MAAE3300 Module 1 Part 1of2

OUTLINE
MAAE 3300
Fluid Mechanics II
Module 1.
REVIEW: Elementary Fluid Dynamics and
Finite Volume Analysis
Bernoulli, Momentum and Energy Equations
(Part 1 of 2)
Carleton University
Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering
Do not reproduce without permission, Prof. Cynthia A. Cruickshank
The Bernoulli Equation (Part 1)

1.1 Newtons Second Law
1.2 Static, Stagnation, Dynamic and Total Pressure
1.3 Examples of Use of the Bernoulli Equation
1.4 Restrictions on the Use of the Bernoulli Equation
Finite Control Volume Analysis (Part 2)
1.5 Conservation of Mass The Continuity Equation
1.6 Newtons Second Law The Linear Momentum and
Moment-of-Momentum Equations
1.7 First Law of Thermodynamics The Energy Equation
- Fundamentals of Fluid Dynamics, Munson, Okiishi, Huebsch, Rothmayer:
Chapters 3 and 5
- Fluid Mechanics, Frank White: Chapter 3
Prof. C. A. Cruickshank, Carleton University
The Bernoulli Equation
Learning Objectives
Newtons Second Law of Motion
After completing Module 1 (Part 1 of 2), you should be able to:
Newtons second law of motion: the net force acting on a fluid

particle must equal its mass times its acceleration.
- discuss the application of Newtons second law to fluid flows;

- explain the development, uses, and limitations of the Bernoulli
equation;
- use the Bernoulli equation (stand-alone or in combination with
the continuity equation) to solve simple flow problems; and
- apply the concepts of static, stagnation, dynamic and total
pressures.
=
In this module, we consider the motion of inviscid fluids.
fluid with zero viscosity
We assume that the fluid motion is governed by gravity and
pressure forces only, and examine Newtons second law:
(net gravity force on particle) + (net pressure force on particle) =
= (particle mass) x (particle acceleration)
When considering two-dimensional motion, the motion of each

fluid particle is described in terms of its velocity vector, V, which is
defined as the time rate of change of the position of the particle.
If the flow is steady (i.e., no changes with time at a given location

in the flow field), each particle slides along its path and its velocity
vector is tangent to the path (lines tangent to the velocity vector
are called streamlines).
The particle motion is
described in terms of
distance, = t
along the streamline
from a convenient
origin and the local
fluid particle
radius of curvature of
the streamline,
= ( ).
The velocity vector

has a magnitude
(the speed, V = |V|)
and a direction.
The particle follows a particular path which is governed by the

velocity of the particle.
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The coordinate normal to the streamline, n, can also be used.

= Along a Streamline
By definition, acceleration is the time rate of change of the

velocity of the particle, = /.
For steady flow, the component of Newtons second law along the
streamline direction, s, is:
The acceleration has two components:
Eq. 1.2
1. streamwise acceleration (along the streamline)

= / = / / = /
2. normal acceleration (normal to the streamline)
= 2/
Thus, the components of acceleration in the s and n directions
for steady flow are:
Eq. 1.1
where is the sum of all the forces

acting on the particle in the streamline, the
mass is = , the acceleration in the
s direction / and the partial
volume =
( is normal
to and )
The free body diagram (FBD)

of a small fluid particle
(size by ) is shown.
The gravity force (weight) of the particle can be written as:

=
where = and is the specific weight of the fluid (N/m3 or lb/ft3).
Therefore the component of the weight force
in the direction of the streamline is:
The important forces

are those of gravity
and pressure.
or = sin
sin =
FBD of small
fluid particle
= sin
* If =0 (streamline is horiz.), the weight
of the particle along the streamline would
not contribute to its acceleration in that direction.
If the pressure at the center of the particle is given as , then the

average value on the two end faces are + and .
Thus, the net force acting in the streamline direction on the particle
is given by:
If we consider the particle to be infinitesimally small (we assume

that the pressure is linear across particle), we obtain:
Thus the net pressure force

on the particle is:
=
( + )
= 2
(net gravity force on particle) + (net pressure force on particle)

Eq. 1.3 (defined on
two previous slides)
(particle mass) x (particle acceleration)

FBD of small
fluid particle
Eq. 1.2 (defined earlier)
By combining both equations, we obtain Eq. 1.4:

Interpretation: a change in fluid particle
speed is accomplished by the appropriate
combination of particle weight & pressure
= Normal to a Streamline
Equation 1.4 can be rearranged and integrated as follows:
Newtons second law is applied to flows for which the only important
forces are those due to pressure and gravity viscous effects are
negligible. The result is the Bernoulli equation (a relationship among
pressure, elevation and velocity variations along the streamline).
aside:
( ) = 2
sin = /
By restricting to a streamline, and
may be regarded as only a function of .
Eq. 1.5
This is the Bernoulli Equation!
1 2
+
+
=0
2
1
+ + = 0
2
Assumptions
1. steady flow
2. incompressible
3. inviscid flow
A similar but less often used equation also exists to described

the variations in these parameters normal to a streamline.
Eq. 1.6
: local radius
of curvature
When a fluid particle travels along a curved path, there

is a net force directed toward the center of curvature.
In many instances, the streamlines are nearly straight
( = 0), so centrifugal effects are negligible.
EXAMPLE (Pressure Variation Along a Streamline)
SOLUTION
Consider the flow of air around a bicyclist moving through still air
with velocity V0. Determine the difference in the pressure between
points (1) and (2). Assume the coordinate system is fixed to the bike.
Recall that the main assumptions in

deriving the Bernoulli equation is
that the fluid is steady,
incompressible and inviscid.
Equation 1.5 (Bernoulli equation) can
be applied along the streamline that
passes through points (1) and (2).
1 + 1 + 1 = 2 + 2 + 2
In a coordinate system fixed to

the bike, it appears as though
the air is flowing steadily toward
the bicyclist with speed V0.
We consider point (1) to be in the free stream so that V1 = V0, and

assume 1 = 2 and 2 = 0 (stagnation point).
1 + 1 + 1 = 2 + 2 + 2
2 1 = 1 = 0
Video: Flow Past a Biker
Video: Flow Past a Biker
Full scale wind tunnel experiments are often carried out to obtain
information about the aerodynamic forces on athletes, such as down
hill skiers and bicycle racers. In some instances useful information can
be obtained by using flow visualization techniques such as a smoke
wand to show the streamline location.
The Bernoulli equation contains six unknowns - two pressures, two velocities, and two elevations. To obtain the value of one parameter, the values
of the other five must be known. For the streamlines shown in the video,
the elevation at arbitrary points can be measured, but the pressure and
velocity are not known. When the smoke wand is placed directly in front of
the cover the smoke runs head-on into the cover, producing a stagnation
point on the cover at the point of impact. In this case, an additional
parameter is known (velocity is zero) and the stagnation pressure can be
calculated if the velocity and pressure in the free-stream are known.
Wind tunnel experiment is carried out to

analyze the aerodynamics of cycling.
(Source: A2 Wind Tunnel)
Video courtesy of A2 Wind Tunnel, www.A2Wt.com
A2 Wind Tunnel
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)
Physical Interpretation of the Bernoulli Equation
CFD is a branch of fluid mechanics that uses numerical methods and

algorithms to solve and analyze problems that involve fluid flows.
An alternative but equivalent form of the Bernoulli equation is obtained

by dividing each term by the specific weight, (recall, = ):
Eq. 1.7
The pressure term, /, is called the pressure head and represents the
height of a column of fluid that is needed to produce the pressure, .
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The velocity term, 2/, is the velocity head and presents the vertical
distance needed for the fluid to reach velocity from rest.
The elevation term, , is related to the potential energy of the
particle and is called the elevation head.
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The Bernoulli equation states that the sum of the pressure head,
velocity head and elevation head is constant along the streamline.
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Static, Stagnation, Dynamic and Total Pressure
Static, Stagnation, Dynamic and Total Pressure

: actual thermodynamic pressure of fluid
Each term of the Bernoulli equation has the dimensions of force

per unit area psi, lb/ft2, N/m2.
Bernoulli eq.
(called the static pressure, points 1)
: hydrostatic pressure (not actually a pressure but represents the

change in pressure due to potential energy variations)
N
m2
kg m2
m3 s2
N
m2
kg
m s2
2:
dynamic pressure (the kinetic energy per

unit volume of a fluid particle)
kg m
m
m3 s2
kg
m s2
Point 2 is referred to as the stagnation point

(2 = 0, fluid is stationary). The pressure at this
point is called the stagnation pressure, 2. The
stagnation pressure is equal to the sum
of the free-stream static pressure and
the free-stream dynamic pressure:
N
m2
2 = 1 + 12
Bernoulli eq. is applied,

2 = 0 and z1 = 2
Total Pressure and Pitot-Static Tube
Total Pressure and Pitot-Static Tube
The sum of the static pressure, dynamic pressure and hydrostatic

pressure is termed the total pressure.
Knowledge of the values of the static and stagnation pressures

in a fluid implies that the fluid speed can be calculated. This is
the principle on which the Pitot-static tube is based.
Two concentric tubes are attached to two pressure gauges.
The center tube measures the stagnation pressure at its open
tip (2). The outer tube is made with several small holes to
measure static pressure (4 = 1 = ). If elevation changes
are negligible, then Eq. 1.8
Fluid upstream
3 =
+ 2
gauge
gauge
gauge
2(3 4)/
gauge
Eq. 1.8
3 =
+ 2
Fluid upstream
2(3 4)/
Fluids in the News (Bugged and Plugged Pitot Tubes)
EXAMPLE (Pitot-Static Tube)
Although a pitot tube is a simple device for measuring aircraft speed,

many airplane accidents have been caused by inaccurate pitot tube
readings. Most of these accidents are the results of having one or more
holes blocked and therefore not indicating the correct pressure (speed).
An airplane flies 200 mph at an elevation of 10,000 ft in a standard

atmosphere. Determine:
The most common causes for such a blockage include the pitot tube
cover not being removed, ice build-up, or insects have built their nest
within the tube and a standard visual check cannot detect it.
(b) the pressure at the stagnation point on the nose of the airplane
(point 2); and
One of the most serious accidents caused by a blocked pitot tube

involved a Boeing 757 and occurred shortly after takeoff. Incorrect
airspeed were automatically fed to the computer, causing the autopilot to
change the angle of attack and the engine power. The aircraft stalled and
then plunged killing all aboard.
(a) the pressure at point 1 far ahead of the airplane;
(c) the pressure difference indicated by a Pitot-Static probe attached

to the fuselage.
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Investigators concluded that wasps might have nested in the pitot tubes
as the plane had sat grounded for several days.
Pitot-static tube
SOLUTION
SOLUTION
Part (a): From Table C.1, we find that the static pressure and
density at the 10,000 ft.
Part (b): Assuming steady, inviscid and incompressible flow, and

negligible elevation changes and 2 = 0 (stagnation point at nose,
and coordinates fixed to airplane), the Bernoulli equation becomes:
1 = 10.11 psi, = 0.001756 slug/ft3

Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics: Munson, Okiishi, Huebsch, Rothmayer
1 + 1 + 1 = 2 + 2 + 2
2 = 1 + 1
We know: 1 = 200 mph = 293 ft/s

(note: 1 mph = 1.46 ft/s)
1 = 10.11 psi = 1456 lb/ft2 (note: 1 psi = 144 lb/ft2)
2 = 1 + 1 = (1456 lb/ft2 + (0.001756 slugs/ft3)(293 ft/s)2/2
2 = 1531.4 lb/ft2 = 10.63 psi
75.4 lb/ft2
Part (c): Pressure difference indicated by Pitot-static tube:

2 1 = 1 = 75.4 lb/ft2 = 0.524 psi
EXAMPLE (Q3.27 Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics 7e, Munson et al.)
SOLUTION
A 40-mph wind blowing past a house speeds up as it flows up and

over the roof. Assume the elevation effects are negligible.
(a) Determine the pressure at the point on the roof, in lb/ft2, where
the speed is 60 mph if the pressure in the free stream blowing
towards your house is 14.7 psi. Would this effect tend to push the
roof down against the house or lift the roof?
(b) Determine the pressure, in lb/ft2, on a window facing the wind if
the window is assumed to be the stagnation point.
Fluids in the News (Giraffes Blood Pressure)
A giraffes long neck allows it to graze up to 6 m above the ground. It can

also lower its head to drink at ground level. This elevation change causes a
significant hydrostatic pressure effect ( ) = in the circulatory system.
To maintain blood in its head, the giraffe must maintain a high blood
pressure at heart level (2.5 times that of humans).
(a) Determine the change in hydrostatic pressure in a giraffes head

as it lowers its head from eating leaves 6 m above the ground to
getting a drink of water at ground level as shown. Assume the
specific gravity of blood is SG = 1.
To prevent rupture of the blood vessels in the high pressure lower leg
regions, giraffes have a tight sheath of thick skin over their lower limbs that
act as an elastic bandage (exactly the same as g-suits for fighter pilots). In
addition, valves in the upper neck prevent backflow into the head when
the giraffe lowers its head to ground level.
(b) Compare the pressure change calculated in part (a) to the normal
120 mm of mercury pressure in a humans heart. = 133 kN/m3
In this case, the pressure variation in the blood
is equal to:
( = blood) = blood
where
blood =
blood
H2O
Since blood is equal to 1, blood = H2O

and = blood = H2O = H2O
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hydrostatic pressure: change in pressure
SOLUTION
due to potential energy variations
Free Jets
Consider flow of a liquid from a large reservoir as shown. A jet of
liquid diameter flows from the nozzle with velocity .
= H2O
In this case, we use the facts that 1 = , 2 = 0, the reservoir is large

(1 = 0), open to the atmosphere (1 = 0 gauge), and the fluid leaves
as a free jet (2 = 0).
If the flow is assumed steady, inviscid, and
incompressible between points (1) and (2),
the Bernoulli equation can be applied:
0
Eq. 1.9
Video: Flow from a Tank
Confined Flows
According to Bernoulli, the velocity of a

fluid flowing through a hole in the side
of an open tank or reservoir is
proportional to the square root of the
depth of fluid above the hole.
In some cases, the fluid may be physically constrained within a device.

For these situations, it is necessary to use the concept of conservation
of mass (the continuity equation) along with the Bernoulli equation.
Eq. 1.9 (defined on

previous slide)
Consider a fluid flowing through a fixed volume that has one inlet and
one outlet. If the flow is steady, the rate at which the fluid flows into
the volume must equal the rate at which is flows out of the volume.
Video courtesy of U.S. Bureau of Reclamation
The velocity of a jet of water from an

open pop bottle containing four holes is
related to the depth of water above the
hole. The greater the depth, the higher
the velocity.
Confined Flows
Water flows steadily through the tanks shown below. Find the water
depth, , in metres. Assume the reservoirs are large (1 = 3 = 0) and
open to atmosphere (1 = 3 = 0 gauge) and that the fluid leaves as a
free jet (2 = 4 = 0).
Thus, the conservation of mass requires:
=
=
If the density remains constant, then =

and the above becomes the continuity equation
for incompressible flow:
Point (1)
Point (2)
Eq. 1.10
Point (3)
where is the volumetric flow rate (
or
)
Point (4)
SOLUTION
SOLUTION
Using Bernoulli
Equation, Eq. 1.7
Using Continuity
Equation, Eq. 1.10
(1)
(1)
(2)
(2)
(3)
(3)
(4)
(4)
Restrictions on the Use of the Bernoulli Equation
Restrictions on the Use of the Bernoulli Equation
1. One of the main assumptions in deriving the Bernoulli equation

is that the fluid is incompressible. Although this is reasonable for
most liquid flows, it can, in some cases, introduce considerable
errors for gases.
3. Another restriction on the Bernoulli equation is that the flow is

inviscid. In the absence of viscous effects, the total energy of the
system remains constant. If viscous effects are important, the
system is nonconservative and there are energy losses.
2. A second restriction is the assumption that the flow is steady. For

steady flows, on a given streamline, the velocity is only a
function of its location along the streamline, ( = ) .
For unsteady flows, the velocity is also a function of time,
= , . Thus, when taking the time derivative of the
velocity to obtain the streamwise acceleration, we obtain:
4. The final basic restriction is that there are no mechanical devices

(pumps or turbines) in the system between the two points.
These devices represent sources or sinks of energy. The Bernoulli
equation must be altered to include these devices.
The term / does not allow the equation of motion to be

integrated easily without further assumptions.
Module 1 (Part 2 of 2) is next.


MAAE3300 Module 1 Part 1of2

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OUTLINE

The Bernoulli Equation (Part 1)

The Bernoulli Equation

1.1 Newtons Second Law

Newtons Second Law of Motion

After completing Module 1 (Part 1 of 2), you should be able to:

Newtons second law of motion: the net force acting on a fluid

- discuss the application of Newtons second law to fluid flows;

Prof. C. A. Cruickshank, Carleton University

Prof. C. A. Cruickshank, Carleton University

1.1 Newtons Second Law

1.1 Newtons Second Law

Newtons Second Law of Motion

Newtons Second Law of Motion

When considering two-dimensional motion, the motion of each

If the flow is steady (i.e., no changes with time at a given location

The velocity vector

The particle follows a particular path which is governed by the

Prof. C. A. Cruickshank, Carleton University

The coordinate normal to the streamline, n, can also be used.

Prof. C. A. Cruickshank, Carleton University

1.1 Newtons Second Law

1.1 Newtons Second Law

Newtons Second Law of Motion

By definition, acceleration is the time rate of change of the

The acceleration has two components:

1. streamwise acceleration (along the streamline)

where is the sum of all the forces

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

1.1 Newtons Second Law

1.1 Newtons Second Law

The free body diagram (FBD)

The gravity force (weight) of the particle can be written as:

The important forces

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Prof. C. A. Cruickshank, Carleton University

1.1 Newtons Second Law

1.1 Newtons Second Law

If the pressure at the center of the particle is given as , then the

If we consider the particle to be infinitesimally small (we assume

Thus the net pressure force

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

(net gravity force on particle) + (net pressure force on particle)

(particle mass) x (particle acceleration)

Prof. C. A. Cruickshank, Carleton University

Eq. 1.2 (defined earlier)

By combining both equations, we obtain Eq. 1.4:

1.1 Newtons Second Law

1.1 Newtons Second Law

Equation 1.4 can be rearranged and integrated as follows:

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

A similar but less often used equation also exists to described

When a fluid particle travels along a curved path, there

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

1.1 Newtons Second Law

1.1 Newtons Second Law

EXAMPLE (Pressure Variation Along a Streamline)

Recall that the main assumptions in

In a coordinate system fixed to

We consider point (1) to be in the free stream so that V1 = V0, and

Prof. C. A. Cruickshank, Carleton University

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Prof. C. A. Cruickshank, Carleton University