Ac AnalysisTechniques

Representations
of ac signals
Functions
of Time

values
lnstantaneous

v ( t ) =V max.sin
(co .t* Ou)

voltagedrops

e (t) = E max.sin
(crr't* e

sourcevoltage
")

i (t)=tr r *' s in( c o' t* e i)

c u rre n ts

valueof vOltage
Where V*"* = maximum
valueof sourcevoltage
Er"" = maximum
valueof current
l*"" = maximum
0y,0s,01= phaseshiftof voltageor current
co= frequencyin rad/sec
in Hertz
wheref = frequency

a =2'n'f

useeffectivevaluesof time
Ac powersystemcalculations
waveforms(RMSvalues)Therefore:

E=E1t*
/-

v=V1t"

l*r"
,l=-r-

12

"lz

12

Note:

+ = o7a 7
l2

e t33 2 b - 1 .MCD1

I-

Ac powersystemscarcufations
use phasorsto
representtime functions
Phasorusecomprex
numbers.to
represent
the important
thetime

il';::Hl?Jrff.'n

P h a so rnotation
V =V

iunction,
?r,rgn*ude
,nopr.,rse
ansre

L0u

t=lL}i
where. V, | = RMs
magnitude
of voftagesand currents
0u,0;= phaseshiftin
o.gr""rior vottr;;;
,no currents
Examples Timefunctions
v(t) = 1 7O.sin(
gT7.t.
i(t) =25.sin(377.t_
Findmagnitudes
170
|_

= 120.2

l2
25

r-

17.7

30)

20)

Phasors
V = 120.2LeOo
| = 17.7L-2Oo

"lz

canbe givenin e*her

radiansor degrees.
:*Xt"X:hift
To
usethisconversion:
1 degre
e = n/1g0radians

et332b-1.MCD2

Converting
BetweenPolarand Rectangular
Forms
interpretation
Geometric
of phasors
Rectangular
form
z=a+jb
rc o s (

O)

?=r'cos(0)
b=r.sin(0)
To convertbetween
polarformand
rectangular
formuse
P-Rand
calculator
R-Pkeysor
remember
concepts
fromtrigonometry
(R-P)conversion
Rectangular-to-polar
/ = 3 0*j.20
* ima g2

/ imao\
a tan{ - J
\re I

[e,=30

imag:: 20

302 * 202 = 36.1

l z o = 33.69.deg
atan l-

Note:atan= tan-1

\ 30

Watchfor the locationof the phasorwhenmakingP-Ror R-P

returntan-1into1stand4th
conversions.
Somecalculators
quadrants
only

et332b-1.MCD3

gular-to-polar
Rectan
conversion
Checkthe anglegivenfromR-Pconversion
by geometric
interpretation.
Example:if imaginary
and realpartsboth
negative:
lll
angleis in Quadrant

i rnogi nory

Example
F i n dr

t = -4 . 5j

Findangle

= 6.403

atani+)--51.34.d e s
\-41

Thisatanfunctioncomputes
theanglein QuadrantlV. The actual
angleis 180degreesfromthisvalue( - real,+ im?ginary
is
ll)
Quadrant
0 ,=- 51.3 4 * 180

0 = 128.66 deg

Polar-to-rectang
ular conversion
z= ? * jb=r.co s(0 ) * j .s in( 0)

E x a m pfe .l= 50L53.1o

ln rectangular
form

50'cos( 53 l deg) r-j '50' s in( 53. 1. deg)= 30 + 40i

et332b-1.MCD4

ComplexArithmetic
Properties
of the complexoperator
j
Theoperator
j transtates
physically
intoa goophaseshift
j = 90o ...a 90 degreephaselead
-j = -90o ...a 90 degreephaselag
Also
1ti = -j and 1l-i=j j (-j)= 1
conjugate (a+jb)"= (a-jb)changesignon imaginary
part
(z l9)x _ z L-O changesignon angle

mbers
1.) convertbothnumbers
to rectangurar
form
2') add/subtract
realpartsof bothriumbersand imaginaryparts
of bothnumbers

1.) convertbothnumbersto polarform

2 ) multipfy/divide
magnitudes
3.) addanglesfor muitiprication,
subtractangresfor division

1.)convertnumberto polarformz /_0

2.) performdivision(1L0o)| e le) _ 1/z
L_e

et332b-1.MCD 5

E x a m ples

v t (t)=340.sin(377.t* 10)
v Z(t) = 277'sin(377't- 30)

Z = 70* j'20

l=3- j'2

FindVz+Vr,Vz-Vr,V1lZ, l(Z) givethe resultsin polarformfor all

calculations
Convertvr (t) andvz(t)intophasors
Magnitudes\ /
340
V1:= t-

V1=240.4

lz

\/
V2=

277
t-

V2=195.9

l2
Phasors Vl = 240.4L 10o Vz= 195.9L -3Oo
FindYfV z Convertto rectangular
form
V 1 :=240.4.
cos( 10'deg) .-j '240.4.
sin( 10.deg)
V 1 =236.748+41.745j
. j '195.9'sin(-30'deg)
V 2 : = 195.9'cos(-30'deg)
V 2 = 169.654- 97.95j

et332b-1.MCD 6

parts V, =V 1 * V 2
Addrealandimaginary
V s : =(2 36.8" 1 69.62). j '(41.75 * (- 97.93))
V s = 4 06 .42-56.18j
Convertto potarform

. (- 56.1q2
r s ,=l+OA.+22
t s = 410'285

i - 56. 18

U = ? I?[: -

| (406.42)

0 = -7.87.deg

Vr+Vz= 410.3L -7.87o ANS

F i n dV t -Yz
V d=V 1 - V 2
V d , =(236.8- 1 69.62)r j .(41.75- (-97.93))

parts
Subtractrealand imaginary

V d = 6 7.18+ 139.68j
Convert
to polarform

/ r gg.oe
\

I s ,=Joz 182* ( 139.68)2

I s = 154'996

0 , = atanl-l
\ 6 7.18I
0 = 6 4.3 14-deg

et332b-1.MCD7

Vr-Vz=154.991_64.310ANS

Computethequantity
v1/zandgivethe resurts
in po l a r
form
z = 7 0 r j '20
convertto polarform
702 * 202 = 72.801

o ,=atanf4 )

magnitude

0 = 15.945.deg

\ 70I

phaseangfe

To computethequotient,
dividemagnitudes
andsubtractphase
angles
240.4
= 3.302
?,.g,,

10 _ 15.945_ _5.945

v1/z- 3.302/_-5.9450 ANS

computethequantity
r(z)andgivetheresuftsin pofar
form
C o n v ertltopolarform | = 3 _ j .2

(3\
o ,=atan
\3 /

o =-336e'des

o 22 = 3.G06

Multiplymagnitudeand add phase

angfesto get resurt
| = 72' 80 1/- 1 5,4 50

M agnit ude 3. 606- 72. 801= 262. 5 2

Pha sea ng fe

ffZI

- 33. 69* 15.g4S= _17. 745

= 26252 t_-17.7450
ANS

et332b-1.MCD8

l m p e d a n ce
I n Ac Circuit s
lmpedance
triangles
Reactance
of inductors
and capacitors
X L =2 'n'f'L'j
X L=rrl'L'j

Phaseshift
of +90o
X t= X L L9 0o

Capacitors
Remember

X c=
1 =-J
.
I

So

X c=

(#,

hasa phaseshiftof -90o. In polarform:

Capacitive
reactance
Xc = Xc L-90o
The resistorhaszerophaseshift. I can be representedby
R = RL0o

et332b-1.MCDI

SerieslmPedancesand the lmpedanceTriangle

SeriesR-Lcircuits

XL

Z=R.. X 1..i
agnitudea n d
To comPutemagt
phaseangle

l z l =/ * ' . x L
L '
,!

r\
/x
0=atan\

,_ I

\Kl

ays be
Anglewill alwaYs
circuit
Lc
for R-L
positive

ieriesR-Ccircuits
Z=R - X C'j

/ - X n\

-^^-^- -]t--XC
R

.MCD
et332b-1

10

0=?ta.\fj

Anglewill alwaYsbe
negativefor R-L circuit

Generalseriesconnectedelementsin ac systems

f-

________/\v/\v\_

XL
Z = R * j' X l-

j' X C

^c
The net reactiveeffectcan either
or
be inductive(positive)
(negative).
capacitive

All circuitlawsfromdc holdfor phasoranalysisof ac circuits

ohm'sLaw

i =2.1

v
l=

=V
L=-

Voltagedivisionfor Ac Circuits

I
Vo=

z2

l-

\z 1'z2 )u''
\

Thisis;thresameas with
are
rly
dco)n
Y arllquantities
solr form
in pth:tas

et332b-1.MCD 11

SeriesCircuitExample
a.) Find21 and11andthe voltagesacrosseachof the
in the seriescircuitbelow.
components

xC

R = 20 ohm s
Xt = 7 ohm s
Xc = 10 ohm s

b.) usingthe voltagedividerrulefindthevoltagedropacross

of X1 andX6.
theseriescombination

Zo +d ? -,o ( =.o - t = z q .z z A g. s d
Zr =Rr((x.)f,X.=
{Tr*
= {.llaiA,!.?-'r

a)

X-fu.*

: YB.3a/_{.,_Ljo
1,,*,, r. r..l=, y.'i*h{!:ti; .r.1-?'}
= 3{ ,6aa4:L5j.
Ve=J-.,X.= (.i. )*6/_s-ss')('Zl3')
= l: X*" q'l .':r<
6ftjj.)( ,'oA:0") : 49 .46/:e,,,<:.
V':"
r
b)

V*= [

I- - - l s - - l
I
J

!
tI
1
I

iJ

et332b-1.MCD 12

? i - ( out * * r , F = 3a,?"
z r . ='?rJ
l'.=

LE x.rx.]
_3
.---'t+,i-/-"

*t
l ';r."1.
'"
3 --....--

R +:{ r- ,iYr = i.,;- ,ei

.Jv' i

, r=it_rn ,/-:r,i,.t i') =

l{. g j,t, /,_gt.1zo

ParallelAc Circuits

Admittance

v= 1

(cz

Unitsforadmittance
(S)
siemens
F or sin glee leme ntsin p ar allel

zT=

-X..j

XL'j

1' 11

' R

Y=:=G * j .B

1111
ZT R

-=

Yr =

'

X L' i

! -

-X.'j

(S)
G = conductance
(S)
B = susceptance
FromOhm'sLaw
All phasorquantities

;l=- E
1
R

11
X
"Lr
'

'i

T-

-X
"cJ- ' i

Substitute
in definition
of
admittance
to get...

t=E .V
Whenparallelelementsare madeup of series-connected
components,
takethe sumof theseelementsbeforeinverting
to
getthe admittance
41
Y= - -- -t-

R.X1.j

Do this
et33 2 b - 1 .MCD13

--

x l'j

not this

CurrentDivisionHoldsFor phasor
Analysis

fn the mostgenerafform, Zl through

Zs canhaveseries
connected
erements.ff theseareconverted
to admittances....
\r, / 1 11-.T=

z1

lT n Yt.E

Yk _
l k = - 'lT
YT

,,

,t
Currentin anybranchcanbe found
by
thegeneralcurrentdivisionformufa using

Wherek is thebranchwhere
thecurrentis to befound

lf impedances
are used,onrytwobranches
mustbe in pararer.
usingadmittances
notethaitheoranCn
wherethecurrent
is
flowingis in the numerator.

et332b-1.MCD 14

Parallel
Ac CircuitAnalysis
Example
I

,T

X, , =25O

R=?5lt-

Lt

xc2=Zoort

E: l&La

D-(no
|
{L
{v
\ -

Findthetotaladmittance,
Yr,4 and 11for the circuitabove.Also
findthecurrentl, usingthecurrentdividerrule.
Z,= =l +d1zs5z
Z.=Z-s- ist47
I
I

,\&_5

-r

Ze' - .^d

: (). o r? V)/-Asao
{**:--

- ' L&r : O, oo s/?oo

Zz
U

l/: --A--t
: o. o r24f ,/zt-s>'
- = * / -05{./.
I t> " zs--t.s-;: ;::;377 t, St.
7?.o*,*/'-t
79.o\;LL
'
Ts:l*
,"1
-4

VJ

lT t

-z

+ o . 6 . > {*,{ o .o /} + o o o sl o .o L + o .o o 7 *' = ' .J''i ar)1!t-:?o

--=*r4";S
v
u
fl - q s.tcy' zq ;la o 4 u E"

Yr 'o. ot L - g o(. o o f
_'
,
,
? : *=
-T

Y"
;

-- .tr* ,.
f r =
;

cr

;v =

: o, o rta g / - t e . . ? ' + o c r r r 6t / 1 , . s ? o + o , CIsl / 7 { "

..+I_

o.or rqg1*rz o

--- *,H-*'_

'rffi

--

=I-z-_JW{t_ryiJ
E Yr: ,6b1!' (o,ozt\ /zq,zz"\

tz

-;...-\/;\*r)

l,

Y
l?

7Sfd{ ruqil f ,
*{': {) ,f:'-F
ET332B-1.MCD 15

\2,/n&ri)

PowerRelationship
for singlephaseAc Systems
Generalpowersystemload

11=terminaf
current(RMS)
Vr = terminaf
voltage(RMS)
Complexpowerformufa
S=P * j .O

Individuaf
components
of the
loadare not know. They
canbe series-parallel
combinations
of devices

S = apparentpowerin
volt-amperes
(VA)
P = active,average,or real
powerin watts(W)
Q = reactivepower,
voft-amps,
reactive
(vars)

Computing
Complexpower
Sr = Vr(lr)*

* is the complex
conjugate

In polarform,(r)*changesthesignon thecurrent
angfe
Example: lr = 20 L-3Oo so fr* = 20
L3Oo
l n p olarfo rm: Vr =V L0, and lr = |
L1i
Sr = Vr(fr)" = V(l)L 0u_0i
Example: Vr= 120LTo fr = 5
L-2So so
S r = 6 00L25o

et332b-1
.MCD

16

Parallel
Ac CircuitAnalysisExample

X r, =2 5 Q

XL2:200 A

E= I00 L0

R=50 Q

Findthetotaladmittance,
Yt, Zr and 11for the circuitabove.Also
findthe current12usingthe currentdividerrule.

Z o=25-{ ? s s t-

Z; 5 o tf f z s s L
IJ

- Ja- - a. r

t
'*
-

(rr*

li

ss.X&_y.

t }S

'---,f

\
ll

tl

:*-

2 s * .''? s

\'

T
'T

J*

*: r

"

+--=

Ca

-la

= o o r? g? /-aa.Sca

?
e n
/" ,7 r^s?r
o:;a
?g
" t. /- 7ji!'

.- I

? r= t* d

o.or?g?L+:1

s3

ro.otLCS/'?!::s)o+o.oos/-lon

L3

\r
i
''"o
Yr |- = O . o t L -;(O.c*r
^ ,.,Tt*j
,l

=
.,o
d d *-ro.Oll+o.oo.
tr l O.OlL + O' oo'-dS{ = O' OZ + A .Oo9y. O.OZ r 9l .t,Z Z o
'w'vvr
o
.O,)4
il

-..'

/ ---= oryZu" qs
t'r=Y.= o"r'l@
a -]--

/:

f- =

: E Yr=

/ca,.;(o

a -f l

----'

\,
-t-.'
/
_)

ra

\vr

--

4_

l7

Tr=

t) /zq ,zzo g r ^ r s

"Z i) /iq .zz") = Z

o " s'7?63frJ*" (r,,gfurr') = l.Z69 /_st.i6r

A Ant
=s+
-.'

et332b-1
.MCD

'15

-+

:-*

iF-

PowerRelat ions hip

for singlephaseAc Systems
Generalpowersystemload

11=terminal
current(RMS)
Vr = terminalvoltage(RMS)
Complexpowerformula
S=P * j

S = apparentpowerin
volt-amperes
(VA)

Individual
components
of the
loadare not know. They
canbe series-parallel
combinations
of devices

P = active,average,or real
powerin watts(W)
Q = reactivepower,
volt-amps,
reactive
(vars)

Computing
ComplexPower
Sr = Vr(lr)*

* is the complexconjugate

In polarform,(l)*changesthe signon the currentangle

Example: lr = 20L -30o so lr" = 20 L30o
I n polarform:

V r=VLO'

and lr=lLli

Sr = Vr(lr)* = V(l)L 0u-0i

Example.Vr=120L1o lr = 5 L-25o so
S t = 600L25 o

et332b-1.MCD 16

Rectangular
Form
S T= VT. l1.cos(0) . j .VT. l1.sin(0)
Activepower- realpart
P T=VT. l1.cos(0)

Reactivepower- imaginarypart
Q1-VT l1.sin(0)

Also,if valuesof circuitelements

are known

pr =Og= 1rr
R
\l tl/l)r
R
'

)'=\l'l
= rt -r\
2
o. . -(l url
x
l)
X
\.{T=

(Xs-Xc) of the circuit

WhereX is the net reactance

and Sources/Loads
in Ac Power
SignConventions
Systems
Devicesthatdeliverpower havea negativepowervalue.
Devicesthatabsorb power havea positivesign.
for a sourceor loadto
It is possiblein ac powersystems
simultaneously
absorbanddeliverpower. Activeand reactive
powercan havedifferent
signs.Thismeansone is being
whilethe otheris beingdelivered.
absorbed
Examples -P, +Q The devicedeliversactivepowerand
absorbsreactivepower
-P, -Q The devicedeliversbothactiveand reactivepower.

et33 2 b - 1 .MCD17

PowerTriangleRelationship
- Inductive
Circuit
l nd u cti ve circuits
L o g g in g
tp
UT

={_

'T

\
Rototion ,/
of phosor s-

s T=

P owerf act or=

Fp

F p=! =cost e )

0 = the anglebetweenthe voltageand

current( Voltagereference)
Inductors
absorbpositivevars- consumevars lr* givespositive
a n gl e .
When+varsare measuredcircuitis considered
to be inductive
or lagging.Powerfactorwillbe calledlagging
F p =cos(0)=

Fowillhavea value
between0 and-1 for
inductive
circuits.The
closerthevalueis to l1l
the moredesirable.

Fp= 1 indicates
that: a.) the circuitis totallyresistive
b.) the netreactance
of the circuitis 0
( i.e.thereis enoughcapacitance
to
cancelthe inductiveeffects)
et332b-1.MCD 18

PowerTriangleRelationship
- Capacitive
Circuit
Co p o ci ti v e
L e cd i n g
F.,

c i rc ui ts

l'

*r

lT

''-

VT
Ro t c t io n
,/
of phosors-

Powerf act or=

Fp

F p=f , =cos1e )

0 = the anglebetweenthe voltageand

current( Voltagereference)
capacitorsdelivernegativevars- generatevars lr* gives
negative
angle.
When-varsare measured,
circuitis considered
to be capacitive
or leading.Powerfactorwillbe calledleading
F p= co s(0 )=

Itt' *f

Fowillhavea value
between0 and +1 for
capacitive
circuits.

Deviceswithleadingpowerfactorareconsidered
to be var
generators.
Capacitors
aresaidto delivervarsto a circuit.
e t33 2 b - 1 .MCD19

Example: The loadshowhasa measured

terminal
currentof
125l_30oA and a terminalvoltageof
460l_20oV Find:
powerdelivered
a.) apparent
b.) activeand reactivepowerdelivered
c.) determine
if the circuitis actingas a capacitor
or an
inductor
d.) powerfactorof the load
Sr =
l, = (46o lloo )(,r. A3')
",

\= s------:?,soo Hi- V4 /fgs

G
:

J O'

I oTAL

6PPABL^J TPo w [ R .

EX PA N/\
)

S = 5 ?,Soo(co" G ,."))

* ft

Fora-r"-t
r v or t r @ : o ^ $ l e
8etweev^\ Va a"d

lSoo( s r * ( - , o) )

S= SG , G Z 6. 4vA
( 9gS S
Qe ^ "\
P *l

RE C'7
A NGU tA 4

I VTO

-.l-7

P = 5d, 62 6 ,4w )A^ rs

=
frysrnar\
vA<ire
{ { ' 3--- Q 99BS
TAe Srg r on f he-lcrc,*rvq Po*<"- /s n\o.+,T,

-f A,., d cu rc<. de / r'"*=

i-ec,-c-ltr^q, p o Lu er- - C oPa-cibor

Arus c

----

J,)

F p= Co s0

Fe = Cos ( , o") = o, ?B{ e Le*J r^1

i,-,1fi: '. Pn lay'.*, ,5 A 1p [:ci uug n

et332b-1.MCD20

L'f a ,. J

Ar

a 6o.,".,

PowerFactorCorrection
preferhighpowerfactorloads.Theseloads
Utilitycompanies
consume
the leastamountof capacity
forthe amountof biltable
power(activepower).Lowerpowerfactorspenalized.Most
plantshavelaggingpowerfactor(inductive
inductrical
due to
motorsandtransformers).
power
AddingCapacitors
improves
factor
Inductors
- +Q absorbreactivepower
Capacitors
- -Q "deliver"reactlvepower
Ind u cti ve

circuits

Lo g g in g
tr
'/ -

At Fp= 1 Pr=Sr
0= 0o and Q r = 0

Sincecos(q)= Fp reducing
0 by reducing
Qr improves
powerfactor
To increaseFomustdecreaseQr by adding-Q fromcapacitors
The lengthof the Pr sideof thetriangle
staysthesame.ThisIS
the amountof activepowerthatis consumed.Thetotal
power,51 is reduced.Thisreducesthe currentthatI S
apparent
necessary
to supplythe sameamountof activepower.

et332b-1.MCD21

Example:a 10 kw, 220v, o0 Hz singlephasemotoroperates

at a powerfactorof 0.7 lagging.Findthevalueof capacitance
thatmustbe connectedin parallel
withthe motorto improvethe
powerfactorto 0.95lagging
f o^.sl r-<-tc,1 /n I 1 r* l

Fp = (osO=o7 +
J d iW
o?

s
tTr
Qrr

P r=l ok W

T t .^r.3/e
sb g:

A* *

c-p
os g :

T1

P
trF

/q-ze6 Kyf

Fl',d O/ 51=qoi'(er) = C";e t) . {s.s?o

F," d Qn, Qr, = SrtSr,r.,
0 : 11.Z8As,-(<S.S?o)

Q r,=
!'g

. t'
S

Cons*^.-,c+A* rr l},.u

,a {." AJcr.p trp

P
t okw

^t

o' Fp'oo_t,-t,"1 \=
I
l o ,S2 e

PT= /o i<w

--

F:
r

Kv n

\r=

o.9s

Fl,nde. 9.= coi'(o9s) = /Breso

Qrz= \.sr- (o") = /o.sz6Srnr
(e. n d )
Q-. = 3.z ? /<vA/1

--Tt-

I
;.

nQ.= Qr,-Qr, lhr

l -^

t^

e-\r(

C.. p ac rJor- rnus i Sccpp i g

Q. = t4 ze6-3 zp7 kvl,<-- g.2g rvnA

Vt

J o l w r ' ,q 6 .
I

et332b-1.MCD22

Frnd C\pc..,*or Valug

r

Q . '(

vt+

/s +l.ee +hq-1a.

X. '*e

Co'nk'ntnc'^J
1

c=-t*{yT
9l , =
-Zi.(6o)(:zo;z
-=J . ? B g * iq F
C x

3?? _aF .^,r)e

Exampf
e
A 490 v, 60 Hz,singrephaseroad
draws50.25kvA at a power
factorof 0.SZlaggin-g.
FinO.
a') the currentanothe activepower
b') the anglebetweenthe source in kw thatthe roadabsorbs
voftageandthe loadcurrent
c') the amountof reactivepower
neceslaryto correctthe road
powerfactorto 0.9glagging
d.) the currentthe the roal orjws
at 0.ggpowerfactor

a) /sl = /v l .l tl +
S o, ZSo vn
4Bov
Fo" ac-lt\,^eF o

1o1,7 A

tv r-

IL

/*^=

Fp = coso

o ' 7he

Crefcent

==-

'

6)

El= t{tlvt

:+
)

y4 (.,g2)
,p S = F = So,ZScr

P=Q!l]yJgs
r_

b"4..ee).\ V o,^J f
^q/
J

= e"s '(t*

: Coi ' (o B? ) = zg.51"

A-

lt

fg
I

ls

lcugqr n(
So
r
tJ

:29,{9

r,
-=-

r,
e)

a:'r
v,4srru(29an) = 27,??s.9 V4(s
) Vr,- 5.r ttru(e) = $'o,ZSo

fl* rr w ,Qe o .- c * ru^,

f n , l- , l

P o.r.l (l * r-

fqc'c*rr.

{ 3 ,? r ?s - 44, 6o9, ?
v4
S.| ''_=
+t P . o'9's

Ne'\r')o"J't.qo\_

tt<po
6 r =coi'(co *)=/i.{8

Po *c

Q..-- \r,= ,r(0r)= e4,eog Zvrlsrnr(r.?e")

,e ..=B g r as v A a

et332b-.r
McD23 Q.= z4/ns9 -Bs?d S = -B?ll4J S

C ) Srr. Yrfr.+,,

11!,|Fra
=
gs.r" -=lf=?L94f
F-F

Arts

DoubleSubscriptNotation

-I
I

Sourcesandvoltagedrops
aredefinedby the terminal
letter.Voltagedropdefined
by directionof subscripts

\-,

V"n Von

Voltagesconsidedpositive
if nodea is higherpotential
thann

ExampleFor currentflowfrompointb to c

ub.

' bc= t;-bc

Vb"= difference
in potentialbetweenpointsb
and c. lf voltageat pointc is takenas the
referencepoint,thenthe polarityis reversed.
Vcb = - Vo.

et332b-1.MCD24

ThreePhasePowerSystems
ThreePhasesources- balancevoltagesources
f = 60 Hz
V a n(t) = 1 70'sin(2'n'f't)
V pn( t) :: 1 70'sin( 2 'n'f't - 120'deg)
V cn( t ) :: 170'sin( 2' n'f't - 240'deg)
Characteristics
- threevoltages
of voltage
equalmagnitudes
phaseshiftequallyspaced120degsapart
TimePlotsof ThreePhaseVoltages
200

1 oo

v *ttl
v bn(t)

,,\

Y:'(t)-,oo
--200

/
,,,\

0.00 5 0 . 0 1

0 . 0 2 0 . 0 2 5 0 . 0 3 0 . 0 35

0.01

et332b-1.MCD25

,rrl

Three Phase Source Connections

Wye - Connected3Qsources
Findthe relationship
between
the magnitude
and phaseshiftof
eachsourcevoltageto the currentandvoltageat the terminals
of the connection

Voltageandcurrent
valuesseenat the
terminals
of the
connection
are called
lineor line-to-line
quantities.
The
voltageand currentin
eachsourceis called
the phasequantity

= phasecurrents
In Wye Connection:linecurrents

rL=rp
Where

ll = linecurrentof connection
lo= phasecurrentof connection

et332b-1.MCD 26

VoltageRelationship
Forwye connectedsources
Line-to-line
voltages
Vab=Van - Vbn
Vbc=Vbn - V.n
Vca=Vcn - Vrn
Forbalanced
systems
Performphasorsubtraction
to
findthevalues
v-^

Magnitudes

-v
c^

l u. nl =l unnl = i u . nl

ba

Vab

i=Fuan

v n.I=rEv bn

Iu., I=FV.n
Phaseshift
Line-to -line
volta ge sle adphasevoltagesby 30 degrees
V ub= V

"o l_

et332b-1.M CD 27

3 0o Vo " = Vo" /_ -g0o V"u = V"" l_- 2100

Example:a.) Findthe Line-to-line

voltages
for thewye
connected
source.b.) Findthe linecurrentsin eachof the three
phasesof the resistive
load. c.) Findthe currentflowingin the
neutral v"n = 100 /_ 0o Vbn= 100/_ -1200
V"n = 100 l--2400
Balanced3$ systemscan analyzedusinga singlephaseto neutraland the other
quantitiesdeterminedby the appropriatephaseshifts

vc.[ -

WVo',^.

!.o %.rt [ ( r ooV) : l?3 . 2 v

=
Lv
I V^r " l V , "l l v *l : tas

UN

lr

sb

v,

neutr ol

\r\

P k"sa --S

v": t?s.z/ i."

Vb,

TI

vco

r F r? )
* 9.

p ka se vc' l*1 e s

r?3.z LIC

,!

s , JXle Phas e./ o {,^J

tq

. too
fti

t)

KL

se G Aesu// /o 7"+
St '1+p t"<

/Q

t-

6L

-"-:;=-5-) lu_
I a^

luQ l- lLv

,:

-,'
J- ,
Lr",ef = pAase.I

r\

toa L:- V

?(n

currer\+

r . 9 q p Co n Ae J,o n

T^

q'

'Or\

,c.

) vuTgrv"t

Bo.to-t,.eJ

/-? o o

l-4-

\/tO- n

- {o- L,n V I eo-ds

L ,,,.e

.,-

,r ".O,,

: Z, 8 s7/:_ A
A

^N

3t/f *

rC C l /.-o
4 .u -r f /-

t1 \\

n-

J-

Arttsu,,tfQS

= Z.esT/ _ z q oAo
)

3s,zoor
Le-

e
et332b-1.MCD 28

pkas<_t c. .l
",

--::----.<:5

/- h

Example
(cont.)
neu-*r'e-(I ) s.^rn cc,cArentsc"{ *l'' e- /o"- J
F,
J
Tl,"
-l-o ^
f \ e r r t - o-l p o,^*.
J
J-na-hc
:

J n'= Z .85Zb_ +
f:

-h

tttl

I J,

*J

f onv < r $ { o e o t t o , nt1r l a r

Z,gS? /-tt or + Z. 857t no"

+ (-,,0a,r.f;?;li ;'"
-J2,4?<)
Z. Bst+lo + ( ,,ozQs

+- C 4 l.lu I_n [*l *,"u.e.J3d sy"fe-* neuttnql

C* d *c.|o.^ Q61r'rt gs

Y\o

cwrngnl

'

r,tse-Jf,"" So-(all and t'o honJle' a"'tJw^q

P-.ror- D''-7 rer^

{

Vod

V*'.,

A Lu L tnt F-ro - Lt ntc

\/6tlcles le_..-J
Pl,.''.e-u6ltles
/u",s*rv Aoo d

PA"*e J

*vb(-

et332b-1.M CD 29

o / ,./ ,o"r

ln Pl"c'se.

&-:r*h' V
pn

7,",= PAtsz-to- nenl-o I

DeltaConnected
Sources
voltages
Phasevoltagesareequalto line-to-line

V tt- v P
voltage
Where VLr= line-to-line
Vp = phasevoltage
Balancedsystem
Vab=Vbc=Vca
Vco

PerformKCL at every
cornernode

I
CO

-l

Nodeb
Vbc

lb. - lab - lb= 0

lb. - lab= lb
r c a - , bc = ' c

NodeC

1." - lb . - lc=0

III

NodeA

lab- l.r-

lab- lca=la

la=0

givesthisrelationship
phasorsubtraction
of current
Performing
magnitude
=

t a= ^ F
'ro
et332b-2.MCD
1

Generally

I L =^F
,o

ll linecurrent
lp = phasecurrent

Phaseshiftfordeftacurrents

l b c - l a b=fb

' c a - ' bc = l c
lll

5:E:ffi:h,';y 'n"

phase
currents
bv30desrees
inthebalanced

I.= /T l, fJd
Jp

lab-l.r=fa

,s

For f . uc l. , FA. . "a

Ae{er nce ph..so-

theassumed
direction
ofphasor
rotation
is reversed
iliJ::5i
in
et332b-2.MCD2

load. Findthe phasorvaluesof phase

Example:Deltaconnected
and linecurrentsfor the circuitshown.R = 15 ohms
J*

V"b = 240L 0o

vb" = 240L-120o
V"" = 240L-240o
Drawa phasor
diagramof the
computedcurrents
andvoltages

-i;,.BoJa',r';si Systervr, Cc,,"r pt r ' le Vu- t r r s f "" 5r n1le ph,.

I
Il .,

Clrd

5 1 " , r (t

-i".,..,:,
Ig; \u.
J

\/

vat

=
+^ l

tl

\{5

7.

J--'

7t.

G.

^1'
rs&

\FT
V *j J - " --L,b .--/-3u"

.:14Cn trcrir*e:,

= l A &: A

C o .n P ." l el r^ e - c *,rner#

:--

.I-= v 3 (,()&:-p"= zr,zzLz,"

n

o ^ d 7.. - lzoo a^d - Z4oo{"orn-, ;:t

sc

S- ,- tl.,.l- lv, fo I

Z l = Z?. tzl-rloo4 I.=

! 1 .1 21 L z ,"O
f,
et332b-2.MCD
3

Line C ur,rrgnJ

Phasordiagramfor DeltaExample

Resistive
circuit,so phasecurrentsare in phasewith
voltagesthatproduceit.
Linecurrentslagsthe phasecurrentsby the 30
degrees

et332b-2.MCD
4

ExampleDeltaconnectedLoads- Generalimpedances
for the circuit
Findthe phasorvaluesof phaseandlinecurrents
s h o w n ./ = 3 0L-39oohms
Vab = 240 L 0o

Vo"= 240L-120o
v^^-240
l-24 0 0
ucl
-

Drawa phasor
diagramof the
currents
computed
andvoltages
\f'7
\ !

-a,5

, /-30"t0

'A t

J ^:
'',i{.*-

- J,_;

1-

;
J_,
;

t-

9-----l
B
tl' ,,{ f

,u

/38s Lt.tl

tl

,G
V {

T
J^

/_a,l n

te ac/-23
rJ-c)r.

r(\=------ *re=
/-se+v

,n

\/vcc.

A ^:s
{"

/4 d s

'E;*

-=::-

Tr
*4b

-,or o

V*L

5
et332b-2.MCD

PowerIn Balanced
3 QSystems
Loadcan be eitherwye of
deltaconnected.
Assumewye connectedand
computepoweron per phase
basis

so=vp.tp

P O = Vp.lO.cos(0)

Where0 is the anglebetweenthe phasevoltageandphasecurrent

Total3-phasepoweris
P T=3'P

ST=3'SO=3'Vp'lp

O=3'Vp'l p'cos(o)

Usinglinequantities....
forwyeconnection I p =| L
r-

VL=J3.Vp

6
A
so

vL

uo=16=

r-

t_

PT=J3. V t . lt . c os ( 0)

intoP1and 51
Substitute
equation

sT=rE vt'lr

Where0 is the anglebetweenthe linevoltageand linecurrent

et332b-2.MCD
6

Other30 powerformulas
Reactivepoweron per phasebasis

Qp =vp 'lpsi n ( 0 )
TotalReactivepower

h i l ? te

b e tw e phase
e n voltage

e r=F V r.l1.sin( 0)

0 = anglebetweenlinevoltageandcurrent

s T=

Pr

Fp=s,

Powerfactor

Example:
A bafanced
dertaconnected
three-phase
loaddraws200 A
per phasewitha readingpowerfactorof
0.g5fr;m a 12.47kV line
to linesystem.Determine
the following:
a.)the phasorlinecurrentof the load
b.)the phasevoftageof the load
c ) the totalapparentpowerof the load
d.) the totalrealpowerdrawnby the load
e.) the totalreactivepowerdrawnoy t|retoao
f.) the totalcompfexpowerof the loaO

et332b-2.MCD
7

ExarnpleSolution
c .) Ce l/q_
(u n4 6

{-'/i4
{= ss..e
aoo^ tr(z"oo
+.
{.=
^'H
Ls"l-,*n.s =
-/ed v u:
L t?17*v

c) s r = fir vf,

c\r
o4 t

5;.\r,0,.;t;;

Sr=3"%J-o

I g'oro
ks,ii,f^o"*
r,":!H
uL=
rL,lTkv

= zor,
4
+

d ) ri '; d,,,j_o,fr,,r...../
pou\re..

c,cs,nvG
Li^r

3Q"q'rlr

sr . s (%)to=
s0z tz,<y)Gon
Sr =
C*

"c8s,*..d
#: :::t:. [:i.-"*il
.
#
s n
J
e,)Peoc*,;';-y(*'_90 ss):(?sn
Q . = V i vlvrcr7; o'm"::
'[-' r* \

po L^Jet-

A_

Vto^f/ e=Qo
-u
q = r r v,*
i ' i S{('*Ar'Lgo
;r" '4.)6',*s&pr*a'
\
=
-'
s, =?{

er332b-2.McD
u

\q

sz/-l I >d ,
*$=$yr-r3e
:-G[.Jq/

4rus

Example:Solving3-phaseSystems
Forthesystemberowfindthe ammeterreading
E"b= 460L 0o Eb"= 460 -120(^E"" = 460 12Oo
L
!_
21 = 10L30o o 22 = 1sL 1ooCI 23 = 2o+j20a

IVro,

500 k v A
3- phos e 50 H z
450 v

Jl

C, b q Jo ,r c ,*l ye
.t^ -,

- . 1: . ;J^gLl *J
4

qZ

+ .*.,.s
I

Connectei

7= t

-t,--Ll

+ - &
-p

ii

Example:Solving3-phaseSystemsby Power
calculations
A 440V 60 Hz 3-phasesourcesupplies
threeloads:
1.) Deltaconnected
3-phase60 hp induction
motoroperating
at
314of ratedoutputwithan efficiency
of 90% and a powerfactorof
94%
2.)A wyeconnected
3-phase75 hp induction
motoroperating
at
halfof its ratedoutputwithan efficiency
of 88% and a power
factorof 74%
3.)A deltaconnectresistive
heaterdrawing20 kW.
Find:
a.)totalactive,reactive,and apparentpowersuppliedby the
source
b.)the powerfactorof the combined
loads
c.)the magnitude
of the linecurrent
d.) the capacitance
and voltageratingfor a wye connected
capacitorbankthatwill correctthe systempowerfactorto 0.95
lagging
Methodof solution
powerabsorbedby eachload,
Findthetotalactiveand reactive
usingthe powerfactorandthe efficiency,
thenconstructpower
trianglefor totalload.

P r= rEv r .rt. c o s ( 0 Fp
) =co s(t,=+ sr=
Po

efficiency

n =a

N o t e : t h p = 746W
et332b-2.MCD
10

Po= poweroutputin watts

Pi= powerinputin watts

ExampleSolution
Load,

n ., = 0.g

P 11:=60 hp

Ratedhp

Po
n=a

P o , = P 11 ' L F

F pt :=0.94

go%

94%

Loadfactor LF :: :
so
4
Po
Pit:r,,
Pit=50 hP
P it = 37300 W

P lt :=7 46'Pit

0 lt = acos(t
0 it = 19.9484.deg
O,t)
All motorsare inductive
so powerfactorlagsmeaningreactive
poweris positive+Q so 0;1is positive.

Powerfactorangle

TofindQ
Q1
f o rt o a d
tan(0\ = .
so
\
/
PT
1
Q 1 =37300'tan(19.95'deg)

P it'tan(e ir

)=

Q1

Q1=13539.239 va r s

Load2
Motor2
Ratedhp

\ 2 ,=0.88
P r2,= 75 hp

P o = P ,2.LF

P
P ,2,=;

Convertto watts
P iZ:=P iZ' 7 46
et332b-2.MCD
11

88%

F pZ = 0.74

Loadfactor LF ,=:
2
Piz=42.6136 hp

P iZ = 31789.8 W

74%

Findthepowerfactorangleof motor2
0 e = acos(,
Powerfactorangle

Or)

'deg
e t2 = 42-2686

absorbsvars(+a)
motoris inductive,
because
Angleis positive
To findQ
for load
2

P i z ' ta n (e
iz)=Q z

Q 2 , = 31789.8.tan(42.27.deg) o 2=28896.08

var s

heater
Load3 Resistance
only wattsare absorbedby thisload

P i3 ,= 20000 w

activeand reactivepowerto findthe total

Sumthe individual
absorbedbYthe load
Pig=20000
Piz=31789.8 W
w
P i t = 3 7 300
P s y s , =Pit + Pi2* Pig

Qryr=42435'3

Q s y s ,= Q1*Q2

Findthe powerfactor
F
-t

' p-e
-

"S Y S

12
et332b-2.MCD

ANSP a r t a

var

S v'- = 98680
"rr"

p
. SVS

ANS Pa r t a

Pryr=89089'8

p = o'9028 ANS Part a

VA
ANS Part a

To findthe linecurrent,usethe formulafor 51

.
S T = J3'Vt'l t

'L

Sr
I L= _-

so

^/3v r-

s'Y'

= r-

Js .vL

lL=12 9. 5

V L = 440 V o l t s

ANSPar t b

Partc. To correctto 0.95lagging

powerfactorcompute
thevalue
of varsrequired
to havethispowerfactor
r-

Q 1=r/s'vL'l 1'sin(0)
Al so s T =

Pr

where0 isthesystem
powerfactor
angle

so

Q1=S T.sin(O)

fu

Forthisproblem
F p , =0.9S

0 ,=acos(t

O)

e = 1g.1g4g.deg

Newvalueof 51

S 1 ,=+E

S T = g377g.T VA

-p

Q 95 = S T'sin(O)

Q gS=29282.4 vars

whereQssis thetotal3-phase
magnitude
of varsnecessa
ry for
0.95powerfactoroperation
The bankreactivepowermagnitude
Qcis the differencebetween
Qry, and Qe5

et332b-2.MCD
13

ExampleSystempowerTriangle

D
I

Q ,y, = 42435.3

\\/\
-,/ -

Q gs = 29282.4 vars

VATS

Q c , = Qryr - Q gS

Q c = 1 3 1 5 2 -9 v a rs

Thisis thetotalbankpower.Nowfindthe phasepowerand

voltageratings
Qc
Q1= 3'Qp

Qp =

Qp=4384.3

vars/Phas e

The bankis to be wyeconnected

will see a
so eachcapacitor
phase-to-neutral
voltage
VL
Vp=254 v
Vp'=
V L= 440 v
ANS part c

c=

Qp

2' n'f 'V2

C,=

4384.3
2'n'60'2542

c - 0 .0 0 0 1 8 F
C= 180

et332b-2.MCD
14

pF ANS part

Mechanics
for motorsand
generators
Definitions:
angularspeed
(D=

d0
dt

(D= angularspeed(radians/sec)
e - arc length(radians)
rad/secusedin calculations
Standard
for motorsandgenerators
perminute(RpM)
Revolutions

Conversions

60

fl=-'(D w

2' n
rad/sec
to RPM
I

e832b-3.ppt

2'n
,.n
'n
0=

60

RpMto rad/sec

Forceand Torque
Torque-"Twisting
force"
UnitsSl (N-m)Engtish
( ft-tb)
Definition
Torque= (appliedforce)(perpendicular
distance)

T- F(rsinO)
Exampfe:
torquewrench
F

F -40N

d - 2 0 c m 0 =g 0

T - 4 0 N (0. 2m s i n ( 9 0 )-) 8 .0 N - m

et332b-3.ppt

iculardistance
Example.Non-perpend
6l=20cm

F-40N

0=60

r sin(O)
= $ .9 3N - m
T - F(rsin(e))= 40 N (0.2 m sin(60))

motion
Circular

i e0des
:
:
I

:
I

0 deg
180 deg

n o to .ti o n
:
I

M axTat0and
1B0deg

et332b-3.ppt

270 deg

Workand Power
Definition
work= forceappliedovera distance
Linearsystem
\flf = F(d)

\,n/= work(ioules,J)
F - force(Newtons,
N)
(m)
d - distance
Rotating
system
W=T0
T - torque(N-m)
(m)
distance
e - angular

Definition
Power= rateof doingwork
Forrotating
system
P=Tar
P - power(Watts,W)
T - torque(N-m)
(D= angularspeed(rad/sec)
4

et332b-3.ppt

English-Sl
unitconversions
Englishunits. Power- Horsepower
(HP)
Torque- ft-lb
Mechanical
Power-Wattsto Hp
= P (watts)/746
P (horsepower)
Torque

T - P/crt

Sl units

T - torque(N-m)
P - Watts(W)
cD= angularspeed(rad/s)

Power(watts)to Torque(ft-lb)
T - 7.04P (watts)/n (ft-lb)
r'r= speed(RPM)
Power(HP)to Torque(ft-lb)
T- 5 2 52P (HP )/n (ft-lb)
)

et332b-3.ppt

Exampfes:
A motordevefops
75 Hpattheshaftat
a speedof
1775rpm'Findthetorque
poweroutputin Watts (N-m)devefoped
andthe
{= -'=f =tlj - = Fcruq rvA - Ftr.,..iiy
F 1He)
lq,a l
Js Hp ( v + a w /r u p=)S S , ?$ vV
ts;ld_T C *rn v an* n t L\r

p=-Tu-> i

Jn

l7?S

=]

{^J

,t.'- t) l

-l

;* ?-

i ,i .l l

-f

,*,i7- !
i

r(Jt)
\i

' /Bs.8B ru*l/'s"

,\

t.JI

I otr-'e--

lit

CuoTt_y

SS 9q " \,- i
*-:--'r*]--*
- =7
l8S-'3,9
ro.l/r

Jo/ . c rrJ-rn = T

li rus
tq--\t_

E - \'
A generator
defivers kw of power
at 175radls.
igg
and
torque
*:=+

"rf

shorro
iitirb)
tnedrive

ffiil"ffi5ower

Co^ve._J Cu {.l n

n: u,(fn?. /?s ,t6) --/6ttnpry

et332b-3ppt

I54f

[Y

osr-iF)

,,
/d/-Apo.,- =&jilf
:t

4a-rs
*

Motor/Generator
Systems
Alternator
system
countertorque

electnico.l
systen
(loo.d)

S=Vl*

necho.nico.l
s y s t en
( s ounc e)

.ts

P=f cr

Note:torqueandspeedactopposite
mechanical
drivecalledprimemover

Motorsystem
eLectnico.L
systenr
(sounce)

S=Vl*

necho.nico.L
sy sten'r
(Loo.d
)

P= Tu
et332b-3.ppt

Typesof Mechanical
Loadsfor

motors
ConstantSpeed motormustmaintain
constantspeedoverwiderangeof torque
load in g .
Examples:machine
tools(latheS,
Millsetc)
rollingmills(steelproduction)
ConstantTorque- motorworksagainst
constant
force.Weightof loaddoesnot
change
Examples:Hoisting,
conveyors
GonstantPower- Mechanical
characteristic
of the loadchange(size,weight).
Torque
andspeedchange
Example:Windingoperations
(cable,wire)
8

et332b-3.ppt

Plotsof LoadTypes
ContantSpeedload

2500
2000
$
v.

\,

lsoo
rv !

,t!

6
oa

1000
500
0

20

40

60

80

1 00

T
Torque(N-m)

n = constant

Constant
TorqueLoad

2000
1500
oEn

;o -

looo

o
o-

500
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

T
Torque(N-m)

T - constant
9

et332b-3.ppt

70

80

90 100

Plotsof LoadTypes
powerload
Contant
Constant
PowerLoadP=20kW

z.lo4
4

1.8.10 '
A

1.6.10 '

1.4.10 '
4

1.2.10 '
o_

E.
-o
o
q)
oU)

n (T )

A
1.10'

8000
6000
4000
2000

oio

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

T
Torque(N-m)

, ( 4) n=p
\ 6 0/

l0

et332b-3.ppt

P - constant

n =P / ! q ) 1
\zn1r

90

100

PowerLossesAnd Efficiency
ln Electromechanical
Systems
Efficiency outputpowerI inputpower = Po/Pin
powerin HP
ForMotorslPo= mechanical
P,n= electricpowerin W
rators:
For Alternators/Gene
Po= electricpowerW
power
P,n= mechanical
powersourcefor alternators/generators
Mechanical
(gassteam)dieselengine)
calledprimemover(turbine
Fortransformers
inputandoutputpowerare both
electrical

oo%
n' - 3.1
P,n

q,,'= Po* 8o,,",

Lossesincludehysteresis
andeddycurrents,
friction,
windage,straylosses,fieldlosses
Typicalgoodefficiency90-98%dependson device
1i

et332b-3.ppt

Transformer
TheoryAnd Operation
Principle
of Transformer
action:
Stationary
coils,timevarying
fluxdueto ac current
flow. Flux
produced
byonecoilmustlinkto othercoilto inducevoltage

VT

7,

t ooo

Lentz'sLaw

1= - N1 f r t , .a2=-N2frt,o
,.'
polarity
Induced
voltagehasopposite
fromsource.ForSinusoidal
sources
E ' p=4 .4 4.Np.f.0ma x

E s= 4.44.Ns.f.0max

gives:
dividingthe aboveequations
et332b-4.MCD1

Voltage
relationship
for ldealtransformer
1

Np

E:=\

Voftage
ratioequalstheturnsratio

Where:
Ep= voltageinducedin the primaryff)
(V)
E, = voltageinducedin the secondary
Np = turnsin theprimary
coil
N S = turnsin thesecondary
coil

Assumptions
for ldealTransformer
Operation
1.) All fluxproducedin the primarycoillinksto the
secondarycoil
2.) no corelossesdue to hysteresis
or eddycurrents
3.) no powerlosses
4.) permeability
is infinite(no saturation
no magnetizing
0)
5.) windinghavezeroresistance
6.) no currentrequiredto magnetize
the ironcore
Foridealtransform

,=il=*=*

Wh e re : a= t ur ns r at io
Vp= nameplate
(higher
ratedprimary
voltage
V)
V, = nameplate
ratedsecondary
voltage(lowerV)
primary
EJ= induced
voltage
EJ= induced
secondary
voltage
et332b-4.MCD 2