UNIVERSITY OF PEDAGOGY

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH

American Studies

HANDOUT # 7
EDUCATION IN THE USA
7.1 EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHY
For the past fifty years American schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1952), an
American educator and writer. Dewey believed that the school's job was to enhance the natural development of the
growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey
system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.
Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching "life skills" - logical thinking, analysis,
creative problem solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the
child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers
both regard pure memorisation as uncreative and somewhat vulgar.
In addition to "life skills," schools are assigned to solve the evergrowing stock of social problems. Racism,
teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and suicide are just a few of the modem problems that have
appeared on the school curriculum. This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.

The Money Value of Education

As we have discussed in earlier sessions, the American definition of success is largely one of acquiring wealth
and a high material standard of living. It is not surprising, therefore, that Americans value education for its monetary
value. The belief is widespread in the United States that the more schooling people have, the more money they will
earn when they leave school. The belief is strongest regarding the desirability of an undergraduate university degree,
or a professional degree such as medicine or law, following the undergraduate degree. The money value of graduate
degrees in "nonprofessional" fields such as art, history, or philosophy is not as great. In recent years, there has been a
change in the job market in the United States. In the past, it was possible to get a high-paying factory job without a
college education. Workers with skills learned in vocational schools or on the job could do work that did not require a
college education. These were among the jobs that new immigrants were often able to obtain. Increasingly, however,
the advent of new technologies has meant that more and more education is required to do the work. Many of the new
jobs in the United States either require a college education, even a graduate degree, or they are low-paying jobs in the
service sector of the economy, such as fast-food restaurants, small stores, and hotels.

Educating the Individual

American schools tend to put more emphasis on developing critical thinking skills than they do on acquiring
quantities of facts. American students are encouraged to express their own opinions in class and think for themselves,
a reflection of the American values of individual freedom and self-reliance. The goal of the American education
system is to teach children how to learn and to help them reach their maximum potential.
The development of social and interpersonal skills may be considered as important as the development of
intellectual skills. To help students develop these other important skills, schools have added a large number of
extracurricular activities (activities outside classroom studies) to daily life at school. These activities are almost as
important as the students' class work. For example, in making their decisions about which students to admit, colleges
look for students who are "well-rounded." Grades on high school courses and scores on tests like the SAT (Scholastic
Aptitude Test) are very important, but so are the extracurricular activities. It is by participating in these activities that
students demonstrate their special talents, their level of maturity and responsibility, their leadership qualities, and their
ability to get along with others.

Some Americans consider athletics, frequently called competitive sports, the most important of all extracurricular
activities. This is because many people believe it is important for young people, particularly young men, to learn how
to compete successfully. Team sports such as football, basketball, and baseball are important because they teach
students the "winning spirit." At times, this athletic competition may be carried to such an extreme that some students
and their parents may place more importance on the high school's sports program than its academic offerings.
Student government is another extracurricular activity designed to develop competitive, political, and social
skills in students. The students choose a number of student government officers, who compete for the votes of their
fellow students in school elections. Although these officers have little power over the central decisions of the school,
the process of running for office and then taking responsibility for a number of student activities if elected is seen as
good experience in developing their leadership and competitive skills, and helping them to be responsible citizens.
Athletics and student government are only two of a variety of extracurricular activities found in American
schools. There are clubs and activities for almost every student interest-art, music, drama, debate, foreign languages,
photography, volunteer work-all aimed at helping the student to become more successful in later life. Many parents
watch their children's extracurricular activities with as much interest and concern as they do their children's
intellectual achievements in the classroom.

7.2. SCHOOL STRUCTURE

Public vs private schools: the concept of equality

About 88% of American children receive their
elementary and high school education in the nation's public
schools. These schools have the following important
characteristics in common:
a) They are supported by taxes and, therefore, do not
charge tuition.
b) In general, they are neighborhood schools, open to
all students who live within the district.
c) They are co-educational, which means that boys and girls
attend the same schools and have nearly all of their classes
together. By providing girls with equal educational
opportunity, American public schools have helped to create
today's self-sufficient American woman.
d) Public schools are required to follow some state guidelines regarding, for example, curriculum and teacher
qualifications. But, in most matters, schools are locally controlled. Each school district is run by an elected
Board of Education and the school administrators that Board hires. This system creates strong ties between the
district's schools and its community.
e) Public schools are nonsectarian (secular), which means that they are free from the influence of any religion.
As a result, children of many different religions feel comfortable attending the public schools, and the public
school system has been able to help a diverse population build a common culture.

Private schools can be divided into two categories: parochial (supported by a particular religious group) and
secular (nonreligious). Private schools charge tuition and are not under direct public control, although many states set
educational standards for them. In order to attend a private school, a student must apply and be accepted. Parochial
schools make up the largest group of private schools, and most of these are operated by the Roman Catholic Church.
Private secular schools are mainly high schools and colleges.
There are also some elite private schools, which serve mainly upper-class children. Students must pay such high
tuition costs that only wealthier families can afford them. Parents often send their children to these schools so that they
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will associate with other upper-class children and maintain the upper-class position held by their parents, in addition to
getting a good education.
Unlike private religious schools, elitist private schools do conflict with the American ideal of equality of
opportunity. These schools often give an extra educational and social advantage to the young people whose families
have the money to allow them to attend. However, because these schools are relatively few in number, they do not
displace the public school as the central educational institution in the United States. Nor does the best private school
education protect young people from competition with public school graduates for admission to the best universities in
the nation.
There is another area of inequality in the American education system. Because of the way that schools are
funded, the quality of education that American students receive in public schools varies greatly. More than 90 percent
of the money for schools comes from the local level (cities and counties), primarily from property taxes. School
districts that have middle class or wealthy families have more tax money to spend on education. Therefore, wealthier
school districts have beautiful school buildings with computers and the latest science equipment, and poorer school
districts have older buildings with less modern equipment. The amount of money spent on education may vary from
$7,000 per child in a wealthy suburb to only $1,200 per child attending an inner-city school, or one in a poor rural
area. Although the amount of money spent per child is not always the best indicator of the quality of education the
child receives, it certainly is an important factor

The ladder of education

Americans view their public school system as an educational ladder, rising from elementary school to high
school and finally college undergraduate and graduate programs. Most children start school at age five, by attending
kindergarten, or even at age three or four by attending pre-school programs. Then there are six years of elementary
school and usually two years of middle school (or junior high school), and four years of high school. Not all school
systems have kindergarten, but all do have twelve years of elementary, middle school, and senior high school. School
systems may divide the twelve years up differently-grouping sixth, seventh, and eighth graders into middle school, for
example. After high school, the majority of students go on to college. Undergraduate studies lead to a bachelor's
degree, which is generally what Americans mean when they speak of a " college* * diploma." The bachelors degree
can be followed by professional studies, which lead to degrees in such professions as law and medicine, and graduate
studies, which lead to master's and doctoral degrees. American public schools are free and open to all at the
elementary and secondary level (high school), but public universities charge tuition and have competitive entrance
requirements. The educational ladder concept is an almost perfect reflection of the American idea of individual
success based on equality of opportunity and on " working your way to the top." In the United States there are no
separate educational systems with a higher level of education for the wealthy and a lower level of education for the
masses. Rather, there is one system that is open to all. Individuals may climb as high on the ladder as they can. The
abilities of the individuals, rather than their social class background, are expected to determine how high each person
will go.
The American school structure may be summed up as follows:

Grade school to high school:

At the age of five, children start kindergarten, where they concentrate on getting ready for the heavier
burdens of grade school by singing songs, painting pictures, learning to hang up their coats, and identifying numbers
and letters. Grades 1 through 5 or 6 are known as elementary or grade school, and at the very least teach reading,
writing, and arithmetic, along with varying degrees of art, gym (sports), social studies, and science. The curriculum
usually broadens in middle school/junior high (which can be anything from 5th to 8th grades to just 7th and 8th
grades), and by high school (which traditionally begins with 9th grade) a wide choice of elective courses may be
offered - including such unacademic subjects as car repair, typing, homemaking, and art.

The word college is used in several different ways. It is generally used instead of university to refer to the education after high school,
as in the expressions "go to college," and "get a college education." It is also used to refer to the school, as in "Where do you go to
college?" Often people use the word college to refer to a small school that does not offer graduate degrees, and university for large
schools that offer both undergraduate and graduate degrees. Universities often call the divisions within them colleges, as in "the
College of Arts and Sciences" of Georgetown University

Those in their first year of high school, 9th grade, are called freshmen; 10th graders are sophomores; 11th
graders are juniors; and 12th graders are seniors. (This terminology repeats itself in college when first-year students
are freshmen; second-year students are sophomores, etc.)

Universities
Over half of high school graduates go on to some kind of advanced study so there is nothing exclusive about a
college education. At last count, there were more than 3,000 institutions of higher learning in the United States. This
includes everything from two-year colleges with a few hundred students to state universities (a university offers both a
four-year undergraduate program and advanced degrees from its various graduate schools) with 35,000 students on
one campus.
Nearly every college charges tuition. State universities are much cheaper than private ones, where total costs
including room and board can be as much as $26,000 a year. (It has been noted that the annual cost of a private
college education has over the years kept pace with the price of a fully equipped, four-door Chevrolet sedan.) While
this sounds staggering, at many colleges as many as two-thirds of the students are receiving scholarships.
Despite the plethora of colleges, every year tension mounts as high school seniors wait to find out if the colleges
of their choice have accepted them. The criteria for acceptance include high school grades, personal recommendations,
achievements outside school, and test scores. These tests consist of nationwide, though private, exams known as
SAT's (Scholastic Aptitude Tests), which test both mathematics and verbal skills, and Achievement Tests, which test
knowledge in particular subjects. Although important, these tests do not inspire any of the suicidal impulses that the
big exams in some other countries do.
A status education is available only from the relatively few highprofile institutions among the many, although an
excellent education is actually available at most schools. It is conversely possible to go to one of the "best" schools
and emerge with a dim education. The standards for completing the course may not be as demanding as those for
entrance, and students often find they have a great deal of time to party." Some schools are best known for such
qualities as the regular drunkenness of their students or the excellent nearby skiing. Admittedly, these are not the elite
ones, although it is also possible to graduate from one of the elite schools without making too much effort.
Despite such manifestly immature pursuits, in the last fifteen years universities have relinquished their parental
role. Most colleges do very little to regulate the lives of students, other than to dismiss those who fail too many
courses and to offer counselling to the troubled. Teachers do not involve themselves in the lives of their students.
Parents who want supervision for their young might have to find a Christian college.
A Tanzanian who arrived to attend Coming Community College says he'll never forget the first day's registration:
"It was terrible, overwhelming. I had never had to choose my courses before. This would never happen in Africa."
American colleges require certain basic courses (varying with each college), but beyond these leave students free to
pursue their own interests. Consequently, nearly every institution has a fat catalogue with a giant smorgasbord of
courses - from social relations among the Inuit to nuclear physics.
Graduate Schools
Beyond the parties, remedial courses, and football teams, there is a higher level at which the American university is
manifestly successful. It is in the graduate schools that the American academic system shines, where intelligent
inquiry and the analytic tradition pay off.
The serious student who reaches the advanced levels will be as well trained as at any university in the world.
Professors from around the world flock to American universities as much for the intellectual excitement as for the
handsome salaries. (Professors are held in much higher esteem than schoolteachers, which is reflected in their
salaries as well as in a much greater degree of autonomy in their teaching.) Increasingly, foreigners occupy a large
number of places in American graduate schools, particularly in the sciences.

7.3 ATTENDING AN AMERICAN UNIVERSITY

Money has increasingly become a factor in a college education. All university students must pay tuition expenses
in the United States. Because tuition is much lower at public universities than at private ones, wealthy students have
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more choices. There are a number of financial aid programs in the form of loans and scholarships available at both
public and private schools. However, the expenses of buying books and living away from home make it increasingly
difficult for many students to attend even the less expensive public universities.
Ironically, it may be the middle-class
family that suffers the most from the rising
tuition costs. The family income may be too high
to qualify for financial aid, but not high enough
to afford the $15,000 to $35,000 per year (or
more) needed for a private college education. At
present, 80 percent of all college students attend
public universities, where expenses are usually
closer to $ 10,000 a year. Many students must
work during their college years to help meet even
these costs. A number of students who cannot
afford to go away to college attend community
college programs for two years in their
hometowns. These two-year programs often feed
into the state university systems and offer
educational opportunities to large numbers of
students who ordinarily would not be able to attend a university.
Despite its costs, the percentage of Americans seeking a college education continues to grow. In 1900, less than
10 percent of college-age Americans entered college. Today, over 60 percent of Americans ages 25 to 39 have taken
some college courses, and over 20 percent of all Americans have attended four years or more. There are about 15
million students attending college now, about six times more than 50 years ago, and there are roughly 3,000 different
colleges and universities to choose from. Today, many parents who were not able to attend college when they were
young have the satisfaction of seeing their sons and daughters attend.
Even the formerly elitist private universities have yielded a great deal to public pressure for greater equality of
opportunity in education. Harvard, a private university considered by many to be one of the nation 's most prestigious,
provides a good example. Before World War II, the majority of Harvard students came from elite private preparatory
schools. Now, the majority of them come from public high schools. As equality of opportunity came to Harvard, the
competition that accompanies it also increased dramatically. Before World War II, Harvard admitted about 90 percent
of those who applied. Now, Harvard admits only about 16 or 17 percent of its applicants.
7.4 .STUDENT LIFE
To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior
high they start "changing classes." This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch
classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hall ways,
where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in
these hallways, around which they congregate.
Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Once foreign children have learned
English, they may find their studies ridiculously easy and be bored. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time,
which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities - sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts - supposed to
inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organise, etc. Those who don't become engaged in
such activities or have after-school jobs have plenty of opportunity to "hang out," listen to teenage music, and watch
television.
Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American
parents have lower expectations for their children's success in school than other nation
What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted
against each other whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is
expected to produce a scattering of A's and F's (A = excellent; B = good; C = average; D = poor; and F = failed). A
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teacher who gives all A's looks too soft - so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top
marks.

7.5. TEACHER RESPECT

Teaching is not a high-status occupation in the United States. This is in keeping with the pay scale, which is poor
compared to other professions. (In another country, one could be respected and poor, but rarely in America.)
Furthermore, teaching has traditionally been a woman's field, another strike against it. And in all truth, many teachers
are not well-educated, having frequently been trained in teaching methods rather than in an academic field.
Teachers are treated poorly inside as well as outside the schools. They are seen as the foot soldiers who must
carry out the constant flow of orders descending from school boards, politicians, principals, and parents. Every year,
in the worst schools, teachers are injured by students. Students' rights remain paramount, and teachers must be
prepared to justify their actions in all matters.
Many foreigners have rather simplistically concluded that it's the absence of corporal punishment (which is
illegal in many states) in the schools that causes all the problems, but few Americans would agree. To Americans,
corporal punishment is unfair, giving too much power to the strong.
Some school systems have begun to have students wear uniforms. Contrary as uniforms are to traditional
American freedom of expression, the uniforms have a calming effect. The need to wear the right clothes creates a lot
of social pressure in schools, and where gangs are strong, just wearing the wrong colours can be dangerous. The trend
toward uniforms is growing fast.

7.6 .SOCIAL FORCES AFFECTING AMERICAN EDUCATION

A few aspects of the social context in which American education operates are worth mentioning.
The first has to do with the social status or
degree of respect ascribed to people who are
involved in education. American teachers (that
term usually applies to people who teach in
kindergarten through grade 12, the final grade in
secondary school) do not enjoy high status in the
society. Respondents to a 1985 Gallup Poll
placed teachers well below physicians,
clergymen, and bankers in terms of their prestige
or status in the community. judges, lawyers, and
public school principals were also rated above
teachers. Funeral directors and local political
officeholders were seen as having nearly as
much prestige or status as teachers did. Teachers are not well paid. Their working conditions are usually less
comfortable than those of workers in many other areas. They are not as well respected as are people who actually
"do" something rather than "just" teach.
Nor are college and university professors generally held in the high regard they are in many other countries.
There are some exceptions-mainly those who have made particularly noteworthy contributions to science (not the
humanities, usually, because the humanities are not "practical ")-but professors are often viewed as people who are
teaching because they are not capable of doing anything else.
In some societies students are generally respected, since being a student is relatively unusual and requires
special effort, Not so in the United States. Nearly everyone under the age of 18 is a student, and so are many who
are older. Under these circumstances, students are rarely accorded special respect.

Finally there is the matter of teacher education. In most colleges and universities, people who teach prospective
teachers are at or near the bottom of the status hierarchy. "Educationists" are looked down upon by most others
within academia.

Another aspect of the society that affects education is the

amount of money devoted to its support. Education competes
with other public enterprises that need money. Some states
consistently put a higher percentage of their budgets into
education than others, but none consistently gives education
its highest priority. Most educators believe their institutions
are always under-funded.

The third social factor influencing education is politics. In

some states and communities, contemporary political conflicts
are directly reflected in the administration of educational
institutions. School boards may get into debates about the role
of such things as "peace education, " "sex education, " "drug
education," or "non-sexist, non-racist education" in
elementarv schools. State governors may appoint their
political supporters to positions on the board of regents that governs the state's major public university.
However, the degree to which political conflicts are manifested in educational institutions in America is probably
minimal. National political conflicts, as opposed to local ones, rarely have a direct influence on the staffing,
governance, or policies of American educational institutions. Except during times of national crisis (for example, the
war in Vietnaml, American students are generally non-political, though small, vocal groups of students periodically
engage in attention-getting activities in support of their views on major social and political questions, such as
disarmament, women's rights, and nuclear power.

7.7. PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS

In some schools where the community is stable, the funding
good, and the school environment orderly, a hardworking student
can get an excellent education. But in other schools-especially
those in poor neighborhoods in the nation's large cities-it is very
difficult to become educated. The flight of middle-class families
to the suburbs left big city public schools with mostly
lower-income students. Many are deprived children from
impoverished homes with only one parent. Many come to school
ill-prepared and poorly motivated to learn. A large number need
help in learning English. Many change residences and schools
often, and a changing classroom population is difficult to teach.
In some poor neighborhoods, the students do not attend school
regularly because they are frightened by violent gangs. In some
classrooms, teachers have difficulty keeping the students'
attention because disrespectful, uncooperative students disturb the
class. Because the quality of education varies so much from one
school district to another, parents who are planning to move to a new neighborhood often inquire about the
schools-and even visit them-before deciding which community to move to.
Researchers are always studying the schools and evaluating the kind of education being provided. Experts ask:
"Are today's students learning as much as their older siblings or their parents did? Are they learning as much as
students in other countries?" In the 1980s, many studies revealed weaknesses in the American educational system. For
example, of the 158 members of the United Nations, the U.S.A. ranked 49th in its level of literacy. It has been claimed
that as many as 25 million American adults cannot read the front page of a newspaper. Another study focused on
students' knowledge of history and literature. The results were published in a book entitled" What.Do Our
17-Year-Olds Know?" and the answer is, "not much." For example, 75% of American high school seniors did not
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know when Abraham Lincoln was President, and 80% could not identify Dickens, Dostoyevsky, and Ibsen as famous
authors. In a 1988 study comparing students' knowledge of geography, American young adults came in last of nine
countries. In fact, 18% of the American students couldn't even find the U.S.A. on a world map! Still other studies
indicate that today's students are weak in mathematical problem-solving and writing skills.
What's wrong with American education? To find the answer and to fix the problem, one must look at all of the
elements: the students themselves, their parents, their teachers, the school curriculum, the textbooks, and the
community. Many students simply do not study enough. (Two-thirds of high school seniors do an hour or less of
homework per night.) American teenagers are often distracted by part-time jobs, sports and other school activities, TV,
and socializing. Some do not keep up with their schoolwork because of emotional problems, use of illegal drugs, or
simply lack of motivation. Clearly, if Americans are to become better educated, students must spend more time
studying, and parents must insist that they do so.
In the 1980s, criticism of American education stimulated a reform movement. As a result, 45 of the 50 states
raised high-school graduation requirements. One government study recommended a longer school year. (Now, the
average American student attends school about 180 days a year, compared to 210 for a Japanese student.) Efforts have
also been underway to increase parental involvement in schools and to improve teaching. College programs that
educate teachers are trying to encourage more academically talented students to choose teaching as a career. Schools
of education are also improving their curriculum so that American teachers of the future will be better prepared.
School administrators are working on curriculum revisions. Publishers are being urged to create textbooks that are
more challenging, interesting, and objective. Finally, concerned citizens are urging communities and the federal
government to provide more tax dollars for education.
What can one say about basic education in the U.S.A. today? It has many strengths, but there's plenty of room for
improvement. Since the school reform movement began, test scores have risen somewhat, and Americans are
optimistic that reform and improvement will continue. Americans deeply believe in education as the best vehicle for
individual and social advancement. Improving the basic school system is one of the nation's top priorities. But
meanwhile, it is a consolation to remember that, for most young Americans, formal education does not end with high
school graduation.
7.8 THE INCREASING RESPONSIBILITIES OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS
Americans place the weight of many of their ideals, hopes, and problems
on the nation's public school system. Some observers believe they have
placed more responsibilities on the public schools than the schools can
possibly handle. For example, public schools are often expected to solve
student problems that result from the weakening of family ties in the United
States. Rising divorce rates have resulted in an increasing number of
children in the public schools who are raised by only one parent. Studies
have shown that these children are more likely to have problems at school
than are children raised in families with two parents.
The class graduating from high school in 2001 has many children that are
at risk" for having problems at school":

Minority enrollment levels range from 70 percent to 96 percent in the nation's 15 largest school systems.
One of four children live below the poverty level as childhood poverty has reached its highest level since the
1960s.
Fifteen percent are physically or mentally handicapped.
Four-teen percent are children of teenage mothers.
Four-teen percent are children of unmarried parents.
Ten percent have poorly educated, sometimes illiterate, parents.
Between one-quar-ter and one-third have no one at home after school.
Forty percent will live in broken homes [parents divorced] by the time they are 18 years old.
Twenty-five percent or more will not finish school.
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The education of new immigrant children

provides the public school system with some of its
greatest challenges. Many of the children come from
countries where they have not had strong
educational preparation, and their academic skills
are below grade level. Others have come from
school systems with standards similar to or more
advanced than the American schools, and their
academic adjustment is much easier. However, all
these children must learn English. This means that
they are trying to learn new concepts at the same
time that they are struggling to learn a new
language. Studies show that it takes five to seven
years in order for them to be able to compete with
English-speaking American children on an equal basis in classes where English is the language of instruction. There
are some bilingual programs in areas where there is a large concentration of one language group, particularly Spanish
speakers. However, in some school districts, there are children speaking anywhere from 5 0 to 115 different
languages. It is not uncommon for a teacher to have children speaking five or six different native languages in one
classroom.
At a time when enormous new burdens are being placed on the public schools, the nation finds itself faced with
new limits on its material abundance. These limits have steadily reduced the amount of money available to the public
schools as they try to deal with their rapidly growing problems.

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