Photochemical reaction

Absorption of radiant energy by reactant molecules brings in photophysical as well as

photochemical changes. According to Einstein's law of photochemical equivalence, the basic
principle of photo processes, each reactant molecule is capable of absorbing only one photon of
radiant energy. The absorption of photon by a reactant molecule may lead to any of the photo
process.

The chemical reactions, which are initiated as a result of absorption of light, are known as
photochemical reactions. In such cases, the absorbed energy is sufficient to activate the reactant
molecules to cross the energy barrier existing between the reactants and products or in other
words, energy associated with each photon supplies activation energy to reactant molecule
required for the change.
(1) Characteristics of photochemical reactions
(i) Each molecule taking part in a photo process absorbs only one photon of radiant energy
thereby increasing its energy level by hv or hc/
(ii) Photochemical reactions do not occur in dark.
(iii) Each photochemical reaction requires a definite amount of energy which is characteristic of a
particular wavelength of photon. For example, reactions needing more energy are carried out in
presence of UV light (lower , more E/Photon). A reaction-taking place in UV light may not occur
on exposure to yellow light (lower and lesser E/Photon)
(iv) The rate of photochemical reactions depend upon the intensity of radiations absorbed.
(v) The G values for light initiated reactions may or may not be negative.
(vi) The temperature does not have marked effect on the rate of light initiated reactions.
(2) Mechanism of some photochemical reactions
(i) Photochemical combination of H2 and Cl2 : A mixture of H2 and Cl2 on exposure to light give
rise to the formation of HCl, showing a chain reaction and thereby producing 106 to 108 molecules
of HCl per photon absorbed.
The mechanism leading to very high yield of HCl as a result of chemical change can be as
follows. Chlorine molecules absorb radiant energy to form an excited molecule which
decomposes to chlorine free radicals (Cl) to give chain initiation step.
Light absorption step :

........(i)

Chain initiation step :

........(ii)
The chlorine free radical then combines with H2 molecule to form HCl and H* free radical. The H*
free radical so formed again combines with another Cl2 molecule to give HCl and Cl* free radical
back resulting into chain propagation step.
Chain propagation step : Cl* + H2 > HCl + H* ........(iii)
H* + Cl2 > HCl + Cl*
The combination of two Cl* free radicals leads to chain terminating step.
Chain terminating step : CL* + Cl* > Cl2 ........(iv)

(ii) Photochemical combination of H2 and Br2: The combination of H2 and Br2 to form HBr in
presence of light is also an example of chain reaction like photochemical combination of H 2 and
Cl2 . Here two Br2 molecules absorb photon, however, inspite of chain reaction only one molecule
of HBr is formed for each 100 photon absorbed by 100 molecules of Br 2.
Mechanism
Light absorption step : Br2 + Hv > Br2* ........(i)
Chain initiation step : Br2* > Br* + Br* ........(ii)
Chain propagation step : Br* + H2 > HBr + H* ........(iii)
H* + Br2 > HBr + Br* ........(iv)
Chain termination step : Br* + Br* > Br2 ........(v)
The lower values of HBr formation per photon of light absorbed has been attributed to the fact
that step (III) is highly endothermic and thus before step (III) can take place most of the bromine
free radicals recombine as per step (V) to give Br2 molecule and thus providing less feasibility for
step (IV) i.e. steps regenerating free radicals. Also the decomposition of HBr increases with
increase in temperature.
(3) Quantum yield (or quantum efficiency) : The quantum efficiency or yield ( ) of a
photochemical reaction may be expressed as, = No. of molecules reacted or product formed/No.
of photon absorbed.
(4) Application of photochemistry: Photochemistry has significant role in our daily life. Some of
the photochemical reactions commonly known as cited below,
(i) Photosynthesis in plants
(ii) Photography
(iii) The formation and destruction of ozone layer
(iv) Photoetching in electronic industry
(v) Many polymerization reactions.
(vi) Modern printing technology
(vii) Free radical combinations to obtain many compounds.

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A reaction that is self-sustaining as a result of the products of one step initiating a

subsequent step.
In nuclear chain reactions the succession depends on production and capture of
neutrons. Thus, one nucleus of the isotope uranium235 can disintegrate with
the production of two or three neutrons, which cause similar fission of adjacent
nuclei. These in turn produce more neutrons. If the total amount of material
exceeds a critical mass, the chain reaction may cause an explosion.
Chemical chain reactions usually involve free radicals as intermediates. An
example is the reaction of chlorine with hydrogen initiated by ultraviolet
radiation. A chlorine molecule is first split into atoms:
Cl2 Cl + Cl
These react with hydrogen as follows
Cl + H2 HCl + H
H + Cl2 HCl + Cl etc.
Combustion and explosion reactions involve similar free-radical chain reactions.

Read more: chain reaction - Reactions, Cl, Rarr, Neutrons, Production, and Free
http://science.jrank.org/pages/13172/chain-reaction.html#ixzz1HIJYRB8x

TYPES OF CATALYSIS
This page looks at the the different types of catalyst (heterogeneous and homogeneous) with examples of
each kind, and explanations of how they work. You will also find a description of one example of
autocatalysis - a reaction which is catalysed by one of its products.

Note: This page doesn't deal with the effect of catalysts on rates of
reaction. If you don't already know about that, you might like to
follow this link first. Return to this page via the BACK button on
your browser.

Types of catalytic reactions

Catalysts can be divided into two main types - heterogeneous and homogeneous. In a heterogeneous
reaction, the catalyst is in a different phase from the reactants. In a homogeneous reaction, the catalyst is in
the same phase as the reactants.
What is a phase?
If you look at a mixture and can see a boundary between two of the components, those substances are in
different phases. A mixture containing a solid and a liquid consists of two phases. A mixture of various
chemicals in a single solution consists of only one phase, because you can't see any boundary between
them.

You might wonder why phase differs from the term physical state (solid, liquid or gas). It includes solids,
liquids and gases, but is actually a bit more general. It can also apply to two liquids (oil and water, for
example) which don't dissolve in each other. You could see the boundary between the two liquids.

If you want to be fussy about things, the diagrams actually show more phases than are labelled. Each, for
example, also has the glass beaker as a solid phase. All probably have a gas above the liquid - that's
another phase. We don't count these extra phases because they aren't a part of the reaction.

Heterogeneous catalysis

This involves the use of a catalyst in a different phase from the reactants. Typical examples involve a solid
catalyst with the reactants as either liquids or gases.

Note: It is important that you remember the difference between the

two terms heterogeneous and homogeneous.
hetero implies different (as in heterosexual). Heterogeneous
catalysis has the catalyst in a different phase from the reactants.
homo implies the same (as in homosexual). Homogeneous
catalysis has the catalyst in the same phase as the reactants.

How the heterogeneous catalyst works (in general terms)

Most examples of heterogeneous catalysis go through the same stages:
One or more of the reactants are adsorbed on to the surface of the catalyst at active sites.
Adsorption is where something sticks to a surface. It isn't the same as absorption where one
substance is taken up within the structure of another. Be careful!
An active site is a part of the surface which is particularly good at adsorbing things and helping
them to react.
There is some sort of interaction between the surface of the catalyst and the reactant molecules which
makes them more reactive.
This might involve an actual reaction with the surface, or some weakening of the bonds in the
attached molecules.
The reaction happens.
At this stage, both of the reactant molecules might be attached to the surface, or one might be
attached and hit by the other one moving freely in the gas or liquid.
The product molecules are desorbed.
Desorption simply means that the product molecules break away. This leaves the active site
available for a new set of molecules to attach to and react.
A good catalyst needs to adsorb the reactant molecules strongly enough for them to react, but not so
strongly that the product molecules stick more or less permanently to the surface.
Silver, for example, isn't a good catalyst because it doesn't form strong enough attachments with reactant
molecules. Tungsten, on the other hand, isn't a good catalyst because it adsorbs too strongly.
Metals like platinum and nickel make good catalysts because they adsorb strongly enough to hold and
activate the reactants, but not so strongly that the products can't break away.
Examples of heterogeneous catalysis
The hydrogenation of a carbon-carbon double bond
The simplest example of this is the reaction between ethene and hydrogen in the presence of a nickel
catalyst.

In practice, this is a pointless reaction, because you are converting the extremely useful ethene into the
relatively useless ethane. However, the same reaction will happen with any compound containing a carboncarbon double bond.
One important industrial use is in the hydrogenation of vegetable oils to make margarine, which also
involves reacting a carbon-carbon double bond in the vegetable oil with hydrogen in the presence of a nickel
catalyst.
Ethene molecules are adsorbed on the surface of the nickel. The double bond between the carbon atoms
breaks and the electrons are used to bond it to the nickel surface.

Hydrogen molecules are also adsorbed on to the surface of the nickel. When this happens, the hydrogen
molecules are broken into atoms. These can move around on the surface of the nickel.

If a hydrogen atom diffuses close to one of the bonded carbons, the bond between the carbon and the nickel
is replaced by one between the carbon and hydrogen.

That end of the original ethene now breaks free of the surface, and eventually the same thing will happen at
the other end.

As before, one of the hydrogen atoms forms a bond with the carbon, and that end also breaks free. There is
now space on the surface of the nickel for new reactant molecules to go through the whole process again.

Note: Several metals, including nickel, have the ability to absorb

hydrogen into their structure as well as adsorb it on to the surface.
In these cases, the hydrogen molecules are also converted into
atoms which can diffuse through the metal structure.
This happens with nickel if the hydrogen is under high pressures,
but I haven't been able to find any information about whether it is
also absorbed under the lower pressures usually used for these
hydrogenation reactions. I have therefore stuck with the usual

explanation in terms of adsorption.

If anyone has any firm information about this, could they contact
me via the address on the about this site page.

Catalytic converters
Catalytic converters change poisonous molecules like carbon monoxide and various nitrogen oxides in car
exhausts into more harmless molecules like carbon dioxide and nitrogen. They use expensive metals like
platinum, palladium and rhodium as the heterogeneous catalyst.
The metals are deposited as thin layers onto a ceramic honeycomb. This maximises the surface area and
keeps the amount of metal used to a minimum.
Taking the reaction between carbon monoxide and nitrogen monoxide as typical:

In the same sort of way as the previous example, the carbon monoxide and nitrogen monoxide will be
adsorbed on the surface of the catalyst, where they react. The carbon dioxide and nitrogen are then
desorbed.
The use of vanadium(V) oxide in the Contact Process
During the Contact Process for manufacturing sulphuric acid, sulphur dioxide has to be converted into
sulphur trioxide. This is done by passing sulphur dioxide and oxygen over a solid vanadium(V) oxide
catalyst.

Note: The equation is written with the half in it to make the

explanation below tidier. You may well be familiar with the equation
written as twice that shown, but the present version is perfectly
acceptable. It is also shown as a one-way rather than a reversible
reaction to avoid complicating things.

This example is slightly different from the previous ones because the gases actually react with the surface of
the catalyst, temporarily changing it. It is a good example of the ability of transition metals and their
compounds to act as catalysts because of their ability to change their oxidation state.

Note: If you aren't sure about oxidation states, it might be useful to

follow this link before you go on. Use the BACK button on your
browser to return to this page.

The sulphur dioxide is oxidised to sulphur trioxide by the vanadium(V) oxide. In the process, the
vanadium(V) oxide is reduced to vanadium(IV) oxide.
The vanadium(IV) oxide is then re-oxidised by the oxygen.

This is a good example of the way that a catalyst can be changed during the course of a reaction. At the end
of the reaction, though, it will be chemically the same as it started.

Note: If you want more detail about the Contact Process, you will

find a full description of the conditions used and the reasons for
them by following this link.

Homogeneous catalysis
This has the catalyst in the same phase as the reactants. Typically everything will be present as a gas or
contained in a single liquid phase. The examples contain one of each of these . . .
Examples of homogeneous catalysis
The reaction between persulphate ions and iodide ions
This is a solution reaction that you may well only meet in the context of catalysis, but it is a lovely example!
Persulphate ions (peroxodisulphate ions), S2O82-, are very powerful oxidising agents. Iodide ions are very
easily oxidised to iodine. And yet the reaction between them in solution in water is very slow.
If you look at the equation, it is easy to see why that is:
The reaction needs a collision between two negative ions. Repulsion is going to get seriously in the way of
that!
The catalysed reaction avoids that problem completely. The catalyst can be either iron(II) or iron(III) ions
which are added to the same solution. This is another good example of the use of transition metal
compounds as catalysts because of their ability to change oxidation state.
For the sake of argument, we'll take the catalyst to be iron(II) ions. As you will see shortly, it doesn't actually
matter whether you use iron(II) or iron(III) ions.
The persulphate ions oxidise the iron(II) ions to iron(III) ions. In the process the persulphate ions are
reduced to sulphate ions.
The iron(III) ions are strong enough oxidising agents to oxidise iodide ions to iodine. In the process, they are
reduced back to iron(II) ions again.
Both of these individual stages in the overall reaction involve collision between positive and negative ions.
This will be much more likely to be successful than collision between two negative ions in the uncatalysed
reaction.
What happens if you use iron(III) ions as the catalyst instead of iron(II) ions? The reactions simply happen in
a different order.
The destruction of atmospheric ozone
This is a good example of homogeneous catalysis where everything is present as a gas.
Ozone, O3, is constantly being formed and broken up again in the high atmosphere by the action of
ultraviolet light. Ordinary oxygen molecules absorb ultraviolet light and break into individual oxygen atoms.
These have unpaired electrons, and are known as free radicals. They are very reactive.

The oxygen radicals can then combine with ordinary oxygen molecules to make ozone.
Ozone can also be split up again into ordinary oxygen and an oxygen radical by absorbing ultraviolet light.

This formation and breaking up of ozone is going on all the time. Taken together, these reactions stop a lot
of harmful ultraviolet radiation penetrating the atmosphere to reach the surface of the Earth.
The catalytic reaction we are interested in destroys the ozone and so stops it absorbing UV in this way.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) like CF2Cl2, for example, were used extensively in aerosols and as refrigerants.
Their slow breakdown in the atmosphere produces chlorine atoms - chlorine free radicals. These catalyse
the destruction of the ozone.

This happens in two stages. In the first, the ozone is broken up and a new free radical is produced.
The chlorine radical catalyst is regenerated by a second reaction. This can happen in two ways depending
on whether the ClO radical hits an ozone molecule or an oxygen radical.
If it hits an oxygen radical (produced from one of the reactions we've looked at previously):

Or if it hits an ozone molecule:

Because the chlorine radical keeps on being regenerated, each one can destroy thousands of ozone
molecules.

Note: If you are a UK A level student it is probable that you will

only want one of these last two equations depending on what your
syllabus says. Unfortunately, at the time of writing, different A level
syllabuses were quoting different final equations. You need to
check your current syllabus. If you don't have a copy of your
syllabus, follow this link to find out how to get one.

Autocatalysis
The oxidation of ethanedioic acid by manganate(VII) ions
In autocatalysis, the reaction is catalysed by one of its products. One of the simplest examples of this is in
the oxidation of a solution of ethanedioic acid (oxalic acid) by an acidified solution of potassium
manganate(VII) (potassium permanganate).

The reaction is very slow at room temperature. It is used as a titration to find the concentration of potassium
manganate(VII) solution and is usually carried out at a temperature of about 60C. Even so, it is quite slow
to start with.
The reaction is catalysed by manganese(II) ions. There obviously aren't any of those present before the
reaction starts, and so it starts off extremely slowly at room temperature. However, if you look at the
equation, you will find manganese(II) ions amongst the products. More and more catalyst is produced as the
reaction proceeds and so the reaction speeds up.
You can measure this effect by plotting the concentration of one of the reactants as time goes on. You get a
graph quite unlike the normal rate curve for a reaction.
Most reactions give a rate curve which looks like this:

Concentrations are high at the beginning and so the reaction is fast - shown by a rapid fall in the reactant
concentration. As things get used up, the reaction slows down and eventually stops as one or more of the
reactants are completely used up.
An example of autocatalysis gives a curve like this:

You can see the slow (uncatalysed) reaction at the beginning. As catalyst begins to be formed in the
mixture, the reaction speeds up - getting faster and faster as more and more catalyst is formed. Eventually,
of course, the rate falls again as things get used up.
Warning!
Don't assume that a rate curve which looks like this necessarily shows an example of autocatalysis. There
are other effects which might produce a similar graph.
For example, if the reaction involved a solid reacting with a liquid, there might be some sort of surface
coating on the solid which the liquid has to penetrate before the expected reaction can happen.
A more common possibility is that you have a strongly exothermic reaction and aren't controlling the
temperature properly. The heat evolved during the reaction speeds the reaction up.

Where would you like to go now?

To the catalysis menu . . .
To the Physical Chemistry menu . . .
To Main Menu . . .

CATALYSTS IN INORGANIC INDUSTRIAL

PROCESSES
This page takes a brief look at the catalysts used in the Contact Process to manufacture sulphuric acid, in
the Haber Process to manufacture ammonia, and in the conversion of ammonia into nitric acid.
If you want full details of the Contact Process or the Haber Process, you will find links below. Full details of
the manufacture of nitric acid are given on this page because they don't appear elsewhere on this site.

The Contact Process for the manufacture of sulphuric

acid
At the heart of the Contact Process is a reaction which converts sulphur dioxide into sulphur trioxide.
Sulphur dioxide gas is passed together with air (as a source of oxygen) over a solid vanadium(V) oxide
catalyst. This is therefore an example of heterogeneous catalysis.

The fact that this is a reversible reaction makes no difference to the operation of the catalyst. It speeds up
both the forward reaction and the back reaction by the same amount.

Note: If you don't understand the term

heterogeneous catalysis, or want the mechanism
for this reaction, follow this link to the introductory
page on catalysis.
If you want full details of the Contact Process,
including the reasons for all the conditions, you will
find it by following this link.

The Haber Process for the manufacture of ammonia

The Haber Process combines hydrogen and nitrogen to make ammonia using an iron catalyst. This is
another reversible reaction, and another example of heterogeneous catalysis.

Note: If you want full details of the Haber Process,

including the reasons for all the conditions, you will
find it by following this link.

The manufacture of nitric acid from ammonia

This is yet another example of heterogeneous catalysis.
This process involves oxidation of the ammonia from the Haber Process by oxygen in the air in the presence
of a platinum-rhodium catalyst. Large sheets of metal gauze are used in order to reduce expense and to
maximise the surface area of the catalyst. Although in principle the sheets would last for ever because the
metals are acting as a catalyst, in practice they do deteriorate over time and have to be replaced.
The sheets of gauze are held at a temperature of about 900C. The reaction is very exothermic, and once it

starts the temperature is maintained by the heat evolved.

The ammonia is oxidised to nitrogen monoxide gas.

This is cooled. At ordinary temperatures and in the presence of excess air, it is oxidised further to nitrogen
dioxide.
The nitrogen dioxide (still in the presence of excess air) is absorbed in water where it reacts to give a
concentrated solution of nitric acid.

ACID CATALYSIS IN ORGANIC

CHEMISTRY
This page looks at the use of acid catalysts in some organic reactions. It covers the nitration of benzene, the
hydration of ethene to manufacture ethanol, and the reactions both to produce esters and to hydrolyse them
under acidic conditions. You will find links to the full mechanisms for each of these reactions if you want
them.

The nitration of benzene

Benzene is treated with a mixture of concentrated nitric acid and concentrated sulphuric acid at a
temperature not exceeding 50C. As the temperature increases there is a greater chance of getting more
than one nitro group, -NO2, substituted onto the ring.
Nitrobenzene is formed.
or:

The concentrated sulphuric acid is acting as a catalyst. Because everything is present in the same liquid
phase, this is a good example of homogeneous catalysis.

Note: If you don't understand the term homogeneous catalysis,

follow this link to the introductory page on catalysis.
If you want the mechanism for the nitration of benzene, you will
find it on another part of this site.
Use the BACK button on your browser if you wish to return to this
page.

The hydration of ethene to make ethanol

Ethene is mixed with steam and passed over a catalyst consisting of solid silicon dioxide coated with
phosphoric(V) acid. The temperature used is 300C and the pressure is about 60 to 70 atmospheres.
Because the catalyst is in a different phase from the reactants, this is an example of heterogeneous
catalysis.

This is a reversible reaction and only about 5% of the ethene reacts on each pass over the catalyst. When

the reaction mixture is cooled, the ethanol and any excess steam condense, and the gaseous ethene can be
recycled through the process.
A conversion rate of about 95% is achieved by continual recycling in this way.

Note: If you are interested in the reasons for the conditions used
in this reaction, you will find them in the equilibrium section of
this site by following this link.
If you are interested in the mechanism for the hydration of
ethene, follow this link.
Use the BACK button on your browser if you wish to return to this
page.

Making esters - the esterification reaction

Esters are what is formed when an organic acid reacts with an alcohol in the presence of concentrated
sulphuric acid as the catalyst. Everything is present in a single liquid phase, and so this is an example of
homogeneous catalysis.
For example, ethanoic acid reacts with ethanol to produce ethyl ethanoate.

Note: If you aren't happy about the names of esters, you will find
them discussed if you follow this link.
Use the BACK button on your browser to return to this page
afterwards.

The ethyl ethanoate has the lowest boiling point of anything in the mixture, and so is distilled off as soon as
it is formed. This helps to reduce the reverse reaction.

Note: If you are interested in the mechanism for the esterification

reaction, follow this link.
Use the BACK button on your browser if you wish to return to this
page.

The acid catalysed hydrolysis of esters

In principle, this is the reverse of the esterification reaction but, in practice, it has to be done slightly
differently. The ester is heated under reflux with a dilute acid such as dilute hydrochloric acid or dilute
sulphuric acid.

Heating under reflux: This involves heating the mixture in a

flask with a condenser placed vertically in the neck. Any
escaping vapours condense and run back into the flask.

The equation for the reaction is simply the esterification equation written backwards.

The dilute acid used as the catalyst also provides the water for the reaction. You need a large excess of
water in order to increase the chances of the forward reaction happening and the ester hydrolysing.
You would normally hydrolyse esters quite differently by heating them with sodium hydroxide solution
(alkaline hydrolysis). This isn't an example of a catalytic reaction because the hydroxide ions are used up
during the reaction.
The main advantage of doing it like this is that it is a one-way reaction. The ester can be completely
hydrolysed rather than only partially if the reaction is reversible.

Note: If you are interested in the mechanism for the acid

catalysed hydrolyis, follow this link.
Use the BACK button on your browser if you wish to return to this
page.

MORE EXAMPLES OF CATALYSIS IN

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
This page looks a few odds and ends of examples of catalysts used in organic chemistry. It includes the
formation of epoxyethane from ethene, and several reactions from benzene chemistry - Friedel-Crafts
reactions and halogenation. You will find links to other parts of the site for the mechanisms of the benzene
reactions.
Other examples of catalysts in organic chemistry can be found from the catalysis menu. There is a link to
that menu at the bottom of the page if you have come direct to this page via a search engine.

The manufacture of epoxyethane from ethene

Epoxyethane is manufactured by reacting ethene with a limited amount of oxygen in the presence of a silver
catalyst at a temperature of about 250 - 300C and a pressure of less than 15 atmospheres. Because the
solid silver is catalysing a gas reaction, this is an example of heterogeneous catalysis.

The reaction is exothermic and the temperature has to be carefully controlled to prevent further oxidation of
the ethene to carbon dioxide and water.

Note: If you have read the introductory page on catalysis, you

might remember that silver is quoted as a metal which isn't a
good catalyst because it doesn't adsorb reactant molecules
strongly enough, and yet here it is being used as a catalyst.
If anyone reading this knows of an interesting reason for this
discrepancy (other than the fact that it just happens to work in
this case!), could you please let me know via the address on
the about this site page.

The halogenation of benzene

Benzene reacts with chlorine or bromine in the presence of a catalyst. The catalyst is either aluminium
chloride (or aluminium bromide if you are reacting benzene with bromine) or iron.
Strictly speaking iron isn't a catalyst, because it gets permanently changed during the reaction. It reacts with
some of the chlorine or bromine to form iron(III) chloride, FeCl 3, or iron(III) bromide, FeBr3.

These compounds act as the catalyst and behave exactly like aluminium chloride in these reactions.
The reaction with chlorine
The reaction between benzene and chlorine in the presence of either aluminium chloride or iron gives
chlorobenzene.
or:

The reaction with bromine

The reaction between benzene and bromine in the presence of either aluminium bromide or iron gives
bromobenzene. Iron is usually used because it is cheaper and more readily available.
or:

Note: If you have want the mechanism for the halogenation

reaction, you should follow this link.
Use the BACK button on your browser to return quickly to this
page if you want to.

The Friedel-Crafts alkylation of benzene

Alkylation involves replacing a hydrogen atom on a benzene ring by an alkyl group like methyl or ethyl. This
is another example of the use of aluminium chloride as a catalyst.
Benzene is treated with a chloroalkane (for example, chloromethane or chloroethane) in the presence of
aluminium chloride as a catalyst. The equation shows the reaction using a methyl group, but any other alkyl
group could be used in the same way.
Substituting a methyl group gives methylbenzene - once known as toluene.
or:

Note: If you have want the mechanism for the alkylation

reaction, you should follow this link.

Use the BACK button on your browser to return quickly to this
page if you want to.

The Friedel-Crafts acylation of benzene

An acyl group is an alkyl group attached to a carbon-oxygen double bond. Acylation means substituting an
acyl group into something - in this case, into a benzene ring.
The most commonly used acyl group is CH 3CO-. This is called the ethanoyl group. In the example which
follows we are substituting a CH3CO- group into the ring, but you could equally well use any other alkyl
group instead of the CH3.

The most reactive substance containing an acyl group is an acyl chloride (also known as an acid chloride).
Benzene is treated with a mixture of ethanoyl chloride, CH 3COCl, and aluminium chloride as the catalyst. A
ketone called phenylethanone is formed.

Note: Ketones: A family of compounds containing a carbonoxygen double bond with a hydrocarbon group either side of it.
In this case there is a methyl group on one side and a benzene
ring on the other.
Don't worry too much about the name "phenylethanone" - all
that matters is that you can draw the structure.

or:

Note: If you have want the mechanism for the acylation

reaction, you should follow this link.
Use the BACK button on your browser to return quickly to this
page if you want to.