COMM 301: Empirical Research in Communication

Statistics: Chi-square

Inferential Statistics
Chi square statistic
What is it?
The chi square is the basic procedure to analyze relationships between categorical
data. Essentially, it is a comparison of the observed frequency versus the expected
frequency in the categories.
The formula for chi square is:

O: observe frequency
E: expected frequency
When is it used?
Type of question answered
Is there a significant difference between the groups in terms of frequency count?
Type of data
Variables:
Two (2) categorical variables
Restrictions and cautions on the use of the chi-square test

The chi-square can be used only with frequency count data.

The expected frequency in any cell should be at least 5.

What do you need to know?

All the above, plus
calculation of the procedure;
assumptions for the procedure;
recognition of the SPSS output for the procedure.
How to report?
See the specific examples that follow.
Procedures in SPSS
Analyze > Descriptive Statistics > Crosstabs
Click the independent variable into the Column box.
Click the dependent variable into the Row box.
Click on Statistics. Check Chi-square.
Click on Cells. Check Observed, Expected.
Click Continue. Click Paste.
Go to the syntax file. Highlight the appropriate section, and click .
Example 1
1

COMM 301: Empirical Research in Communication

Statistics: Chi-square

Research question:
Is there a difference between high school graduates and college graduates in terms of
their knowledge of chi-square?
H0: There is no difference between high school graduates and college
graduates in terms of their knowledge of chi-square.
H1: There is a difference between high school graduates and college graduates
in terms of their knowledge of chi-square.
Cf. You can set a directional hypothesis and try to find out an exact significance level for
one-tailed test. Since the chi-square distribution is not normal, the calculation of the low end
side of the chi-square distribution requires a different table. So, as a convention, people
simply set non-directional hypotheses for chi-square tests and use the approximate chi-square
distribution table or simply use SPSS output. Well, I know this makes you more confused.
So, simply think that researchers almost always set two-tailed test for chi-square analysis.
Research method:
Survey 40 high school graduates and 60 college graduates about their knowledge of
chi-square.
Results:
Observed frequencies
High school graduates

College graduates

Total

Dont know chisquare

22

12

34

Know chi-square

18

48

66

Total

40

60

100

COMM 301: Empirical Research in Communication

Statistics: Chi-square

Calculations
The first step is to calculate the expected frequency for each cell.
The formula for a cells expected frequency is
(the cells column total x the cells row total) / (grand total)
Expected frequencies
High school graduates

College graduates

Total

Dont know chisquare

(34 x 40) / 100 = 13.6

20.4

34

Know chi-square

26.4

39.6

66

Total

40

60

100

Actual SPSS output

knowledge of chi-square * education Crosstabulation

education
high
school
college
knowledge
of chisquare

don't know
chi-square
know chisquare

Total

Total

Count
22

12

34

Expected Count
Count

13.6

20.4

34.0

18

48

66

Expected Count
Count
Expected Count

26.4
40
40.0

39.6
60
60.0

66.0
100
100.0

Then calculate the chi square statistic.

COMM 301: Empirical Research in Communication

Statistics: Chi-square

Next, find the appropriate critical value for the chi square at 5% and 1% significance
levels.
To do that, you need to know what is the correct degree of freedom.
Degrees of freedom for chi square are calculated as
(number of rows - 1) x (number of columns - 1)
Degrees of freedom = ?
Critical value for chi square at 5% = ?
Critical value for chi square at 1% = ?
Decision:
Do we reject the null hypothesis?
Actual SPSS output
Chi-Square Tests

Value
Pearson ChiSquare
N of Valid Cases

13.102

df

Sig. (2-sided)
1

.000

100

Report
Of the 40 high school graduates surveyed, 18 reported the knowledge of chi-square,
22 reported no knowledge of chi-square. Of the 60 college graduates surveyed, 48 know chisquare, 12 dont know chi-square. Analysis using a chi square test revealed that there was a
significant difference between high school graduates and college graduates in terms of their
knowledge of chi-square (2 (1) =
;p<
).

COMM 301: Empirical Research in Communication

Statistics: Chi-square

Example 2
Research question:
Does gender affects the membership in a sport club?
H0: There is no difference in sport club membership between males and
females.
H1: There is difference in sport club membership between males and females.
Results:
Observed frequencies
Female

Male

Total

Membership

16

No membership

12

Total

14

14

28

Calculations
The next step is to calculate the expected frequency for each cell.
The formula for a cells expected frequency is
(the cells column total x the cells row total) / (grand total)
Expected frequencies
Female

Male

Total

Membership

16

No membership

12

Total

14

14

28

COMM 301: Empirical Research in Communication

Statistics: Chi-square

Then calculate the chi square statistic.

Next, find the appropriate critical value for the chi square at 5% level of significance.
To do that, you need to know what is the correct degree of freedom.
Degrees of freedom for chi square are calculated as
(number of rows - 1) x (number of columns - 1)
Degrees of freedom = ?
Critical value for chi square = ?
Decision:
Do we reject the null hypothesis?
Report:
How would you write the report?
SPSS output
membership * GENDER Crosstabulation
GENDER
female
male
membership no
Count
membership
Expected
Count
membership Count
Expected
Count
Total
Count
Expected
Count

Total

12

6.0

6.0

12.0

16

8.0

8.0

16.0

14

14

28

14.0

14.0

28.0

membership * GENDER Crosstabulation

Chi-Square Tests

Value
Pearson ChiSquare

.583(b)

Asymp. Sig.
(2-sided)

df
1

.445

Exact Sig.
(2-sided)

Exact Sig. (1sided)

.704

.352

COMM 301: Empirical Research in Communication

Statistics: Chi-square