variation (Special Causes): Special cause is something has gone wrong in the process
something that isnt normally there.
The important thing now are that variation always exists, variation comes from common causes
and special causes, common causes variation can be changed only by changing the
process, and special cause variation can be eliminated by fixing the process.
Process improvement can only take place when the special causes of variation are eliminated and
one by one the common causes or variation reduced.

Difference between Common & Assignable Cause

SL

Common Cause

Assignable Cause

Inherent Variability & remain constant

over time.
Example:
i) Output from a single established
machine

They occur infrequently in an unpredictable

manner.
Example:
i)
Between operator /machines /
different batches of raw material.
ii) Due to Tool wear / set up.
They can be found, measured & eliminated.

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4

Only a change in the system will reduce

that variability.
Only management has the ability
changes.

The machine operator is best able to

discover and make to make changes.

Sources of Variation
MAN (Training, Skill, Motivation, Communication, Attitude, Experience, Trust etc.)
MACHINE (Fixture, Gages, Tooling etc.)
MATERIAL (Raw material, Hardness, Coolant etc.)
METHOD (Process Docs., Speed, Feed etc.)
MEASUREMENT (Measuring instrument, Procedure, Gage R & R etc.)
ENVIRONMENT (Cleanliness, Noise, Humidity, Timeliness, Central coolant etc.)

Decision Makers
Gather the facts
Organize the facts
Interpret the facts
Make a decision

Data Gathering
* Types of data: Variable & Attribute
* Reasons for collecting Data: Primarily for decision making

100 % Inspection & Sampling

100% inspection is only may be 90% effective. It
- Does not ensure good parts.
- Can be very fatiguing.
- Can be expensive.
Is non-value-added work.
Sampling is easier, faster, and less expensive and can generate better results.

Types of Data: Variable & Attribute

Variable: Data that can be measured and can be put on a scale
Ex. Distance, Length, Dia etc. measuring by Scale, Micrometer, Dial indicator
Attribute: Non-measurable data that cannot be put on a scale
Ex. Color, Plug Gage (go / no-go)
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Reason for Collecting Data

* To understand an actual situation: You need correct data to better understand what is happening
to a process or method at a certain point in time. Correct data are required to determine if and
what action needs to be taken.
* For analysis: After data are collected, they are analyzed and information is extracted through
the use of statistical methods. Therefore, data should be collected in such a way as to simplify
later analysis. These data are used in experiments and problem solving.
* Data for process control Acceptance or Rejection of lot: Data are collected and placed in a
control chart depends on the relationship between what the process is doing and what is
supposed to do.

Purpose of Data gathering

Data gathering means to gather information on a specific topic or problem that you are working
on. Data is another word for information. Gathering and organizing data can make better
decisions. There are following benefits to data gathering
- Improved work flow
- Reduction in costs
- Prevention oriented
- Development of a quality consciousness
- Work with facts rather than opinions
- Improve decision making
We use this data to capability analysis. The purpose of doing capability analysis is to answer
these questions.
1. Can we make it right? (Machine / Process Capability)
2. Are we making it right? (Process Control)
3. Have we made it right? (Product Audit)
4. Can we make it better? (Process Improvement)

Organize the facts

Basic Problem Solving Tool
A type of chart to identify problems is a trend chart. It is a simple and basic tool that will show
period-to-period picture.
The trend chart can also be used to monitor what is happening on certain operations and be used
to predict what will happen in the future. This can be used to see if improvements are being made
and how much they are affecting the process.
Histogram serves many purposes. They are graphic displays of data to show a condition as it
currently exists. The histogram is readily and simply understood and therefore, it is often used as
a simple and common communication tool. A histogram is one type of Frequency distribution.
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Construction of Histogram
Step 1: Gather the data or information.
Step 2: Rank order and tally data
[ (i) R = max value min value
(ii) Choose approx. no. of class intervals between 5 and 15. Use formula k = 1 + 3.222 log 10 N, N= total
frequency
(iii) C = (R + W)/ k, W = smallest unit of measurement
(iv) Lower limit = X min 0.5W ]

Step 3: Prepare the vertical and horizontal axis of the histogram.

Step 4: Fill in numeric values on horizontal axis
Step 5: Fill in frequency values on vertical axis
Step 6: Draw each frequency bar corresponding to each value.
Introduction to Basic Statistics
To understand how to analyze and use data it must be put into a consumable form. When data is
presented graphically, it is more understandable or consumable. The purpose of basic statistics is
to take data and put it into a form that makes it easy to understand and easy to communicate.
Total for Member
2000
Mean (Average) = ------------------= ------ = 400
Number of Members
5
Median (Middle Value): Median value in a group when arranged from lowest to highest.
Mode (Most Occurring Value): Mode is the most of the most frequent occurring value in a group.
When the data is arranged into a histogram, the highest bar represents the mode.
Range : Difference between the lowest and greatest value.
\Standard Deviation: = (X - X)2 /n

(Population SD)

s = (X - X) /n-1 (Sample SD)

2

Normal Distribution is bell shaped.

Statistical Process Control
Statistical means having to do with numbers or more particularly with drawing conclusions
from numbers.
Process means a set of conditions or causes which work together to produce a given result.
Control means to keep something within boundaries or to make something behave the way we
want it to behave.
Why we use SPC?
* Prevention Vs. Detection
* To Document Statistical Evidence
* A Tool for Operator
* To Make Quality Visible
* Continuous Improvement Tool
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Operator Controllability
Three elements are required in order to provide operators an environment of self-control
* Knowing what they are supposed to do.
* Knowing what they are actually doing.
* Having the ability to regulate the process.
Quality Visibility
* Through Capability Indices (M/C & Process)
* Through Control Charts
* Through Data Display / Pictorial Diagram
* Using Different Type of Light / Color Code
How SPC Helps
* Using sample measures to predict variation by determining the amount of common cause
and helping to detect Special causes of variation in the process.
Capability Analysis
* Communicate capability requirements to your machine supplier.
* Qualify blanks, or raw parts.
* Assure gage capability.
* Assure proper machine / equipment set-up, tooling, and adjustments.
* Begin capability analysis at supplier end.
* If acceptable, repeat process in in-house.
Conditions for Capability Study
* New or rebuilt equipment
* On-going capability assessment for existing equipment
* Actions to be taken if equipment is not capable:
- Work to improve capability of the equipment and repeat capability evaluation.
- Change engineering specifications / tolerances to improve capability index to desired value.
- Accept equipment as it is, with agreement to employ a documented process control plan
which will insure that non-conforming product cannot be passed on the customer.
Types of Capability Studies
There are different types of studies that determine capability:
* Short Term Machine Capability Study
(Small sample of consecutive pieces)
* Long Term Machine Capability Study
(Variation over brief time period - 8 hours)
* Process Capability Study
(Meeting customer requirements over long time period)
Process Capability
Capability refers to the quantification of common cause of variation.
The presence of special or Assignable cause variation make the prediction of capability
impossible and the meaning of a capability index unclear .
- Victor E Kane, Process Capability Indices, JQT, Jan 1986

Cpk : what is it?

A prediction, of the level of quality (or a measure of the inherent uniformity) a machine (or
manufacturing process) can produce.
Statistical Control
A machine or process is in control when it has demonstrated stability and consistency over a
period of time, when all opportunities for special / assignable causes of variation have had a
chance to occur.
Control Development Steps
1. Choose a control subject.
2. Choose a unit of measure.
3. Set a standard of goal for the control subject.
4. Choose a sensing device.
5. Measure and record performance.
6. Interpret difference between actual and standard.
7. Take action on difference.
Control Chart helps to
- Reflects the performance of the process.
- Give a good indication of whether any problems are likely to be correctable locally or will
require action on the system.
- Monitor output and communicates to users.
- Separate special causes from common causes.
- Determine capability of production process.
- Determine process stability.
- Predict future output.
- Problem solving tool.
- Historical document.
- Minimize the net economic loss from overadjustment and underadjustment (Dr. Deming).
CONTROL CHART (VARIABLE & ATTRIBUTE)
Answers questions before choosing a control chart ???
* What characteristic is to be investigated?
* What testing devise of gauges will be required?
* What is the purpose of the control chart?
* Which chart will most effectively accomplish the purpose:
A: Variable Control Chart [Moving Range, Average Range ( X & R), Average SD.( X & S),
Moving Average, Median Range, Pre-Control]
B: Attribute Control Chart [Defective ( p, np), Defect (c,u)]
* What sample size should be drawn? (Risk, Sample to sample variation, cost,
within sample variation)
* How often sample should be drawn?
* How sample will be drawn? (Consecutive, Randomly)

How to decide which is important characteristic?

* Customer Critical
* Product Critical
* Process Critical
* Under Study for Quality Improvement
Control Chart Selection
CONTROL CHART SELECTION
Type of Data
Variable

Attribute

n Size

n<7
n>1

X&R

Defects

Defective
n size
Equal

n>7

n=1

X&s

X & Rm

np chart
p chart

n size
equal
1 defect
per chart

3/1/99

Several
defects
per chart

1 defect
per chart

n size
Unequal

p chart
n size
unequal
Several
defects
per chart

DSB

Average & Range chart (X & R)

Step 1: Select subgroup period & sample size
Step 2: Record the data on the control chart format.
Step 3: Calculate Mean (X bar) and Range (R) for each sample.
Step 4: Test distribution for Normality
Step 5:Calculate the central lines
R = R1 + R2 +.. + Rk
k
X = X1 + X2+....+ Xk
k
Step 6: Calculate the control limits
UCL R = D4 R
LCLR= D3R
UCL X = X+ A2R
LCL X = X - A2R
Step 7: Select vertical & horizontal axis
Step 8: Draw control limits
Step 9: Plot ranges and averages
Step 10: Analyze the range chart
Step 11: Analyze the X chart
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Step 12: Locate & Correct special causes

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Step 13 : Estimate Standard deviation.

^ = R /d2
Step 14: Cp = USL - LSL
6 ^
Cpk = min{ USL-X , X-LSL }
3 ^
3 ^
Step 15 : Comment on Process Behavior. Review for
- Points beyond the control limits
- Distance of points from the process average
- Runs
- Trends
- Cycles
Attribute Control Chart
Step 1: Select subgroup period & sample size.
Step 2: Record each subgroup number of nonconforming units (defective) or nonconformities on
the chart.
Step 3: Depending upon the type of chart, record each subgroups.
a) Proportion of nonconforming units (p); or
b) Number of nonconforming units (np); or
c) Number of nonconformances (c); or
d) Number of nonconformitites per unit (u)
Step 4:Calculate the appropriate process average ( p, or np or c or u)
Step 5: Draw control limits
P

Process Average
p

2
{p(1-p)/n}

UCL
p + 3{p(1-p)/n}

np

np

{np(1-p)}

np + 3{np(1-p)} np 3{np(1-p)}

u/n

u+ 3{u/n}

u 3{u/n}

c 3c

c 3c

LCL
p 3{p(1-p)/n}

Step 6: Select vertical & horizontal scale.

Step 7: Draw control limits and process average.
Step 8: Plot the subgroup values on the control chart.
Step 9: Interpret the chart for process control
* Points beyond the control limits
* Distance of points from the process average
* Runs
* Trends
* Cycles
Step 10: Locate and Correct special causes
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13

Control Chart will not

Make processes capable or Solve process problems but they can give clues to possible causes.
Process Capability & Control
If control has been established. Then Capability can be assessed.
Data
Tool
Parameter
Evaluation

Process Control
Average and Ranges ( X bar & R)
Control Chart
Control Limits
Stability of the process over time

Capability
Individual X
Histogram and Normal Curve
Specification Limits
Ability of the process to produce parts
within specification

Process Capability Classification:

Process
Classification
Incapable
Marginally
Capable
Capable

Evaluation Criteria
Cpk
< 1.0
1.0 to 1.33

Defect Rate
> 0.3 %
0.3 % to 0.003%

> 1.33

< 0.003 %

Product- Process Compatibility Classification:

Product
Critically
Classification

Critical
Major
Minor

Incapable

Process Capability Classification

Marginal

V
IV
III

IV
III
II

Capable

II
II
I

V Not acceptable for production

IV - 100 % inspection
III SPC
II - Frequency Check
I - Audit only

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Process Capability & Process Control

NOT CAPABLE

OUT of
Of
CONTROL

IN Of
OUT
CONTROL

CAPABLE

Inconsistent shape of distribution

Inconsistent process center
Inconsistent process spread
Exceeds specification limits
Not predictable
Use SPC
Perform experimental design
Investigate specifications
Change process
Consistent shape of distribution
Consistent process center
Consistent process spread
Exceeds specification limits
Predictable
Use SPC
Perform experimental design
Investigate specifications
Change process

Inconsistent shape of distribution

Inconsistent process center
Inconsistent process spread
Consistently within spec. limit
Not predictable
Use SPC

Consistent shape of distribution

Consistent process center
Consistent process spread
Consistently within spec. limits
Predictable
Use SPC

Process Capability & Process Control

OUT OF
CONTROL
IN
CONTROL

No.
1
2
3
4

NOT CAPABLE CAPABLE

4

ACTION
Continue to monitor process
Must reduce special causes
Must improve process by reducing common causes
Must take action to protect customer

Impact on Customers
Low Risk
Marginal
Risky
High Risk

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SET UP VERIFICATION:
This has to be done before starting the mass production in the press shop machine mainly.
Run the machine after die, tool and fixture proper adjustment, machine maintenance and setting
of machine parameter at their working recommended levels.
See the trail sample and try to set the above things until the desired output comes at middle level.
Calculate the control limits for special characteristics parameters, if process is stable and under
statistical control.
For next time onwards, after doing die, tooling, fixture adjustment, machine maintenance and
after setting of machine process parameter; collect minimum two trail pieces ; see whether points
fall within central one-third control limits. If it is so, set up can be approved for mass production.
If the results fall in outer two-third zone of control limit, then a second set of parts should be
manufactured, measured. If point falls in the same outer two-third control zone, then setup
should be adjusted and this sequence to be repeated; unless consecutive minimum two parts fall
within one-third control zone.
SIX Sigma

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Relationship between Cpk and percent Nonconforming

Cpk
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
1.00
1.10
1.20
1.30
1.33

Sigma

3 sigma

4 sigma

Expected Percent
Nonconforming
76.4177
54.8506
36.8120
23.0139
13.3614
7.1861
3.5729
1.6395
0.6934
0.2700
9.6685 X 10 -2
3.1822 X 10 -2
9.6193 X 10 3
6.3342 X 10 3

Expected yield
%
23.5823
45.1494
63.1880
76.9861
86.6386
92.8139
96.4271
98.3605
99.3066
99.7300
99.9033
99.9682
99.9904
99.9937

Expected no. of
parts out of spec
764.2 PPT
548.5 PPT
368.1 PPT
230.1 PPT
133.6 PPT
71.9 PPT
35.7 PPT
16.4 PPT
6.9 PPT
2.7 PPT
966.8 PPM
318.2 PPM
96.2 PPM
63.3 PPM
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1.40
1.50
1.60
1.67
1.70
1.80
1.90
2.00

5 sigma

6 sigma

2.6691 X 10 3
6.7953 X 10 4
1.5867 X 10 4
5.7330 X 10 5
3.3965 X 10 5
6.6641 X 10 6
1.1981 X 10 6
1.9732 X 10 7

99.9973
99.9993
99.9998
> 99.9999
> 99.9999
> 99.9999
> 99.9999
> 99.9999

26.7 PPM
6.8 PPM
1.6 PPM
573.3 PPB
339.7 PPB
66.6 PPB
12.0 PPB
2.0 PPB

Assumptions underlying the construction of this table:

The process is in control
The characteristic being assessed is on target at the midpoint of the specification limits.
The characteristic being assessed is normally distributed

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