Soil Mechanics-I(CENG-2202)
The sample of soil is placed on the topmost sieve and the nest of sieves, with a pan placed
below the stack, is then placed on a vibrator (sieve shaker) and shaken. The soil retained on
each sieve is determined separately, after oven-drying if it is a wet-sieving process. The results
are plotted on a graph as follows:
i. Determine the mass of soil on each sieve, i.e., M1, M2, , Mn and in the pan, i.e., Mp
ii. Determine the cumulative mass retained above each sieve. For the 4th sieve from the
top for example, this would be M1+ M2+M3+M4
iii. Calculate the mass of soil passing each sieve. For the 4th sieve, this is M (M1+
M2+M3+M4)
iv. Calculate the percent of soil passing each sieve (percent finer). Again, for the 4th sieve,
M (M 1 + M 2 + M 3 + M 4 )
%Finer4 =
M
After the percent finer of each sieve is calculated in this manner, the results are plotted on a
graph of percentage of particles finer than a given sieve as the ordinate versus the logarithm of
particle sizes. Log scale is used for the abscissa since the ratio of particle sizes from the largest
to the smallest in a soil can be greater than 104.
HYDROMETER ANALYSIS
Since there is a technical limitation on the size of sieves that could be practically attained, sieve
analysis cannot be used for fine-grained soils because of their extremely small particle size.
The common way of obtaining particle size distribution for such soils is the hydrometer test.
This is based on the principle of sedimentation of soil grains in water. It involves mixing a
small amount of soil into a suspension and observing how the suspension settles in time. The
particles will settle at different velocities, depending on their shape, size, and weight, and the
viscosity of the water.
When a hydrometer is lowered into the suspension it will sink until the buoyancy force is
sufficient to balance its weight. It is thus possible to calibrate the hydrometer such that it reads
the density of the suspension at different times.
The test is conducted in the laboratory by first taking a small quantity of oven dried soil,
usually 50 or 100gm and thoroughly mixing it with distilled water in a glass cylinder called
sedimentation cylinder capable of accommodating 1litre of suspension. Sodium
hexametaphosphate is generally used as a dispersing agent. The volume of dispersed
suspension is then increased to 1000ml by adding distilled water. The glass cylinder is then
repeatedly shaken and inverted before being placed at a constant temperature. A hydrometer is
placed in the glass cylinder and a clock is simultaneously started. At different times the
hydrometer value is read.
Eventhough not strictly realistic, it is sufficient for practical purposes to assume all the
particles to be spheres and no collision occurs between these spheres. The velocity of the
particles can be expressed by Stokes law. According to Stokes law, the velocity with which a
Soil Mechanics-I(CENG-2202)
grain settles down in a suspension, all other factors being equal is dependent upon shape,
weight, and size of the grains. However in the usual analysis, it is assumed that the soil
particles are spherical and have the same specific gravity (i.e. the average specific gravity of all
grains).
With this assumption, the coarser particles, will settle more quickly than the finer ones. If v
represents the settling or terminal velocity; the procedure could be worked out as follows:
Stoke has shown that for a sphere of radius r, the resisting force due to drag resistance offered
by a fluid is given by
R = 6 r v
Where = dynamic viscosity in kNsec/m2
r = radius in m
v = velocity in m/sec.
Consider a sphere of unit weight s (kN/m3), and radius r (m) falling in a fluid of unit weight
18v
s w
But s = s g, and w = w g
=> s - w = g (s - w) = w g (s/ w 1) = w g (Gs 1)
Therefore, D =
18v
18v
=
w g (G s )
w (G s 1)
Knowing the height (He) through which the soil particle falls, and the time taken by it, we can
easily determine its velocity (v), i.e. v = He/t and can hence determine its diameter. Substituting
this into the previous equation yields,
Soil Mechanics-I(CENG-2202)
D=
=K
He
18v
18
=
w (G s 1)
w (G s 1) t
He
t
= 1 + h
1000
Hence D = 0.00106
To compute the percent finer than the diameter D, the mass per unit of suspension must be
computed first.
Consider 1 unit volume of suspension, at a time t, at the effective depth He. If Ms is the mass
of solids in this 1cc suspension, the mass of water in it will then be
Mw = Vww = (1-Vs)s/Gs = s/Gs Vss/Gs = w Ms/Gs
= 1- Ms/Gs
The total mass per unit volume of suspension
M = M w + Ms
= Ms + (1 Ms/Gs) = 1 + Ms Ms/Gs
= 1 + Ms [(Gs 1)/Gs]
Hence the density of suspension
= 1 + Ms [(Gs 1)/Gs] ..since V = 1cc
But the density of the suspension, as measured by the hydrometer, is given as:
R
= 1 + h = 1 + Ms [(Gs 1)/Gs]
1000
Ms = (R/1000) [Gs/ (Gs 1)]
Mass of solids per unit volume at depth H e after time t
Percentage finer =
Mass of solids perunit volume(cc) inoriginal suspension
=
Ms
100
M
V
Soil Mechanics-I(CENG-2202)
R Gs 1
100
1000 G s 1 M
V
In many instances, if the soil has both coarse and fine particle, the results of sieve analysis and
hydrometer analysis are combined on one graph.
Typical grain-size distribution curves are shown in the figure below.
=
It is evident from this figure that particle-size distribution curve also shows the type of
distribution of various-size particles. Curve (C) represents a type of soil in which most of the
soil solids have the same size. Such soil is termed poorly graded. Curve (A) shows a soil
having two uniformly graded portions and it is called a gap graded soil. Curve (B) represents a
soil in which the particle sizes are distributed over a wide range of and is termed well graded.
A particle size distribution curve is used also to determine the following parameters for the
given soil.
1. Effective size (D10)
This is the diameter corresponding to 10% finer in the distribution curve. This size is
particularly important in regulating the flow of water through soils. The higher this
value, the coarser the soil and the better the drainage characteristics.
2. Uniformity coefficient (Cu)
This parameter is defined as
Soil Mechanics-I(CENG-2202)
Cu =
D60
D10
Where D60 is the diameter of the soil particles for which 60% of the particles are finer.
A well graded soil has a uniformity coefficient greater than about 4 for gravels and 6
for sands. A soil that has a uniformity coefficient of less than 4 contains particles of
uniform size. The minimum value of Cu is 1 and corresponds to a collection of particles
of the same size.
3. Coefficient of curvature, also called coefficient of gradation or coefficient of
concavity ( Cc or sometimes Cz)
It is defined as
( D30 ) 2
Cc =
D60 D10
The coefficient of curvature is between 1 and 3 for well-graded soils. Gap-graded soils
have values outside this range.
Soil Mechanics-I(CENG-2202)
The range of water contents over which the soil deforms plastically is known as the plasticity
index, PI. Thus,
PI = LL - PL
Based on the plasticity index, soils may be grouped into different categories as shown in the
following table.
PI
Description of soil plasticity
0
Nonplastic
1-5
Slightly plastic
5 - 10
Low plasticity
10 20
Medium plasticity
20- 40
High plasticity
>40
Very high plasticity
The liquid and plastic limits are also called the Atterberg limits after the Swedish soil
scientist, A. Atterberg who developed the idea. Typical values are shown below.
Soil type
Sand
Silt
Clay
Atterberg limits could be used as a measure of the soil strength since the state in which a soil is
in has a relation with the strength characteristics. At the liquid state the soil has the lowest
Soil Mechanics-I(CENG-2202)
strength and largest deformation. At the solid state, the soil possesses the largest strength and
lowest deformability.
A measure of strength using the Atterberg limits is known as the liquidity index, LI, and is
defined as;
w PL
LI =
PI
Where w is the in situ moisture content of soil.
Referring to this equation, the state a soil is in can be related to the value of LI as follows.
LI
LI < 0
0 < LI <1
LI > 1
Because the plasticity of soil is caused by the adsorbed water surrounding clay particles, we
expect that the type of clay minerals and their proportional amounts in a soil will affect the
liquid and plastic limits. On this basis, a quantity called activity is defined as the slope of the
line correlating PI and the clay fractions (finer than 2m) present in the soil.
PI
A=
(% of clay size fraction, by weight )
Higher values of activity indicate a higher potential for volume change. Hence,
montmorillonite clays have high values of activity ranging from 1.50 to 7.0.
DETERMINATION OF LIQUID, PLASTIC, AND SHRINKAGE LIMITS
LIQUID LIMIT
The liquid limit is determined from an apparatus that consists of a semispherical brass cup that
is repeatedly dropped onto a hard rubber base from a height of 1cm by a cam-operated
mechanism. The apparatus was developed by A. Casagrande (1932) and the procedure for the
test is called the Casagrande cup method.
Soil Mechanics-I(CENG-2202)
During the test a dry powder of the soil is mixed with distilled water into a paste and placed in
the cup to a thickness of about 12.5mm. The soil surface is smoothed and a groove is cut into
the soil using a standard grooving tool. The crank operation the cam is turned at a rate of 2
revolutions per second and the number of blows required to close the groove over a length of
12.5mm is counted and recorded. A specimen of soil within the closed portion is extracted for
determination of the water content. The liquid limit is defined as the water content at which the
groove cut into the soil will close over a distance of 12.5mm following 25 blows. This is
difficult to achieve in a single test. Four or more tests at different water contents are usually
required for terminal blows ranging from 10 to 40. The results are presented in a plot of water
content (ordinate, normal scale) versus terminal blows (abscissa, logarithmic scale). The best
fit straight line to the data points, usually called the flow line, is drawn. We will call this line
the liquid state line to distinguish it from flow lines used in describing the flow of water
through soils. The liquid limit is read from the graph as the water content on the liquid state
line corresponding to 25 blows.
PLASTIC LIMIT
The plastic limit is determined by rolling a small clay sample into threads and finding the water
content at which threads approximately 3mm in diameter will just start to crumble. Two or
more determinations are made and the average water content is reported as the plastic limit.
SHRINKAGE LIMIT
The shrinkage limit is determined as follows. A mass of wet soil, m1, is placed in a porcelain
dish 44.5mm in diameter and 12.5mm high and then oven-dried. The volume of oven dried soil
is determined by using mercury to occupy the vacant spaces caused by shrinkage. The mass of
the mercury is determined and the volume decrease caused by shrinkage can be calculated
from the known density of mercury.
Soil Mechanics-I(CENG-2202)
m m2 (V1 V2 ) w
100
SL = 1
m2
m2
where m1 is the mass of the wet soil, m2 is the mass of the oven-dried soil, V1 is the volume of
wet soil, V2 is the volume of the oven-dried soil, and g is the acceleration due to gravity. The
range of water content from the plastic to the shrinkage limits is called the shrinkage index, SI.
SI = PL SL
Based on the consistency limits, a useful chart, known as the plasticity chart is prepared that is
highly important in classifying soils for engineering purposes.
Soil Mechanics-I(CENG-2202)
This system is also based solely on grain size. It is but modified to accommodate a mixture of
grain sizes. We can thus have a combination naming such as silty clay, sandy clay, etc. This
system still doesnt account for the plasticity of soils and also gravels are not included in it.
Two figures showing the use of this classification are presented below. To use these diagrams,
one should first determine the percentage of clay, silt, and sand in the sample. Having these
values and drawing the arrows in the manner shown on the diagrams, the intersection of the
three arrows is then noted. Depending on where this point falls, the soil is then given the name
of the region in the diagram as shown with dotted lines.
Soil Mechanics-I(CENG-2202)
Soil Mechanics-I(CENG-2202)
Usually used for highway construction, this system takes into account both grain sizes and
plasticity characteristics of a soil. According to this system, soil is classified into seven major
groups: A-1 through A-7. Soils classified under groups A-1, A-2, and A-3 are granular
materials of which 35% or less of the particles pass through the No. 200 sieve. Soils of which
more than 35% pass through the No. 200 sieve are classified under groups A-4, A-5, A-6, and
A-7. These soils are mostly silt and clay-type materials. The classification system is further
based on the following criteria:
1. Grain size
a. Gravel: fraction passing the 75mm sieve and retained on the No.10 (2mm) sieve
b. Sand: fraction passing the No.10 sieve and retained on the No. 200 sieve
c. Silt and clay: fraction passing the No.200 sieve
2. Plasticity: the term silty is applied when the fine fractions of the soil have a plasticity
index of 10 or less. The term clayey is applied when the fine fractions have a plasticity
index of 11 or more.
3. If cobbles and boulders (size larger than 75mm) are encountered, they are excluded
from the portion of the soil sample from which classification is made. However, the
percentage of such material is recorded.
To classify a soil according to AASHTO classification system as presented on the next page,
one must apply the test data from the left to right. By process of elimination, the first group
from the left into which the soil parameters fit is the correct classification.
The figure below shows where the range of LL and PI plots fall on the plasticity chart for those
groups containing fines; i.e. groups A-2, A-4, A-5, A-6, and A-7.
Soil Mechanics-I(CENG-2202)
Soil Mechanics-I(CENG-2202)
Originally proposed by Casagrande in 1942 during the Second World War, this system was
then revised by in 1952. At present this system is widely used by engineers. Inorder to use this
classification system, the following points must be kept in mind:
1. The classification is based on material passing the 75mm sieve.
2. Coarse fraction = percent retained above No. 200 sieve = 100 - F200 = R200
3. Fine fraction = percent passing No. 200 sieve = F200
4. Gravel fraction = percent retained above No. 4 sieve = R4
It follows thus that the percentage of sand = R200 R4.
In this system, there are two major soil categories:
a. Coarse-grained soils: these are gravelly and sandy in nature with less than 50% passing
through the No. 200 sieve. The group symbols start with prefixes of either G or S. G
stands for gravel or gravelly soil, and S for sand or sandy soil.
b. Fine grained soils: with 50% or more passing through the No. 200 sieve. The group
symbols start with prefixes of M, which stands for inorganic silt, C for inorganic clay,
and O for organic silts and clays. The symbol Pt is used for peat, muck, and other
highly organic soils.
Other symbols (secondary) used in this system are:
W for well graded
P for poorly graded
L for low plasticity (LL<50)
H for high plasticity (LL50)
The following table and the associated plasticity chart give the details of the soil classification
system to determine the group symbols.
Soil Mechanics-I(CENG-2202)
Soil Mechanics-I(CENG-2202)
Inorder to assign group names to each group in the USC system, an elaborate system was
created by ASTM. The flowcharts of group naming are presented in the follwing pages.
Soil Mechanics-I(CENG-2202)
Flow chart for assigning group names for gravelly and sandy soil as per ASTM
Soil Mechanics-I(CENG-2202)
Flow chart for assigning group names for inorganic silty and clayey soils as per ASTM
Soil Mechanics-I(CENG-2202)
Flow chart for assigning group names for organic silty and clayey soils as per ASTM