Author(s): Cheryl Simrell King, Kathryn M. Feltey and Bridget O'Neill Susel
Source: Public Administration Review, Vol. 58, No. 4 (Jul. - Aug., 1998), pp. 317-326
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Toward
in Public
Authendc
Public
Participanon
Administrfon
ofAkron
Simrell
Cheryl
King,
University
ofAkron
M.Feltey,
University
Kathryn
Bridget
O'Neill
Susel,
Summit
Ohio
County,
Theappropriate
roleof thepublicin publicadministrationhas beenan activeand ongoingareaof
andcontroversy
revolution,
experimentation,
inquiry,
sincethebirthof thisnation. The contemporary
movement
to examine
theroleof thepublicin the
process
of administrative
decisionmakinghascome
to problems
aboutin response
in thelatterhalfof
andasa resultof concern
thiscentury
on thepartof
andpoliticians
overcitizen
citizens,administrators,
andapathy(Box,1996;Putnam,
discouragement
1995;Timney,1996;Thomas,1995).Asbothcitizensandtheirleadershavenoticed,"participation
throughnormalinstitutional
channelshas little
impacton the substanceof government
politics"
andSchaefer,
(Crosby,
Kelly,
1986,172).
Manycitizens,
andpoliticians
administrators,
are
interestedin increasingpublicparticipationin public
decisions.Effortsto do so arecurrently
underway
acrossthecountry.However,
thereis considerable
evidence
to suggest
thattheseeffortsarenoteffective
(Crosby,
Kelly,andSchaefer,
and
1986;Kathlene
Martin,1991;KweitandKweit,1981,1987;Parsons,1990). Someeffortsappearto be ineffective
ofpoorplanning
because
orexecution.
Otherefforts
maynotworkbecause
administrative
systems
thatare
baseduponexpertise
andprofessionalism
leavelittle
roomfor participatory
processes(deLeon,1992;
Fisher,1993;Forester,
1989;WhiteandMcSwain,
1993).
Thequestion
of howto engender
effective
andsatisfyingparticipation
processes
is thecentralissuein
thisresearch.
Ourfindings
indicate
thateffective,
or
authentic,
publicparticipation
impliesmorethan
simplyfindingthe righttoolsandtechniques
for
increasing
publicinvolvement
in publicdecisions.
Authentic
publicparticipation,
thatis, participation
thatworksforallparties
andstimulates
interest
and
investmentin both administrators
andcitizens,
requires
rethinking
theunderlying
rolesof, andrelationships
between,
administrators
andcitizens.
PublicAdministration
Review* July/August
1998,Vol.58,No.4
317
of More
TheNecessityor Desirability
EffectiveParticipation
has historiin publicadministration
The role of participation
callybeen one of ambivalence.Althoughthe politicalsystemin
the UnitedStatesis designedto reflectandengenderan activecitiprozenry,it is alsodesignedto protectpoliticalandadministrative
cessesfroma too-activecitizenry.It is withinthis contextthatparticipation in the administrativearena has traditionally been
framed.
318
1998,Vol.58, No.4
Review* July/August
PublicAdministration
There
isahoagrowing
onthe
part
recognition
that
without
decision
oadministrators
making
public
isineffective.
participation
Toward
Authentic
in PublicAdministration
Participation
319
arearrayed
aroundthe Figure1
rentlyframedsuchthatthesecomponents
issue.Thecitizenis placedat thegreatest
distance
fromtheissue, Contextof ConventionalParticipation
theadministrative
andprocesses
aretheclosest,andthe
structures
andcitizens,as
administrator
is the agentbetweenthe structures
Citizens
in Figure1.
depicted
In thecontextof conventional
theadministrator
participation,
Administrators
thesituation
controlstheabilityof thecitizento influence
or the
Administrative
Systems/Processes
process.Theadministrative
andprocesses
structures
arethepolitiframeworks
withinwhichtheadminconstructed
callyandsocially
istratormustoperate.Theseframeworks
givethe administrator
the authority
to formulate
decisions
onlyafterthe issuehasbeen
defined.Thus,theadministrator
hasno realpowerto redefine
the
issueorto alteradministrative
to allowforgreater
processes
citizen
involvement
(Forester,
1989).
In the contextof conventional
theadministrator
participation
playsthe roleof the expert.WhiteandMcSwain
(1993)suggest and open and honest discussion. As an activiststated, "People
thatparticipation
withinthiscontextis structured
to maintain
the needto knowthattheirinputis importantandwill be considered
while publiclypresentingthe in makingthat decision." An administrator
centralityof the administrator
concurred,"I think
administrator
asrepresentative,
orparticipatory.
The one of the keysfor effectiveparticipation
consultative,
at the citizenand neighcitizenbecomesthe "client"
of the professional
ill- borhoodlevelis fordecisionmakersto be interested;to reallylisten
administrator,
equippedto questionthe professional's
authorityandtechnical to whatthe needsareof the people."Anotheradministrator
talked
knowledge.Thisprocessestablishes
whatFischercallsa "practi- aboutlisteningand trust:"Thefirststep is to makeit clearthat
tioner-client
hierarchy"
(1993,165). In thisfalselydualistic
rela- you'regoingto be receptiveto theircomments.But alsoI thinka
tionship,theadministrator
is separated
fromthe"demands,
needs, criticalsecondstepto maintainingtheirtrustis to demonstrateto
andvalues"
of thepeoplewhomhe or sheis presumed
to be serv- them that they'rebeing heard...andthat their ideas are shaping
ing(deLeon,
1992,126).
whateveryou'redeveloping."To achieveall of this, accordingto a
Participation
in thiscontextis ineffective
andconflictual,
andit third administrator,
citizensand administrators
"needto have a
too latein theprocess,
happens
thatis, aftertheissueshavebeen partnership.We do that by beingsensitivethat otherpeopledo
framedandmostdecisionshavebeenmade. Therefore,
rather havean agenda...buteveryoneshouldgraduallycometogether."
thancooperating
to decidehowbestto address
issues,citizensare
Authenticparticipationrequiresthat administrators
focus on
reactiveandjudgmental,
oftensabotaging
administrators'
best both processand outcome. In this context, participationis an
efforts. Administrators
areterritorial
andparochial;
theyresist integralpartof administration,
ratherthan an add-onto existing
andrelyon theirtechnical
sharinginformation
andprofessionalpractices.Authenticparticipation
meansthatthe publicis partof
to justifytheirrolein administrative
expertise
Citizen the deliberationprocessfrom issue framingto decisionmaking
processes.
is moresymbolicthanreal(Arnstein,
participation
1969). The (Roberts,1997). As a citizenindicated,"Fromthe verybeginning
powerthatcitizens
yieldis aimedatblocking
orredirecting
admin- peopleneedto be involved."An administrator
told us, "Ifyou go
istrative
effortsrather
thanworking
aspartners
to definetheissues, to the communitywith a totallypresetagendathat doesn'twork.
establishthe parameters,
developmethodsof investigation,
and Bringingpeople into the processtoo late does not work." An
selecttechniques
foraddressing
problems.
activistconcurred,"Ithinkthatit is veryimportantthatindividuals be giventhe opportunity,
priorto the decisionbeingmade,to
provideinput. [Citizensmusthave] enoughtime to processthat
information.Thereis a lot of phonyparticipationgoing on out
Asdefinedbytheparticipants
of ourresearch,
effective
partici- there."
thatis realor authentic.Authenticparticipationis participation
Addressingthe limitations of current participatoryefforts
pationis deepandcontinuous
involvement
in administrative
pro- requiresthat public administrators
become "interpretive
mediacesseswiththe potentialforall involvedto havean effecton the tors."They must move beyond the technicalissue at hand by
situation.Anactivist
definedauthentic
participation
as"theability involvingcitizensin "dialecticalexchange"(Fischer,1993, 183)
andthe opportunity
to havean impacton the decision-makingandby engagingwith citizensin discourse(FoxandMiller,1995),
process."
to anadministrator,
According
authentic
participation
is ratherthansimplygettingcitizensinput. Then, the administrator
activeinvolvement,
"on-going,
nota one-shotdeal,notjustpulling becomesa cooperativeparticipant,assistingcitizensin examining
thelever..it needsto go out andreachout to everypartof your theirinterests,workingtogetherwith them to arriveat decisions,
however
community,
defined."An activistsaidthatgoodpartici- andengagingthemin openandauthenticdeliberation.
pationhasoccurred
when"people
affected
bythechangearecomA citizenoffersa compellingsummaryof the tensionsinvolved
fortable
withthe decisionmade."A citizenexplained,
"Forme, in publicparticipation:"Youhaveto get in thereand ask their
whenI changeperceptionsI knowit'sa success."
opinion. And they will tell you their opinion in the midst of
Both citizensand administrators
in our studydefinedthe key tellingyou whata lousyjob you aredoing. And you haveto be
elementsof authenticparticipationas focus,commitment,trust, willingto dealwith that,to put up with it. I thinka lot of admin-
Reframing
Participation
320
PublicAdministration
Review* July/August
1998,Vol.58, No.4
Barriers
to AuthenticParticipation
Table1
Comparison
of AuthenticandUnauthentic
Participation
Interaction
style
Participation
is sought
Roleof administrator
Administrative
skillsneeded
Roleof citizen
Citizenshipskillsneeded
Approach
toward"other"
Administrative
process
Citizenoptions
Citizenoutput
Administrator
output
Timeto decision
Decisionis made
Unauthentic
Participation
Conflictual
Aftertheagendais setanddecisionsaremade
Experttechnician/manager
Technical;
managerial
Unequalparticipant
None
Mistrust
Static,invisible,
closed
Reactive
Buy-in
Decision
Appears
shorterandeasierbutoften
involvesgoingbackand'redoing"
based
uponcitizenreaction
Byadministrator/political
and/or
administrative
processes
in
perhaps
consultation
withcitizens
AuthenticParticipation
Collaborative
Early;beforeanythingis set
Collaborative
technician/governor
Technical,
interpersonal
skills,discourse
skills,facilitation
skills
Equalpartner
Civics,participation
skills,discourse
skills
Trust
Dynamic,visible,open
Proactive
orreactive
Design
Process
Appears
longerandmoreonerousbutusually
doesn'trequireredoingbecausecitizenshave
beeninvolvedthroughout;
maytakelesstimeto reachdecisions
thanthroughtraditional
processes
Emerges
asa resultof discourse;
equal
opportunity
forallto enterthediscourse
and
to influencetheoutcomes
Toward
Authentic
Participation
in PublicAdministration
321
andprocesses
indicators
to drawconclusions
methods
thatparticipation
to participa- standard
aboutratesor levelsof
posebarriers
do aswell. Threecategories
Traditional
tion,butotherfactors
of barriers
indicators
suchasvoting,
participation
were participation.
in ouranalyses:
identified
thenatureof lifein contemporary
civicmeetings,
orrunningforcitycouncildon'tcapture
soci- attending
ety,administrative
andcurrent
andtechniques thecultural
formsof participation
processes,
thataremorelikelyto involve
practices
of participation.
younger
of thecommunity.
members
he alsoagreed
that
However,
valueshavenotbeenreinforced
participatory
in this"eraof privatizationandfreemarketeconomy[where]individuals
havea lot of
The Natureof Life in ContemporarySociety
economic
pressures
withoutmuchsparecapital."
Thebarriers
fromthe practical
realities
of dailylife
stemming
Whileday-to-day
lifekeepspeoplefrombeingmoreparticipaaretiedto thesocialclasspositionof citizensandincludefactors toryandperhaps
inculcates
attitudes
andapathy,
nonparticipatory
liketransportation,
timeconstraints,
numberof manyof ourresearch
familystructure,
feltthatcurrentadministrative
participants
in thelaborforce,childcare,andeconomic
familymembers
disad- processes
areasmuchto blameforthelackof citizenparticipation.
vantages.Somepeopleexpress
a desireto participate
morefullyin
theircommunities,
butthedemands
of day-to-day
lifegetin the
way. As onecitizensaid,"Alot of peopleareholdingdowntwo AdministrativeProcesses
jobsandbothpeopleworkin thefamilyandaretootired...[from] Thesecondsetof barriers
identified
byourparticipants
consists
a dayata time."
tryingto survive
of thoseinherentin administrative
processes
themselves.These
The focusgroupmembers
compared
an idealized
pastwhere barriers
areparadoxical.
Whilemostpeopledefinecitizenparticicivicparticipation
wascommonandvisible,to thepresent,
where pationas desirable,any participation
seen as challengingthe
it is nearlyimpossible
to fit participation
into an over-crowdedadministrative
statusquo is blockedby the veryadministrators
schedule.Thepastwasseenas a timeof economicsecurity
with whodesiremoreparticipatory
processes.
Asonecitizenlamented:
stableemployment
whereparticipation
in community
lifewasa
Isn'tit a shame[that]oneoftheobstacles
incitizenpargiven.Asoneadministrator
explained,"Atleastin mygrandparticipationseemsto be government...
.We'retalking
ent'sgeneration
theyweren't
worried
if Goodyear
wasgoingto be
aboutgrass-roots
thatworkdespite
programs
thegovernthere.Theyknewtheywere.Theywereplaying
ball,goingto Boy
ment,[because
theyareableto] workaround
theoffiScouts.Now...it'sunusual
if youhavea bitof [worry-free]
luxury
cials.Itseemsto methat[elected
officials
andadminisinyourlifeto participate."
trators]shouldall be wantingto get people to
to the oldermembers
According
in the focusgroup,younger
...notputtingupbarriers.Theyonlywant
participate
community
members
arenotpursuing
anactivisttradition.It is a
favorable
participation...to
keepthestatus
quo.
constantchallenge
to community
to getyoungercitizens Anactivist
activists
described
thebarriers
in theprocess
asfollows:
to participate.Oneactivistsaid,"We're
tryingto replace
people
Itseemsto methatthepolitical
process
getsin theway.
whowereactivein theblockclubswithpeoplewhoarefromthe
Youcandoallthethingsthatshouldbe done,getthe
to takeoverthereinsof whattheoldercitizens
youngfamilies
have
citizens
together,
gettheminvolved,
getinput. Butif
beendoingforyears.That'sa hardthingto do."
thedecision
hasalready
beenmadeon a different
level,
Citizens,administrators,
andactivists
allagreedthatparticipait'sall[window]
dressing.
Andwehaveto getpastthat
tion is hinderedby a lackof education,
bothinformally
within
first.Howdoyoudothatwhenthepolitical
process
has
familiesand communitiesand formallyin the schools. One
madethedecision
already
whichwayit'sgoingto go?
administrator
described
howearlychildhood
socialization
prepared Citizensin our focusgroups,like thoseincludedin other
himfora lifeof participation:
research,
viewedcommunication
in participatory
processes
asflowWhenI was a kid we wouldmeet at the dinner
ingoneway-fromtheadministrative
professional
to the citizen.
table..
.andthatwastheplacethatalmostwithoutfail
Citizensin ourprojectfeltthatinformation
is usuallymanaged,
we'dget aroundto politicalandneighborhood
and
andmanipulated,
controlled,
limitingtheircapacity
to participate.
church
goingson...thatwouldbethebasisforlearning
Asonecitizenexplained,
"Bythetimewehearaboutissuesit'stoo
aboutandsocializing
intobroader
issuesin thecommulateto affecta decision."
Another
citizenconcurred,
"Bythetime
nity....Thesamethingwastruefortheneighborhoods.
we hearabouttheissuesit is too latein theprocess. Wemight
Theadultsusedto gatheron thefrontporches
while
hearaboutit if wereadthepaperorif someone
onyourcommittee
theirkidswouldplay.
is on topof thingsenoughto knowwhat'sgoingon." As a result,
Thedemiseof theneighborhood
asanorganizing
andsocializ- citizenstalkaboutadministrators
as adversaries,
as one citizen
ingsystemwasdescribed
in thefollowing
waybyoneadministra-explained:
"Ithinkif we participate..
.we cansometimes
beatthe
tor: "People
don'ttalkto eachotheranymore..
.theneighborhoodsadministrators
to thegun.
aren'tneighborhoods...they
usedto be realtight-knitcommunities."Isolation
fromothersis detrimental
to participation.
Onesubject
matterexpertsuggested
thatcitizenparticipation
is Techniquesof Participation
low [because]
"abysmally
we'vetaughtpeoplenot to participate." Oneof themostproblematic
administrative
barriers
is thetechHowever,he noted thateven if peoplewereinvitedto participate, niquesused in most participatory
processes.As found in other
"thereis still the natureof citizenlife itself,we areall verybusy, research(Crosby,Kelly,and Schaefer,1986;Kathleneand Martin,
perhapstoo busy to participate."He warnedagainstrelyingon 1991; Kweitand Kweit, 1981; 1987; Parsons,1990), our focus
322
PublicAdministration
Review* July/August
1998,Vol.58, No.4
Tomovetoward
authentic
administrators
needto
participation
changemanyof theircurrent
practices.Onechangemaybeto go
means
citizens
designing
processeswhere
thecitizensareratherthanaskingcitizensto cometo them.
As one administrator
proposed,"Soimagineif the councilman
where
citizens
know
that
hasthe
theirparticipation
Empowering
fromyourwardcalledyouupandsaid,youknow,I'minterested
in
of
with
a
small
I
come
meeting
Can
to
group
your
neighbors.
you
tohave
animpact,
where
arepresentative
potential
range
of ratherthanyoucominghere?"Anotheradministrator
concurred,
"We've
got
to
the
we've
stop
doing
done
things
them.
way
always
areincluded,
andwhere
citizens
there
arevisible
outcomes.
Wecan'tbehavingmeetings
andexpectpeople
duringthedaytime
groupparticipants
told us thatmosttechniques
usedin current to come. Wecan'tbe doingthingsin a remoteplaceandexpect
effortsareinadequate.The mostineffective
participation
tech- peopleto comeat8:00atnight....We'vegotto go to them."
niqueis the publichearing.Publichearings
do notwork. Low
is anotherimportant
Accessibility
issue. As oneadministrator
is oftenconstrued
attendance
atpublichearings
aspublicapathy
effortin the community
or outlined,"Another
is grass-roots
leadersilentapproval
of thestatusquo(Kathlene
andMartin,1991). In ship....Folkswhohavebeenhistorically
fromprocesses
excluded
of
lowattendance
is morelikelyto be relatedto thestruc- decision
actuality,
aboutthesescarceresources
needto beincreasingmaking
tureof publichearings.
ly includedin the processes."
Anotheradministrator
agreed,"In
of publichearings orderto havetrueparticipation,
Administrators
thatthe structure
recognize
thoseof us who havesome
and publicmeetingsprohibitsmeaningfulexchange.As one authority
haveto be moreactivein bringing
peoplewhoperceive
is notaboutcommunicat-themselves
administrator
said,"Thepublichearing
asexcluded
intotheprocess."
ing,it is aboutconvincing."
Another
thelimitations
of
explained
Ourresearch
participants
toldusthattheywantauthentic
parpublicschoolboardmeetings,"Whenyou go to a schoolboard ticipation,
butmanybarriers
restrict
Inthefinalsecparticipation.
meeting,theygetthiseggtimer,timeto grabthemicrophone
and tionof thisarticlewe suggesthowto overcome
thesebarriers
in
speak.There's
no follow-up.Youdon'tevengetto askthemques- orderto movetoward
moreauthentic
participatory
processes.
tions....There's
no giveandtake."An activistsuggested
thatthe
publichearingwaswindowdressing,
"Wehavethesehearings
so Overcoming
Barriers
to
theycancheckoffontheirlistthatthey've
hadtheircitizenparticiParticipation
pation....It'sparticipation
out of the fearthattheyaregoingto Authentic
lookbad."
Asourfindings
indicate,
peoplemaybemorewillingto particiA majorproblemis the timingof publichearings.Theyare pateif theyhavea realopportunity
to influence
bothadministraoftenheldlatein the process,whendecisions
havealready
been tiveprocesses
andoutcomes.Shiftingparticipatory
to
techniques
made.Asoneadministrator
"Ithinkpublichearings
explained,
are moreeffective
or authentic
practices
requires
whatdeLeon(1992)
toolate. It'sa formalprocess.Citizens
knowthat.They identifies
definitely
asa two-sided
learning
process.Bothadministrators
and
knowthatandcometo publichearings,
buttheyknowthatit is citizens
needto learn.
toolate."
already
In orderto movetowardauthenticmodels,all threecompoOthercommonmethodsof participation
arecitizenadvisory nentsof publicparticipation-the
administrative
structures
and
councils,citizenpanels,andpublicsurveys(Crosby,
et al., 1986; processes,
theadministrators,
andthecitizens-mustbe addressed
Kathlene
andMartin,1991;Parsons
1990). Limitations
of coun- bythoseworking
in,andseeking
to understand,
publicadministracils andpanelsincludebiasesin composition,
particularly
with tion. Authenticity
cannotbe achieved
by addressing
problems
in
to socialclass(Verba,
regard
et. al., 1993). Surveys,
on theother onlyonearea.Forexample,
citizenempowerment
in theabsence
hand,documentpublicopinionsat one pointin time(Kathlene of administrative
transformation
is problematic.
TodevelopproandMartin,1991)anddo not allowforan interactive
processor cessesthatincrease
participation
withoutchanging
thepowerrelarelationship
between
citizens
andadministrators.
tionsbetweencitizensandadministrators
is alsoproblematic.
in ourproject
Administrators
wereclearthatparticipation
tech- Modelsof authenticparticipation
musttakea three-pronged
niquesneedto beimproved.Oneadministrator
pointedout:"We approach,
allthreecomponents,
addressing
seekingto (1) empowcan'tignoretheprocessof conducting
a goodmeeting.Thereare er andeducatecommunity
members,
(2) re-educate
administramanypeoplewhogetturnedoffwhen[meetings
aren't
runwell].... tors,and(3) enableadministrative
structures
andprocesses.We
It couldbe a royalwasteof mytimeandI resentthat." Another discusseachof theseobjectives
in thefollowing
sections.Table2
administrator
alladministrators:
challenged
provides
a summary
of practical
actionsthatadministrators
and
Lookatalternative
waysto getpeopleinvolved.It isn't
citizenscantaketo overcome
barriers
to authentic
participation
in
justif you can'tcometo the meeting,youcan'tbe
eachof theseareas.
involved.Thatmaybe a veryinteresting
challenge
for
usto thinkabout.Whatotherwayscanpeoplefeelthat
Empoweringand EducatingCitizens
theyhavesomesayin theprocess
withouthavingto
leavetheirkidsandgeta baby-sitter
andgotoa meeting
Empowering
citizensmeansdesigning
processes
wherecitizens
andso forth?Solvingtheseproblems
maybe a tremendous,innovative
wayto breakdownsomeof thesebarriers.
knowthat theirparticipation
has the potentialto havean impact,
wherea representative
rangeof citizensare included,and where
there are visible outcomes. The centralissue is one of access.
Toward
Authentic
Participation
in Public
Administration
323
Table2
Barriers
to AuthenticParticipation:
Recommendations
forPractice
Overcoming
Objectives
Barriers
andEducating
Empowering
Citizens
Realitiesof
DailyLife
Administrators
Re-educating
EnablingAdministrative
SystemsandProcesses
Talkwithadministrators;
establish
one-ononerelationships.
Takeinitiativeto talkwithcitizens;
establish Setupflexiblemeetingschedules;
multiple
one-on-onerelationships.
Go outandget
opportunities.
democracy.
Payattention.
Go to wherepeopleare(lunchhour,child
Don'tseparate
yourselffromyourjob;you carecenters,schools,churches,
laundryfaciliTalkto neighbors;
with
formrelationships
area citizenalso. Thinkaboutyourlifeand ties,electronic,
etc.).
othersin yourarea(interest
orgeographical).planparticipation
effortsaccordingly.
Useelectronic
resources
(butdon'trelyonly
localeconomies,
Strengthen
areadvertised
emphasizing Besurethatprojects
so that
uponthem).
benefitsto peopleversustheeconomy.
peopleareinformed(flyersin well-attended
places,phonecalls,mailings,
etc.).
Provideon-site,freechild-care;
cateredmeals
Createopportunities
forpeopleto interact
ata nominalchargeforparticipants,
free
witheachother.
mealsfordisadvantaged
participants.
Seekdiversity
in representation.
asthefourthbranchof Allocateresources
Beginto seecitizenry
forparticipation
efforts.
onecan'ttalkaboutgovernance
government;
andgovernment
withouttalkingaboutciti- Reward
administrators
forparticipation
zens.
efforts;changejobdescriptions;
participation
mustbe integralto job,notanadd-on.
Shiftfrommajority
focusof education
on
managerial
skillsto governance
skills.
Bringpeoplein beforeagendais set;create
on-goingprojectteamsthatfollowproject
Requirecontinuing
education
creditsfor
throughto completion.
Placemoreemphasis
on civicsandpublic
administrators
thatfocuson innovations
in
in K-12(addto 3Rs)aswellas practice.
participation
Shiftfromemphasis
on managerial
rolesof
in highereducation.Educateto participate.
administration
to governance
roles.
Participation
Techniques
Holdworkshops
withadministrators
that
focusupondiscourse
skills,meetingskills,
andresearch
andstatistics
skills.
InfuseMasterof PublicAdministration
and Changethewaywe meetandinteract
with
undergrad
curricula
withtrainingin theskills eachotherandwithcitizens:
below;developon-sitetraining
fundedby
manysmallmeetings;
roundtable
disagenciesandlocalgovernments:
cussions;
outsidefacilitators;
equal
Holdworkshop
andtrainingopportunities
facilitation
skills;team-building
skills;
participants;
no oneprivileged
in
withadministrators
priorto beginning
proorganizational
development
skills;
groupbecauseof position,status,
jectteamwork.
discourse
skills;interpersonal
skills.
demographic
characteristics,
etc..
Requirethesecurriculum
changesaspartof
NASPAAaccreditation
requirements.
324
Avoidone-shottechniques
likesurveys
or
biasedtechniques
likeboardsor panels.
PublicAdministration
Review* July/August
1998,Vol.58, No.4
325
withCamillaStiversandcollaboraco-authored,
thatpublicadministration
practi- Shehasrecently
mendations
intoactionrequires
atthesametime, tors,Government
Is Us: PublicAdministration
in anAnti-Governaddress
allthreecomponents
tionersandscholars
participa- mentEra(Sage,1998).
forshiftingtowardmoreauthentic
an essential
strategy
tionprocesses
inpublicadministration.
M. Felteyis anassociate
Kathryn
professor
of sociology
at the
ofAkron
University
in theDepartment BridgetO'NeillSuselis the community
professor
CherylSimrellKingis anassistant
development
coordiof Akron. natorin theDepartment
andUrbanStudies,University
of PublicAdministration
of Development,
SummitCounty,Ohio.
Acknowledgement
This articlewas fundedby an inter-institutional
grantfromthe Ohio
Boardof Regents'UrbanUniversityProgram.The authorswouldlike to
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