I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
TOEFL Grammar
1. Understand Basic Sentence Structure.
There are five basic patterns around which most English sentences are built.*
They are as follows:
S-V
Subject-Verb
John sleeps.
Jill is eating.
Jack will arrive next week.
S-V-O
Subject-Verb-Object
I like rice.
She loves her job.
He's eating an orange.
S-V-Adj
Subject-Verb-Adjective
He is funny.
The workers are lazy.
Karen seems angry.
S-V-Adv
Subject-Verb-Adverb
Jim is here.
Flowers are everywhere.
No one was there.
S-V-N
Subject-Verb-Noun
She is my mom.
At the heart of every English sentence is the Subject-Verb relationship. Other elements can be
added to make a sentence more interesting, but they are not essential to its formation.
Core sentence
Note: Any action verb can be used with this sentence pattern.
Core sentence
Specific subject
Note: Only transitive action verbs can be used with this sentence pattern.
He seems happy.
Series of adjectives
Note: Only linking verbs can be used with this sentence pattern.
Basic sentence
Note: Only linking verbs can be used with this sentence pattern.
Basic sentence
Note: Only linking verbs can be used with this sentence pattern.
*Other, less common structures are dealt with in another unit.
S + V and V
S and S + V
N and N
Adj. and Adj.
Phrase and Phrase
Can be used in a series: A, B, C, or D
Subordinators
Subordinators connect elements of unequal importance. One clause is not as strong as the
other.
S + V although S + V
Although S + V , S + V
Sentence Connectors
Sentence Connectors connect paragraphs or show relationship between very different
ideas.
S + V . However, S + V (however, therefore, thus, moreover,
nevertheless, first*, then*, next*, still*
S + V ; however, S + V besides, consequently, furthermore)
Prepositions
Prepositions show relationship among elements of a sentence. They are followed by noun
phrases only and cannot take on a S + V.
S + V (prep. phrase)
Example:
base form
I live in Athens.
They live in Crete.
The Smiths live in Rome.
-s form
He lives in Cyprus.
She lives in Malta.
Tim lives in Naples.
Ms. Conner lives in Milan.
The verb have
The -s form of the verb have is has.
We have a winner.
He has a trophy.
The verb be
The -s form (present tense) for be is is. For the past tense, it is was.
Was is also used with first person singular subjects (I) in the past tense.
(Am is used in the present tense. Are is used with other subjects in the present, and were is used
in the past.)
She is here.
He is not here.
I am here too.
You are right.
They are wrong.
She was home yesterday.
Ron wasn't home yesterday.
I was here yesterday.
We were here too.
Auxiliary verbs
When auxiliary verbs are used, only the first verb carries the third person singular -s.
Jean does not like spaghetti. (Correct)
Jean does not likes spaghetti. (Wrong!)
Jean do not likes spaghetti. (Wrong!)
Elsa is eating her dinner. (Correct)
Elsa is eats her dinner. (Wrong!)
Leo is going to eat later.
Frank has eaten lunch already. (Correct)
Frank have eaten lunch already. (Wrong!)
Modals
Do not use the -s form of the verb with modals, regardless of the subject.
Ian can eat twelve bowls of rice. (Correct)
Ian can eats twelve bowls of rice. (Wrong!)
How to construct the passive.
1. Check to see if the active sentence contains an object.
John ate an apple.
(S V O)
Passive is possible.
(S V)
2. Move the object to the front of the sentence. Put the original subject in a "by" phrase .
An apple (V) by John.
3. Put the verb in the form "be" +3 (of main verb)*
An apple "be" eaten by John.
4. Put the "be" in the same tense as the original active sentence.
An apple was/were eaten by John. ( past tense)
5. Make the first verb agree with the new subject.
An apple was eaten by John.
(Put other elements of the sentence in grammatical and logical order.)
Yesterday the large green apple was quickly eaten by John, who didnt realize that it belonged
to his sister.
When other (auxiliary) verbs and modals are used in combination with the passive, remember:
be + 3*
be + V ing
have + 3
(Progressive)
(Perfect)
modal + 1
The apple
(Passive)
(Modal)
should have
been
(Passive)
(Progressive)
(Perfect)
modal +1
(Modal)
The apple
is
The apple
was
The apple
is
The apple
was
The apple
has
been
The apple
had
been
The apple
Progressive)
has
been
The apple
Progressive)
had
been
The apple
will
be
The apple
is going to
be
The apple
must
be
The apple
must
have
been
The apple
(Combination)
must
have
been
*Note, to simplify things, we refer to the forms of the verbs with numbers, as follows:
1 base form (be, go, do)
2 past form (was/were, went, did)
3 past participle (been, gone, done)
You may NOT delete the relative pronoun and the be verb when :
1. they are followed by an adjective:
The man who is angry is my father
X The man angry is my father
(However, you may switch the positions of the adjective and noun.)
The angry man is my father. (okay)
2. they are followed by a noun:
The man who is a doctor is my father.
X The man a doctor is my father.
The relative pronoun can be deleted if there is a new subject and verb
following it:
A. This is the house that Jack built.
B. This is the house Jack built.
A. The person whom you see is my father.
B. The person you see is my father.
A. This is the place where I live.
B. This is the place I live.
A. I don't know the reason why she is late.
Different times
After I finished my homework, I went to bed.
After finishing my homework, I went to bed.
After I had finished my homework, I went to bed.
After having finished my homework, I went to bed.
Having finished my homework, I went to bed.
Before he left the dance, Jerry said good-bye to his girlfriend.
Before leaving the dance, Jerry said good-bye to his girlfriend.
Other clauses
Sometimes clauses with because can be reduced.
Because he was a doctor, George knew how to handle the situation.
Being a doctor, George knew how to handle the situation.
As a doctor, George knew how to handle the situation.
Other
Mr. Smith swept the floor. Mr. Smith dusted the shelves. Mr. Smith turned out the lights.
Then he left the building.
Mr. Smith swept the floor, dusted the shelves, and turned out the lights before he left the
building.
Mr. Smith swept the floor, dusted the shelves, and turned out the lights before leaving the
building.
Before leaving the building, Mr. Smith swept the floor, dusted the shelves, and turned out
the lights.
After sweeping the floor, dusting the shelves, and turning out the lights, Mr. Smith left
the building.
Having swept the floor, dusted the shelves and turned out the lights, Mr. Smith left the
building.
(Correct)
(Correct)
(Incorrect)
(Correct)
Sometimes repeated words, such as auxiliary verbs, can be deleted in parallel constructions.
I have been to Paris and saw the Eiffel Tower.
(Incorrect)
(Okay)
(Better)
(Incorrect)
(Correct)
Questions
Negatives
(Necessary) Prepositional Phrases of Place
Conditionals
Comparisons
1. Questions
He is a doctor.
Is he a doctor?
(Direct inversion)
He ate an apple.
(With "do")
2. Negatives
He is a doctor.
He ate an apple.
The prepositional phrase is necessary here, because without it, the sentence would be
incomplete: ("is a book" is not a complete sentence.) Inversion is necessary.
At the restaurant, the food was too spicy.
Without the prepositional phrase, the sentence the food was too spicy is still complete.
This structure is typically used with linking verbs (be, appear, seem, etc.) or words that
function as linking verbs.
In the doorway appeared two strangers.
If you should have any questions, please feel free to contact me.
Should you have any questions, please feel free to contact me.
If I had known you were coming, I would have baked a cake.
Had I known you were coming, I would have baked a cake.
If I go to Chicago, I will visit my grandmother.
XX Go I to Chicago, I will visit my grandmother.
If I have enough money, I will buy a horse.
XX Have I enough money, I will buy a horse.
which
how much
what
where
how many
who
when
how long
whoever
how
how far
whatever
why
how often
whether
if
whose
Embedded questions
Embedded questions are questions within another statement or question. They function as noun
clauses and as such should generally follow statement, not question, order.
(question order)
(Incorrect)
(Statement order: S+ V)
(Question)
(Incorrect)
(Correct)
(Question)
(Incorrect)
(Correct)
Who is she?
(Question)
(Incorrect)
(Correct)
When using adjectives as complements, it is okay to use question order for embedded questions:
Who's hungry?
(Question)
(Okay)
In some cases, depending on the focus of the sentence, question order may be used:
Who is the doctor?
I know who the doctor is.
Who is a doctor?
I know who is a doctor (and who is not).
Gerunds are defined as the -ing form of a verb. They have several functions.
1. Used as subjects and complements
Skiing is my favorite sport.
Hiking can be very strenuous.
Seeing is believing
2. Used as objects following prepositions and prepositional expressions
Thanks for tending my children.
The job consists of typing, filing, and answering the phone.
3. Used as objects following certain verbs.*
The children enjoyed watching the parade.
Ms. Terrell avoided paying her taxes until it was too late.
Gerunds can sometimes take objects of their own:
Roland is afraid of making mistakes.
Sandy is considering leaving New York.
*These verbs are commonly followed by gerunds.
admit
advise
anticipate
appreciate
attempt
avoid
begin
can't help
complete
consider
delay
deny
discuss
dislike
enjoy
finish
forget
go
hate
hesitate
imagine
intend
keep
like
love
mention
mind
miss
neglect
postpone
practice
prefer
quit
recall
recollect
recommend
regret
remember
resent
resist
risk
start
stop
suggest
threaten
tolerate
try
understand
(Adjective)
He is interested
(Stative passive)
(Stative passive)
Stative passives indicate a status or condition which may exist over a period of time. In contrast,
action verbs often indicate a change from one status to another.
We got married in 1998.
Jared is asleep.
Joan is sick.
(Action)
(Status)
below
over
under
inside
outside
around
through
beside
beyond
behind
in front of
near
nearby
by
next to
up
down
toward
along (side)
before*
after*
during
since*
with
without
within
until*
into
out (of)
off
upon
between
among
except
but*
like
as
than
about
despite
in spite of
beneath
underneath
on
at
to
from
for
of
be absolved of
be accepted as/to
be according to
be accused of
be accustomed to
be acquainted with
be adamant about
be addicted to
be affected by
be afraid of
be after
be alarmed at
be aligned with
be amazed at/by
be an authority on
be angry about/at/with
be annoyed at/with
be anxious about
be appropriate for
be armed with
be around
be arrested for
be ashamed of
be associated with
be astonished at/by
be at it (again)
be attached to
be attracted to
be aware of
be away from
B
be back (from)
be bad at
be bad for
be banned from
be based (up)on
be behind (schedule)
be bent on
be biased about
be big on
be blamed for
be blessed with
be bored with
be bound for
C
be capable of
be carried away
about/with
be caught up in
be centered around
be certain of
be charged with
be classified as
be clear about
be clear to
be clever at
be close to
be a combination of
be compared to
be compensated for
be composed of
be comprised of
be concerned
about/with
be confident of
be confused about
be congratulated for/on
be connected to/with
be conned into
be considerate of
be considered for
be content with
be contrary to
be convenient for/to
be convinced of
be convicted of/for
be coordinated with
be covered with
be crammed into
be crazy about
be credited with
be criticized for/as
be dedicated to
be delighted with
be dependent (up)on
be devoted to
be different from/than
be disappointed
about/at/in/with
be discouraged about
be discriminated
against
be disgusted with
be disillusioned with
be disqualified for
be disposed of
be distinguished from
be divided into
be divorced (from)
be done with
be down
be down on/with
be dragged into
be dressed (up) in
be drunk with/on
be east of
be elected as/to
be eligible for
be embarrassed
about/at
be encouraged by
be entailed in
be engaged to/in
be entrusted with
be envious of
be equal/equivalent to
be equipped with
be estranged from
be evicted from
be excited about
be expelled from
be crowded with
D
F
be faithful to
be faced with
be familiar with/to
be famous for
be fanatic(al) about
be fascinated with
be fed up with
be filled with
be finished with
be fired for/from
be followed by
be fond of
be fraught with
be free from/of
be friendly to/with
be frightened by/at
be full of
be glad to
be good at
be good to
be gone to/with
be grateful for/to
be guilty of
be half-hearted about
be hailed as
be happy about/with
be hard on
be headed
for/to/toward
be hired as/for
be immersed in
be imposed (up)on
be impressed by/with
be in
be in accordance with
be in agreement with
be an indication of
be an issue of
be in back of
be in bed with
be in cahoots with
be in charge of
be in common with
be in conjunction with
be in contact with
be in control of
be in danger of
be in exchange for
be in favor of
be in front of
be in honor of
be in hope(s) of
be in love with
be in need of
be in on
be in place of
be in possession of
be in proximity to
be in reference to
be in regard to
be in response to
be in return for
be in search of
be in store for
be in sync with
be in tandem with
be in the habit of
be in the middle of
be in the midst of
be furnished with
G
be hitched to
I
be in the vicinity of
be in time for
be in touch with
be in trouble with/for
be in tune with
be incensed with
be inducted into
be inferior to
be infested with
be informed about
be innocent of
be insecure about
be insistent (up)on
be interested in
be into
be involved in
be irritated at/with
be isolated from
be kind to
be knowledgeable
about
be labeled as
be leery of
be left of/with
be less than
be limited to
be located at/near
be mad at/about
be made of/from
be married to
be a matter of
be mean to
be meant to
be a measure of
be mindful of
be named as/after
be next to
be nice to
be notorious for
be north of
be nuts about
be oblivious about/to
be obsessed with
J
be jealous of
K
be kind of
be known as/for
L
be lower than
M
be more than
N
O
be obedient to
be obvious to
be off
be okay with
be on
be on behalf of
be on the brink of
be on the edge of
be on the verge of
be on time for
be on to
be on top of
be open about/for/to
be opposed to
be opposite from
be oppressed by
be out
be out of
be outraged about
be outspoken about
be over with
be parallel to
be partial to
be patient with
be a pattern of
be pegged as
be perturbed at/about
be pleased with
be polite to
be popular with
be praised for/about
be precious to
be preoccupied with
be prepared for
be prohibited from
be promoted to
be provided with
be proud of
be psyched about
be punished for
be put off by
Q
be qualified for
be a question of
R
be ready for
be regarded as
be related to
be relevant to
be relieved of
be remembered for
be rescued from
be reserved for
be responsible for
be retired from
be rid of
be rife with
be right to
be riled up (about)
be roped into
be satisfied with
be saved from
be scared of
be selected as/for
be sensible about
be separated from
be set on
be shocked at
be short of
be rude to
S
be sick of/about
be a sign of
be similar to
be soft on
be sorry about/for
be sort of
be south of
be specialized in
be spoken for
be startled at
be strange to
be a stranger to
be stuck on/with
be stunned at
be subject to
be sufficient for
be suitable for
be superior to
be sure of
be surprised at/about
be suspected of
be suspended from
be a symbol of
be taken in by
be tantamount to
be tapped as/by
be terrified of/with
be there for
be a threat to
be through with
be tired of
be tuned (in)to
be to the left of
be uncalled for
be under arrest
be under investigation
for
be up against
be up front with
be up in arms about
be up on
be up to
be upset about/with
be uptight about
be used for
be used to
be useful to
be to the right of
U
V
be valued as/at
be vindicated of
W
be wary of/about
be west of
be whipped into
be wiped out
be with it
be with reference to
be with respect to
be worked up about
be worried about
be wrapped up in
be wrong with
Z
be zealous about
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