Summary
The present study focuses on the feasibility of a precise 3D
numerical modeling coupled with X-ray computed tomography
(CT), which enables simple analysis of heterogeneous fracture
flows within reservoir core samples, as well as the measurement
of porosity and permeability. A numerical modeling was developed and applied to two fractured granite core samples. One of
the samples had an artificial single fracture (sample dimensions:
100 mm in diameter, 150 mm in length), and the other had natural multiple fractures (sample dimensions: 100 mm in diameter,
120 mm in length). A linear relationship between the CT value
and the fracture aperture (fracture-aperture calibration curve) was
obtained by X-ray CT scanning for a fracture-aperture calibration
standard while varying the aperture from 0.1 to 0.5 mm. With the
fracture-aperture calibration curve, 3D distributions of the CT
value for the samples (voxel dimensions: 0.350.350.50 mm3)
were converted into fracture-aperture distributions in order to
obtain fracture models for these samples. The numerical porosities reproduced the experimental porosities within factors of
approximately 1.3 and 1.1 for the single fracture and the multiple
fractures, respectively. Using the fracture models, a single-phase
flow simulation was also performed with a local cubic law-based
fracture-flow model for steady-state laminar flow of a viscous
and incompressible fluid. The numerically obtained permeabilities
were larger than the experimentally obtained permeabilities by
factors of approximately 2.2 and 2.7 for the single fracture and
the multiple fractures, respectively. However, these discrepancies
can be reduced to approximately 1.32.1 and 1.62.6, respectively,
by simply using the correction factor for the cubic-law equation
proposed by Witherspoon et al. (1980). Consequently, a precise
numerical modeling coupled with X-ray CT is essentially feasible.
Furthermore, the development of preferential flow paths (i.e.,
channeling flow) was clearly demonstrated for multiple fractures,
which is much more challenging to achieve by most other methods.
Further progress in modeling should enable the in-situ evaluation
of heterogeneous fracture flow within reservoir core samples, as
well as the clarification of the impacts of the heterogeneity on the
productivity of wells and, for example, the efficiency of recovery
by water-/gasflooding.
Introduction
Effective development of oil/gas fractured reservoirs requires a
good understanding of the fracture-flow characteristics in these reservoirs. Field and laboratory studies have suggested that fluid flow
through a rock fracture differs significantly from that through smooth
parallel plates because of the channeling flow in a heterogeneous
Sample
X-ray CT scanner
fracture flows, such as channeling flow, in reservoirs. A third-generation medical X-ray CT scanner, which provides a relatively high
voxel resolution with a voxel size of less than 0.1 mm3, was used
for precise imaging of fractured granite core samples with either
an artificial single fracture or natural multiple fractures. Fracture
models (i.e., aperture distributions) obtained by the CT images were
evaluated by comparison of the numerically and experimentally
determined porosities of the samples. In addition, a single-phase
fluid flow simulation was performed for the fracture models using
a local cubic law-based fracture-flow model. The fracture-flow
model was also evaluated using the experimentally determined
permeabilities of the samples.
Methods
X-Ray CT. In order to develop 3D models of fractured rock core
samples, it is necessary to convert CT images of the rock core
samples into the 3D fracture-aperture distributions within the samples using a fracture-aperture calibration curve (Johns et al. 1993;
Keller 1998; Bertels et al. 2001). Therefore, we first scanned a fracture-aperture calibration standard with a known fracture aperture in
order to prepare the calibration curve. We then scanned fractured
rock core samples to obtain input data for the modeling.
X-ray CT scanning was performed at the Japan Oil, Gas and
Metals National Corporation Technology and Research Center
(JOGMEC TRC), with the AquilionTM third-generation medical
scanner produced by Toshiba Medical Systems Corporation (Fig. 1).
All of the scans in the present study were performed using dry
samples at room temperature and atmospheric pressure with identical parameter values (Table 1). The CT scanner provides a 3D
distribution of the CT value (a measure of X-ray attenuation), with
a voxel resolution of 0.350.350.50 mm3, within several minutes
for the sample dimensions used in the present study. Although the
resolution is relatively low as compared with industrial microfocus
scanners, medical scanners have an advantage with respect to the
size and weight of the sample and equipment. It is much easier to
scan an entire reservoir core sample that is situated in a relatively
684
Value
Voltage
1 2 0 kV
Current
150 mA
Slice thickness
0.50 mm
0.35 mm
512 512
large and heavy core holder using a medical scanner. This will
provide a considerable advantage in the in-situ analysis of heterogeneous fracture flows in future studies.
The CT value at each voxel depends primarily on the density
of the material. The CT value increases with increasing density.
Because of this fundamental principle, we can detect the presence
of a fracture as an apparent density reduction, as compared with the
original density of the material, even if the fracture is smaller than
the voxel. Moreover, the apparent density reduction depends on the
pore volume, which in turn depends on the fracture aperture. Consequently, we can convert the CT value into the fracture aperture
by obtaining a relationship between the CT value and the fracture
aperture (a fracture-aperture calibration curve). It should be noted
that we used the minimum CT value caused by the fracture when
preparing the calibration curve, rather than the integrated value
as shown in the literature (Johns et al. 1993; Keller 1998; Bertels
et al. 2001). This was done because the integrated value can be
calculated only for samples having fractures with known locations
and orientations, whereas naturally fractured rock core samples
often contain fractures with unknown locations and orientations.
The fracture-aperture calibration standard with a known fracture aperture was cylindrical granite having a simulated single
fracture with a unique aperture. The fracture was prepared by
cutting a piece of cylindrical granite, 100 mm in diameter and 45
mm in length. The granite was Inada granite, which was quarried
in Ibaraki, Japan, and had a matrix permeability of 1019 to 1018
m2. The fracture surfaces were polished and had a mean roughness of approximately 20 to 30 m. The aperture was created by
inserting a thickness gauge between the surfaces. The calibration
standard was scanned with varying apertures of from 0.1 to 0.5
mm by changing the thickness of the gauge.
Because it is important to develop a 3D numerical modeling not
only for a single fracture but also for multiple fractures, considering that reservoir core samples usually contain multiple fractures,
we used two fractured granite core samples, which contained either
a single fracture or multiple fractures, with known porosities and
permeabilities to evaluate the relevance of the modeling. One of the
samples (Sample 1) contained an artificial single fracture, and the
other (Sample 2) contained natural multiple fractures. The diameter
and length of the sample were 100 mm and 150 mm for Sample
1, and 100 mm and 120 mm for Sample 2, respectively. Sample
1 was prepared using the following procedure. A 200-mm cubic
Inada granite block was fractured using a wedge to create a tensile
fracture. The block was then fixed with concrete to achieve a mated
fracture. Finally, the block was cored and cut to the prescribed
dimensions. Sample 2 was prepared by cutting a drill core, which
was taken from granite bedrock at a depth of approximately 4500
to 4600 m in Hokkaido, Japan, to length.
Before the present study, the permeabilities and porosities of
both of the samples were determined at confining pressures from
3 to 34 MPa. The porosities were determined using a helium
porosimeter with a core holder, by reference to Boyles law. The
permeabilities were determined for straight flow geometry in the
axial direction of the samples, vertically from bottom to top, using
a steady-state air permeameter with a core holder, based on the
modified form of Darcys law for air permeability (API 1956). All
of the equipment used to determine the porosities was produced by
Core Laboratories Inc. As shown later herein, nonlinear decreases
in the porosity and, correspondingly, in the permeability with
increasing confining pressure were observed, most likely because
of the common behavior of the nonlinear closer for a fracture by
increasing contacting asperities.
Fracture and Fluid-Flow Modeling. Once a fracture-aperture
calibration curve is obtained, we can convert the CT values at
each voxel into fracture apertures, providing 3D fracture models of
the samples. Moreover, we can simulate the fluid flow within the
fracture models using existing fracture flow models for a variable
aperture fracture. Because the porosities and permeabilities can
be calculated for the models, comparisons between the numerical
and experimental results provide quantitative evaluations of the
models.
September 2011 SPE Journal
y = 0.35 mm
Voxel
z
=
0.
50
Fracture
aperture, a
x = 0.35 mm
Fig. 2Smooth parallel-plate single fracture for a voxel of
0.350.350.50 mm3 used in the fracture modeling.
M 1
i=0
M 1
i=0
ai x z
x yz
100,
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (1)
Ak P Ak P Ak P
= 0, . . . . . . . . . . (2)
+
+
x x y y z z
A = wa,
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (3)
a2
,
12
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (4)
k=
where w and a are the local width and the local aperture of the
fracture, respectively. In the present study, w was assumed to
be equivalent to x in Fig. 2 (no significant difference between
x and z), and the product Ak was assumed to be isotropic at a
September 2011 SPE Journal
3000
QL
, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (5)
r 2 P
Sample
edge
Sample
edge
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
Fracture signal
0
-500
-1000
100
200
300
Position (pixels)
400
500
2500
2000
1500
A
1000
500
0
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
(a)
686
(b)
-1000
1000
2000
3000
4000
10
Permeability (m2)
10
Numerical results
-14
10
-15
10
-16
10
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Frequency (%)
8
6
4
2
0
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.35
10
Frequency (%)
8
6
4
2
0
0.00
0.05
0.10 0.15
0.20 0.25
Fracture aperture (mm)
0.30
0.35
The numerical porosities were 1.3 and 6.3% for Samples 1 and
2, respectively. Because the X-ray CT scanning was performed at
atmospheric pressure, the numerical results corresponded to the
samples at that condition. Although we obtained the porosities of
the samples, these results were obtained at confining pressures of
from 3 to 34 MPa. Therefore, we compared the numerical porosities with the experimental porosities at atmospheric pressure; these
were inferred by extrapolation of the experimental results (Fig. 8).
Based on the extrapolation, the experimental porosities at atmospheric pressure were determined to be approximately 1.0 and
5.5% for Samples 1 and 2, respectively. Consequently, the numerical porosities could predict the experimental porosities within factors of approximately 1.3 and 1.1 for Samples 1 and 2, respectively.
This discrepancy may have been caused primarily by the variation
in the CT value of the rock matrix. Because points with CT values
of <1,690 may be present (Figs. 3 and 5), the fracture-aperture
calibration curve could provide nonzero fracture apertures even for
the rock matrix. The variation of the CT values is unavoidable and
may limit the degree of accuracy in the modeling.
Fluid-Flow Models. Using the fracture models, the single-phase
fluid-flow modeling was performed for the fractured granite core
samples. In addition to the original voxel resolution, voxel resolutions equal to one-half and one-third of the original voxel resolution were used to examine the possibility of the reduction of computational cost, because the total number of voxels obtained by the
original voxel resolution can be enormous (for example, more than
1.0107 in the present study). The data for the voxel resolutions
equal to one-half (voxel dimensions: 0.700.701.00 mm3) and
one-third (voxel dimensions: 1.051.051.50 mm3), respectively,
of the original resolution were created so that the pore volume of
the original voxel resolution could be preserved.
The numerical permeabilities obtained using the original voxel
resolution were 4.31014 m2 and 1.91013 m2 for Samples 1 and
2, respectively (Fig. 6). In the same manner as in the preceding
section, the experimental permeabilities at atmospheric pressure
were inferred by the extrapolation, yielding permeabilities of
approximately 2.01014 m2 and 7.01014 m2 for Samples 1 and
2, respectively. The numerical permeabilities were larger than the
experimental permeabilities by factors of approximately 2.2 and
2.7 for Samples 1 and 2, respectively. One possible reason for
this discrepancy is the degree of accuracy in the fracture model.
However, this discrepancy is inevitable, as noted previously. The
other possible reason is the limitation of the cubic-law equation
(Brown 1987). Even on the local scale, the fracture may not be
perfectly modeled by smooth parallel plates. The deviations from
the ideal smooth parallel plates may only result in an apparent
10
Sample 1 (Single fracture)
Sample 2 (Multiple fractures)
9
8
Porosity (%)
10
Numerical results
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
10
-11
Permeability distribution
Permeability (m )
10
10
-12
-13
-14
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
1.6
1.8
2.0
reduction in the flow rate, which may be incorporated into the flow
model (Eq. 2) by the correction factor proposed by Witherspoon
et al. (1980):
1 Ak P 1 Ak P 1 Ak P
+
= 0,
+
x f x y f y z f z
(a)
(b)
Fig. 10. (a) Permeability distribution and (b) flow-rate distribution for the model of Sample 1 with a single fracture. The flowrate distribution demonstrates the formation of preferential
flow paths within the single fracture having the permeability
distribution. The boundary conditions were given so that the
straight flow geometry, in the z (blue axis) direction, vertically
from bottom to top, was achieved, where the constant fluid
potential difference was applied between the inflow and outflow
boundaries and the nonflow condition was applied at the other
boundaries.
Permeability distribution
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (7)
where f is the correction factor, which is reported to vary from
1.04 to 1.65, depending on conditions. Considering the range of
the correction factor, the discrepancy in the permeability can be
improved to factors of approximately 1.32.1 and 1.62.6 for
Samples 1 and 2, respectively. However, the optimum value for
the present model may be larger (i.e., approximately 2.2 to 2.7),
which should be addressed in future studies.
The data for the one-half and the one-third voxel resolutions
were created by using the following procedure. At each point, a
local pore volume V was calculated by the following equation:
Fracture 1
Fracture 2
(a-1)
(b-1)
Permeability distribution
V = i = 0 ai x z ,
N 1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (8)
Fracture 2
Fracture 3
Fracture 4
am =
V
,
X Z
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (9)
where X and Z are the voxel dimensions after changing the voxel
resolution (X and Z are 2x and 2z for the one-half resolution
and 3x and 3z for the one-third resolution, respectively). The
numerical permeability increased with decreasing voxel resolution
for both samples (Fig. 9), perhaps because of reduction of points
having the zero aperture. However, the permeabilities for the onehalf and the one-third resolutions (the voxel sizes are 0.49 mm3
and 1.65 mm3, respectively) were within one order of magnitude
of those for the original resolution (0.061 mm3). Furthermore,
the fluid-flow paths formed in the models with the original voxel
resolutions, which are shown later herein (Figs. 10 and 11),
were not significantly changed by changing the voxel resolution.
688
(a-2)
(b-2)
Consequently, it may be possible to use the one-half and the onethird resolutions for rough analyses.
The present study demonstrated that even the present simple
numerical modeling could reproduce the experimental results
for the fractured granite core samples, with relatively small
discrepancies, even for the multiple fractures having apertures
smaller than the voxel dimensions. Consequently, a precise numerical modeling of the fracture flow coupled with X-ray CT for reservoir core samples is essentially feasiblealthough further studies
are required to obtain an improved fracture-flow modeland
would be an effective method for analyzing heterogeneous fracture flow, as demonstrated next. In the permeability distributions
of Sample 1, relatively larger permeabilities, as shown in color,
were distributed in a single plane because Sample 1 had a single
fracture (Fig. 10a). Furthermore, the flow-rate distribution clearly
demonstrated the formation of preferential flow paths (i.e., channeling flow) within the single fracture (Fig. 10b), which is logical
and agrees well with the literature (Watanabe et al. 2008, 2009;
Nemoto et al. 2009). In contrast, the permeability distribution
of Sample 2 was different from that of Sample 1 (Figs. 11a and
11b). Relatively larger permeabilities were distributed over the
entire volume, indicating that several fractures were present within
Sample 2. At least four fractures (Fractures 1 through 4) were easily identified, and these fractures appeared to form a network. The
flow-rate distribution clearly demonstrated a 3D channeling flow
in the fracture network. This phenomenon is expected in fractured
reservoirs (Ishibashi et al. 2009). The detailed characteristics of
this phenomenon should vary depending on conditions such as
different fracture and aperture distributions, stress and temperature
conditions, and fluid types. Analyses performed with varying these
conditions are therefore necessary, and this problem may be easily
addressed only by approaches such as that proposed in the present
study. In future studies, in-situ X-ray CT scanning (Polak et al.
2003, 2004; Liu et al. 2006; Zhu et al. 2007) and a multiphaseflow model for a variable-aperture fracture (Murphy and Thomson
1993) should be performed in order to achieve more valuable
analyses of heterogeneous fracture flow of entire reservoir core
samples under in-situ conditions, and clarification of the impacts
of the heterogeneity on the productivity of wells and the efficiency
of recovery by water-/gasflooding, for example.
Conclusions
Effective development of oil/gas fractured reservoirs requires a
clear understanding of the fracture-flow characteristics in these
reservoirs. Field and laboratory studies have suggested that fluid
flow through a rock fracture differs from that through smooth
parallel plates because of the channeling flow in a heterogeneous
aperture distribution by rough surfaces. For fracture networks of
reservoirs, it has been suggested that the development of 3D preferential flow paths affects the performance of production wells.
Consequently, it is of considerable importance to evaluate the heterogeneity and its impact on the effective development of fractured
reservoirs. In order to address this problem, fluid-flow analyses
for reservoir core samples may be the only direct approach for
obtaining insight into the heterogeneous fracture flow originating from natural heterogeneities of a specific fractured reservoir.
However, fracture flow in naturally fractured rock core samples,
which often contain multiple fractures, is usually very difficult to
evaluate. Although fracture-flow analyses by numerical fracture
models with heterogeneous aperture distributions are effective,
a precise aperture determination using most existing methods is
much more challenging for multiple fractures. Because available
reservoir core samples are limited and are of considerable value,
a numerical fracture-flow modeling coupled with a nondestructive
precise aperture determination is required.
Therefore, the present study focused on the feasibility of a
precise 3D numerical modeling coupled with X-ray CT, which
enables simple analyses of the heterogeneous fracture flow within
reservoir core samples, as well as measurements of porosity and
permeability. The numerical modeling developed in the present
study was applied to two fractured granite core samples, which
September 2011 SPE Journal
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fluid flow in fractures, geomechanical modeling, and estimation of fracture distribution using seismic attributes. He holds
an M.S. degree in mining engineering from Kyushu University,
Japan. Yoshihiro Tsuchiya is a researcher in the Research and
Analysis Group, Technical Department, JOGMEC (Japan Oil,
Gas and Metals National Corporation). His research interests
are in the area of core analyses with X-ray computed tomography. Hiroshi Okabe is a deputy director in the Planning Division,
Business Strategy Department, JOGMEC. He has worked for
691