Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1

Short History of Catalan Numbers

Catalan numbers were first discovered by Leonhard Euler in the 18th century while
he was trying to see how many ways of a polygon with
into

sides can be divided

tiangles without any of the lines intersecting. They were later named after

Eugene Charles Catalan (1814-1894) a prominent Belgian Mathematician who had

numerous publications on multiple integrals, general theory of surfaces,
mathematical analysis, probability, geometry, and superior arithmetic in 1838 after
he defined the sequence and found a more elegant formula. He also worked on the
polygon problem but later found that the Catalan numbers appeared when looking at
the problem of counting the number of ways a group of
parentheses.

letters could be fitted into

1.2

Introduction

Catalan numbers usually denoted as

. The th terms of Catalan numbers can be

defined through binomial coefficient by :

( )

The Catalan numbers,

(1)

for

are as follows :

Their recursive generation is

So, the next value of Catalan numbers can be find by using the formula below :

1.3

The Applications

1.3.1

Mathematical Application

Polygon Triangulation : The Catalan numbers can be described through the

number of ways polygon of +2 sides being cut into

triangles. The number of ways

to cut an +2 sided convex polygon in a plane into triangles by connecting vertices

with straight, non-intersecting lines is the

th Catalan numbers. This is the

application in which Euler was interested.

Table 1.3.1.1 : The number of ways to cut

sided polygon in a plane into

triangles.

Balanced parentheses : To demonstrate the number of possible ways of

ordering when given

pairs of parentheses to form a valid grouping of them, means

that each open parentheses must have a closed matching of closing parentheses. For
example, (( )( )) is valid, but )( )) (( and ( ))( ) are not valid.
3

Table 1.3.1.2 : The number of possible ways of ordering when given

pairs of

parentheses to form a valid grouping of them.

Do nothing

1 way

()

1 way

(( )) , ( )( )

2 ways

( )( )( ) , ( ) (( )) , (( )) ( ) , ( ( ) ( ) ) , ((( )))

5 ways

Mountain Ranges : The number of ways to form mountain ranges on a line

with

upstrokes and

downstrokes, such that each upstroke has a matching

downstroke and the path does not go below the starting point, is the th Catalan
numbers.
Table 1.3.1.3 : The number of ways to form mountain ranges on a line with
upstrokes and

downstrokes.
Do nothing

1 way

/\

1 way

// \\ , / \/ \

2 ways

/ \ / \ / \, / \ // \\ , // \\ / \ , / / \ / \ \ , /// \\\

5 ways

Permutation : A permutation of {

} is the rearrangement of

numbers. For example, the permutation of 1,2,3 includes 6 arrangement : (1,2,3),

(1,3,2), (2,1,3), (2,3,1), (3,1,2), (3,2,1). A 123-avoiding permutation is a permutation
that avoid an increasing subsequence of 3 terms ( the 3 terms do not have to be
consecutive ). Thus, the number of permutation of {
th Catalan numbers.

} that avoid 123 is the

Table 1.3.1.4 : The number of permutation of {

} that avoid 123 is the th

Catalan numbers.
Do nothing

1 way

(1)

1 way

(1,2) , (2,1)

2 ways

(1,3,2), (2,1,3), (2,3,1), (3,1,2), (3,2,1)

5 ways

Tiling with rectangles : The number of way (Catalan Numbers) the region
can be tiled with

rectangles is obtained, given a triangular-shaped or stair step-

shaped region composed of

blocks of rectangles.

Balanced Trees : The number of full binary trees with

internal nodes is the

th Catalan numbers. An internal nodesis a node that connects to the other nodes
above it. A full binary tree is a rooted tree where each internal node has exactly two
segments going up.
Table 1.3.1.5 : The number of full binary trees with

internal nodes is the th

Catalan numbers.
Do nothing

1 way
1 way

2 ways

5 ways

1.3.2

Biological Application
RNA molecular are particularly fascinating since they represent both :

genotypic legislative via their primary sequence and phenotypic executive via their
function-ality associated to 2D or 3D-structures, respectively. Accordingly, it is
believed that RNA may have been instrumental for early evolution-before protein
emerged. The primary sequence of an RNA molecule is the sequence of nucleotides
A, G, U and together with the Watson-Crick (A U , G C) and (U G) base
pairing rules specifying the pairs of nucleotides can potentially form bonds. Single
stranded RNA molecules form helical structures whose bonds satisfy the above base
pairing rules and which, in many cases, determine their function ( Isamiddin, S.R and
Kamel, A.M.A )
Primary Structure : An RNA molecule is a sequence of nucleotides of four
possible types , denoted by letters A,C,G,U, connected by a backbone and is called
RNA Primary structure.
Base Pairing : Two nucleotides that are connected via hydrogen bonds are
called a base pair. In a Watson-Crick bace pairing, A is always forms a base pair
with U, as does G with C. In the wobble base pairing, G forms a base pair with U.
Notation : An RNA sequence of length
points (

), in which each point ,

. The notation

is assumed as a sequence of
, is connected to

and

stands for the nucleotide is paired with the nucleotide and

.
RNA Structure : An RNA structure is a set S of base pairs
, such that for any

with

Secondary Structure : The set S is called secondary structure if for all

they are nested, i.e.,

, or disjoint, i.e.,

Figure 1.3.2.1 : RNA secondary structures.

Figure represent (top) : the primary sequence, GAGAGCCU UUGGACCUCA, is

drawn horizontally and its backbone bonds are ignored. All bonds are drawn in the
upper half plane and secondary structures have the property that no two arc intersect
and all arcs have minimum length 2. The bottom figure is the outer planar graph
representation. ( Isamiddin, S.R and Kamel, A.M.A, 2012)

There is a well-known theorem by Waterman for Enumerating RNA secondary

structure as follow :

Let

be the number of secondary structures for

for

points. Then

, and

satisfies

The numbers

are known as Catalan numbers :

(4)

1.4

Introducing New Properties

Property 1

( (

( (

( (

Property 2

Property 3

)(

Property 4

( (

)(

)(

Property 5

( (

)(

)(

)(

10

Property 6

( (

)(

)(

)(

)(

11

Property 7

)(

)(

)(

)(

)(

12

1.5

Objective of the Study

The main objective of the research are :

1.

Set up some identities for Catalan numbers. (Properties of Catalan

numbers)

2.

Use differential equation for the generating function of Catalan

numbers to prove its properties.

3.

To prepare a Maple programming coding so that we can find the value

of Catalan number by using the new properties by just substituting
different parameter .

4.

To collaborate programming results with theoretical results.

13

1.6

Overview

My final year project is organized as follows :

In Chapter 1, the short history of how the Catalan numbers is applied in
mathematical problems, brief introduction based on the Catalan numbers. Definition
of Catalan numbers also be discussed here, and also some list of the application of
Catalan numbers in mathematical problem and the biological problems. Last but not
least, the objective of the research on the Catalan numbers is mention here.
In Chapter 2, the literature review of the Catalan numbers is presented. There
are some articles that I have referred as I am doing this project. Those articles was
the previous study on Catalan Number properties and application of Catalan numbers.
In Chapter 3, the methodology that I have used to do this final year project is
discussed here. There are some introduction, procedure and algorithm that have been
used. I try to improve the Maple programming coding so that we can find the value
of Catalan number with new properties without taking so long time. Besides, I also
attached the algorithm while calculating by using Maple software.
In Chapter 4, here is the result and discussion part. The new properties that
we want to find as we mentioned in our main objective for doing this research. I also
attached the comparison of the Catalan Numbers value that we get from the existing
property and new properties to check the validity of the previous property.
Finally, Chapter 5 will summarize all the results and summary. Besides, we
also give some recommendation for the future studies.

14

Chapter 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1

Introduction

This chapter will show the brief derivation of the existing property of the Catalan
numbers. Besides, we will also give some proven to show that Catalan numbers
problem have been studied by some researcher since few years ago and until now. In
addition, research on Catalan numbers also has been study by lecturer in University
Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang itself. All of the research will be discussed in the last
section of this chapter.

15

2.2

Derivation of existing property

We know that the alternative expression for Catalan Numbers

(

is

(5)

This expression is equivalent to the previous formula. The proving steps are provided
as belows :
(

)(

)(

(6)

16

2.3

Research in Catalan Numbers

Chu W. (1987) had proposed that Catalan number enumerates the collection
of ways in which 2 points on the circumference of a circle can be jointed in pairs by
chords which do not intersect within the circle.
According to Barcucci E. and Verri M.C. (1992) proposed that Catalan
numbers have some more properties by illustrate some correspondences between
Catalan numbers and combinatoric objects. By means of the under-diagonal walk,
they give formula that defined Catalan numbers.
Rubenstein D. (1994) said that there was a method of proving that the number
of well-formed ordering of

open and

closed parentheses is

( ) . This

formula was the expression of Catalan Numbers.

Konvalinka M. In the year 2007, proprosed that a result on the divisibility by
of such numbers when is prime and is its power.
In 2009, Chen X and Chu W. proposed that By combining inverse series
relations with binomial convolutions and telescoping method, moments of Catalan
numbers are evaluated.
In 2011, Teh Ming Jie have studied about the properties of tha Catalan
numbers. She try to prove the valididty of the Catalan numbers of the first, second
and third new property.
Xiaotong J. (July 12, July) have study on the application of Catalan numbers
in real life. His purpose is to explore how Catalan numbers are applied in various
17

cases in real life, to derive the relationship for these applications with explicit
formulas, and to produce an accesible write-up that can be understood by
undergraduates and non-mathematicians alike. He also looked at the basic
description and recurrence relation of this sequences.
Nurhazlin M.P (2012), also have studied about the new properties of the
Catalan numbers. She continued the study of the next property of Catalan numbers
which is the fourth, fifth and sixth property of the Catalan numbers. However, she
managed to changed the parameter up from

18

to

Chapter 3
METHODOLOGY

3.1

Introduction

In this chapter, the algorithm to find the Catalan Numbers value is presented.
MAPLE program will be introduced as the method of this research.

3.2

The Algorithm

3.2.1

Algorithm of First Property

( (

Step 1 : We set the Catalan Numbers formula

Step 2 : Let

Step 3 : Set

19

Step 4 :

When we let

( (

, we will have the value of

Catalan number

. Hence, to get the next value of

we only need to change the parameter

repeat Step 1 to Step 4.

3.2.2

Algorithm of Second Property

( (

Step 1 : We set the Catalan Number formula

Step 2 : Let

20

and

Step 3 : Set

Step 4 :

( (

When we let

, we will have the value of

Catalan number

. Hence, to get the next value of

we only need to change the value of parameter

and repeat Step 1 to Step 4.

3.2.3

Algorithm of Third Property

( (

)(

21

Step 1 : We set the Catalan Number formula

Step 2 : Let

Step 3 : Set

Step 4 : We denote part of the formula by U,V,W ;

( (

((

)(

((

Step 5 :

22

When we let

, we will have the value of

Catalan number

. Hence, to get the next value of

we only need to change the value of

and

repeat Step 1 to Step 5.

3.2.4

Algorithm of Fourth Property

( (

)(

)(

Step 1 : We set the Catalan Number formula

Step 2 : Let

23

Step 3 : Set

Step 4 : We denote part of the formula by U, W, X, Y ;

( (

((

)(

((

)(

((

Step 5 :

When the let

Catalan number

, we will have the value of

. Hence, to get the next value of

we only need to change the value of parameter

and repeat Step 1 to Step 5.

24

3.2.5

Algorithm of Fifth Property

( (

)(

)(

)(

Step 1 : We set the Catalan Number formula

Step 2 : Let

Step 3 : Set

25

Step 4 : We denote part of the formula by U,V,W,X,Y;

( (

((

)(

((

)(

((

((

)(

Step 5 :

When we let
Catalan number

, we will have the value of

. Hence, to get the next value of

we only need to change the value of parameter

and repeat Step 1 to Step 5.

26

3.2.6

Algorithm of Sixth Property

( (

)(

)(

)(

)(

Step 1 : We set the Catalan Number formula

Step 2 : Let

Step 3 : Set

27

Step 4 : We denote part of the formula by U,V,W,X,Y,Z;

( (

((

)(

((

)(

((

)(

( (

)(

((

Step 5 :

28

When we let

, we will have the value of

Catalan number

. Hence, to get the next value of

we only need to change the value of parameter

and repeat Step 1 to Step 5.

3.2.7

Algorithm of Seventh Property

Property 7

)(

)(

)(

)(

)(

29

Step 1 : Set the existing formula of Catalan numbers

Step 2 : Let

Step 3 : Set

Step 4 : We denote part of the formula by T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z ;

( (

((

)(

((

)(

((

)(

30

( (

)(

( (

)(

( (

Step 5 :

When we let

, we will have the value of

Catalan number

. Hence, to get the next value of

we only need to change the value of parameter

and repeat Step 1 to Step 5.

31

Chapter 4
DISCUSSION AND RESULTS
4.1

Introduction

In this chapter, the calculation of new properties of Catalan Numbers is presented.

MAPLE program is used in this calculation. The result obtained from MAPLE
calculation is being compared and discussed. The results are tabulated to make us
more easy to compare between the value of Catalan numbers we get from the
existing property and the new properties.

32

4.2

The Results

The results obtained the Maple calculation shown on the next page for every
properties. If the value from the calculation of Catalan Numbers using existing
property and the new property is the same, this means that the new properties created
are valid.
The validity of the new properties of Catalan Number is verified for small values of
parameter , where

for new property 1 until new property 6 and

for

new property 7. By comparing the values of Catalan numbers that we have, we can
confirm that the value that we have are true if the value are just the same as
calculated by using existing property. The results are tabulated in a table.
Besides, from the previous studies by Nurhazlin Bte Mohd Pilus (2013), she manage
to get the value of Catalan numbers from new property by using the parameter less
than

. In my studies, I manage to get the Catalan numbers value using the

parameter less than

for property 1 until property 6.

Besides, I also manage to get new property, Property 7 of the Catalan numbers which
is given on the next pages. However, for this property 7, I manage to evaluate the
Catalan numbers by using the parameter less than

33

4.2.1.

First New Property of Catalan Numbers

The existing property :

The First New Property :

( (

Table 4.2.1.1 : Comparison between the existing property and the first new property.
Value of

Existing Property

First New Property

14

14

42

42

132

132

429

429

10

1430

1430

11

4862

4862

12

16796

16796

13

58786

58786

parameter

34

14

208012

208012

15

742900

742900

16

2674440

2674440

17

9694845

9694845

18

35357670

35357670

19

129644790

129644790

20

477638700

477638700

21

1767263190

1767263190

22

6564120420

6564120420

23

24466267020

24466267020

24

91482563640

91482563640

25

343059613650

343059613650

26

1289904147324

1289904147324

27

4861946401452

4861946401452

28

18367353072152

18367353072152

29

69533550916004

69533550916004

30

263747951750360

263747951750360

31

1002242216651368

1002242216651368

32

3814986502092304

3814986502092304

33

14544636039226909

14544636039226909

34

55534064877048198

55534064877048198

35

212336130412243110

212336130412243110

35

4.2.2

Second New Property of Catalan Numbers

The existing property :

The Second New Property :

( (

Table 4.2.2.1 : Comparison between the existing property and the second new
property.
Value of

Existing Property

First New Property

14

14

42

42

132

132

429

429

10

1430

1430

11

4862

4862

parameter

36

12

16796

16796

13

58786

58786

14

208012

208012

15

742900

742900

16

2674440

2674440

17

9694845

9694845

18

35357670

35357670

19

129644790

129644790

20

477638700

477638700

21

1767263190

1767263190

22

6564120420

6564120420

23

24466267020

24466267020

24

91482563640

91482563640

25

343059613650

343059613650

26

1289904147324

1289904147324

27

4861946401452

4861946401452

28

18367353072152

18367353072152

29

69533550916004

69533550916004

30

263747951750360

263747951750360

31

1002242216651368

1002242216651368

32

3814986502092304

3814986502092304

33

14544636039226909

14544636039226909

34

55534064877048198

55534064877048198

35

212336130412243110

212336130412243110

37

4.2.3

Third New Property of Catalan Numbers

The existing property :

The Third New Property :

( (

)(

Table 4.2.3.1 : Comparison between the existing property and the third new property.
Value of

Existing Property

First New Property

14

14

42

42

132

132

429

429

10

1430

1430

11

4862

4862

parameter

38

12

16796

16796

13

58786

58786

14

208012

208012

15

742900

742900

16

2674440

2674440

17

9694845

9694845

18

35357670

35357670

19

129644790

129644790

20

477638700

477638700

21

1767263190

1767263190

22

6564120420

6564120420

23

24466267020

24466267020

24

91482563640

91482563640

25

343059613650

343059613650

26

1289904147324

1289904147324

27

4861946401452

4861946401452

28

18367353072152

18367353072152

29

69533550916004

69533550916004

30

263747951750360

263747951750360

31

1002242216651368

1002242216651368

32

3814986502092304

3814986502092304

33

14544636039226909

14544636039226909

34

55534064877048198

55534064877048198

35

212336130412243110

212336130412243110

39

4.2.4

Fourth New Property of Catalan Numbers

The existing property :

The Fourth New Property :

( (

)(

)(

Table 4.2.4.1 : Comparison between the existing property and the fourth new
property.
Value of

Existing Property

First New Property

42

42

132

132

parameter

40

429

429

10

1430

1430

11

4862

4862

12

16796

16796

13

58786

58786

14

208012

208012

15

742900

742900

16

2674440

2674440

17

9694845

9694845

18

35357670

35357670

19

129644790

129644790

20

477638700

477638700

21

1767263190

1767263190

22

6564120420

6564120420

23

24466267020

24466267020

24

91482563640

91482563640

25

343059613650

343059613650

26

1289904147324

1289904147324

27

4861946401452

4861946401452

28

18367353072152

18367353072152

29

69533550916004

69533550916004

30

263747951750360

263747951750360

31

1002242216651368

1002242216651368

32

3814986502092304

3814986502092304

41

4.2.5

33

14544636039226909

14544636039226909

34

55534064877048198

55534064877048198

35

212336130412243110

212336130412243110

Fifth New Property of Catalan Numbers

The existing property :

The Fifth New Property :

( (

)(

)(

)(

42

Table 4.2.5.1 : Comparison between the existing property and the fifth new property.
Value of

Existing Property

First New Property

132

132

429

429

10

1430

1430

11

4862

4862

12

16796

16796

13

58786

58786

14

208012

208012

15

742900

742900

16

2674440

2674440

17

9694845

9694845

18

35357670

35357670

19

129644790

129644790

20

477638700

477638700

21

1767263190

1767263190

22

6564120420

6564120420

23

24466267020

24466267020

24

91482563640

91482563640

25

343059613650

343059613650

26

1289904147324

1289904147324

27

4861946401452

4861946401452

28

18367353072152

18367353072152

parameter

43

29

69533550916004

69533550916004

30

263747951750360

263747951750360

31

1002242216651368

1002242216651368

32

3814986502092304

3814986502092304

33

14544636039226909

14544636039226909

34

55534064877048198

55534064877048198

35

212336130412243110

212336130412243110

44

4.2.6

Sixth New Property of Catalan Numbers

The existing property :

The Six New Property :

( (

)(

)(

)(

)(

45

Table 4.2.6.1 : Comparison between the existing property and the sixth new property.
Value of

Existing Property

First New Property

429

429

10

1430

1430

11

4862

4862

12

16796

16796

13

58786

58786

14

208012

208012

15

742900

742900

16

2674440

2674440

17

9694845

9694845

18

35357670

35357670

19

129644790

129644790

20

477638700

477638700

21

1767263190

1767263190

22

6564120420

6564120420

23

24466267020

24466267020

24

91482563640

91482563640

25

343059613650

343059613650

26

1289904147324

1289904147324

27

4861946401452

4861946401452

28

18367353072152

18367353072152

29

69533550916004

69533550916004

parameter

46

30

263747951750360

263747951750360

31

1002242216651368

1002242216651368

32

3814986502092304

3814986502092304

33

14544636039226909

14544636039226909

34

55534064877048198

55534064877048198

35

212336130412243110

212336130412243110

47

4.2.7

Seventh New Property of Catalan Numbers

The existing property :

The Seventh New Property :

)(

)(

)(

)(

)(

48

Table 4.2.7.1 : Comparison between the existing property and the seventh new
property.
Value of

Existing Property

First New Property

10

1430

1430

11

4862

4862

12

16796

16796

13

58786

58786

14

208012

208012

15

742900

742900

16

2674440

2674440

17

9694845

9694845

18

35357670

35357670

19

129644790

129644790

20

477638700

477638700

21

1767263190

1767263190

22

6564120420

6564120420

23

24466267020

24466267020

24

91482563640

91482563640

parameter

49

4.3

Discussion

During the process to find the value of new properties, I had try using Maple and
Matlab software in high performance computer (hpc). However, I found that using
Maple is much easier to evaluate the value of Catalan Numbers as the expression for
the formula is already in the Maple software, what we have to do is only to substitute
the value of parameter and the programme will calculate in for us. I had try to make
a simple programming formula in Maple, and by using the coding I can substitute
any value of easily as long as the value of does not exceed the value of

in the

program.
For the first new property until fourth new property, it is easy for the program to
evaluate the value of Catalan number. However, it become harder for the fifth, sixth
and seventh new properties. What I mean harder here is, the time taken to evaluate
the value of Catalan numbers is getting longer, but we still can get the value that we
calculated, sometimes mostly less than one hour or less than two hours, where it
depends on the formula of the new property of Catalan numbers. Since the formula
of fifth, sixth and seventh new property are longer than other new property, I have to
denote the formula into parts, so that the Maple program can evaluate it easily.
Thus, from the previous table, we can conclude that, the first to seventh new
properties that we get are valid.

50

Chapter 5
SUMMARY
5.1

Conclusions

From the results that we obtained, we conclude that the new properties of the Catalan
Numbers ( Property 1 to Property 7 ) are true and valid. This is because we can prove
that the value that we calculated from the existing property of Catalan numbers and
the value that we calculated from the new property are equal and true. The Maple
programming that I have used has confirmed the validity of the new properties.

5.2

Further study

There are some recommendation for further studies in this research. This research is
about introducing new properties of Catalan numbers. By substituting term into
existing formula, new properties will be obtained. These new properties can be
implemented by using matlab live coding by using hpc.

51

References
[1]

Barcucci, E. and Verri M. C. 1992. Some more properties of Catalan numbers,

Discrete Mathematics 102 : 229-237

[2]

Chu, W. 1987. A new combinatorial interpretation for generalized Catalan

Number, Discrete Mathematics 65: 91-94

[3]

Chen, X. and Chu W. 2009. Moments on Catalan Numbers, Journal of

Mathematical Analysis and Applications 349: 311-316

[4]

Konvalinka, M. 2007. Divisibility of generalized Catalan numbers, Journal of

Combinatorial Theory, Series A 114: 1089-1100

[5]

Rakhimov, I.S. and Mohd Atan K.A. 2012. On Some New Properties Of
Catalan

Numbers,

International

Conference

Mathematical

and

Computational Biology 2011, Vol. 9: 537-542

[6]

Rakhimov, I.S. 2011. Invariants of the varieties of filiform Leibniz algebras

and ellipticcurves, Doctor of Sciences in Physics and Mathematics : 44-45

[7]

Rubenstein, D. 1994. Catalan Numbers Revisited, Journal Of Combinatorial

Theory, Series A 68 : 486-490

[8]

Xiaotong , J. (July 12, 2012) Application of Catalan numbers, Department of

Mathematical Science, Sweet Briar College.

52

APPENDICES

Maple program for the first new property of Catalan Numbers :

>
>
>

53

>

>

54

Maple program for the second new property of Catalan Numbers :

>
>
>

55

>

>

56

Maple program for the third new property of Catalan Numbers :

>
>
>

57

>

>

58

Maple program for the fourth new property of Catalan Numbers :

>
>
>

59

>

>

60

Maple program for the fifth new property of Catalan Numbers :

>
>
>

61

>

>

62

Maple program for the sixth new property of Catalan number

>
>
>

63

>

>

64

Maple program for the seventh new property of Catalan number

>
>
>

65

>

66

>

67