Env-107 - Lecture note

Prof. Dr. Md. Anisur Rahman Khan (ARK)

Agriculture and the Environment

FOOD RESOURCES
MAJOR FOOD SOURCES
Of the thousands of edible plants and animals in the world, only about a dozen types of
seeds and grains, three root crops, twenty or so common fruits and vegetables, six
mammals, two domestic fowl and a few fish and other forms of marine life make up
almost all of the food humans eat.
HOW IS FOOD PRODUCED
(What systems provide us with food)
Food is produced by Agricultural practices.. Agriculture refers to the production of
goods (food, fiber, etc.) through the growing of plants, animals and other life forms. It is
the art and science of farming. People obtain food from cultivated plants and
domesticated animals. Historically, humans have depended on three systems for their food
supply: (1) croplands (mostly for producing grains, which provide about 76% of the
world's food), (2) rangelands (for producing meat mostly from grazing livestock, which
supply about 17% of the world's food), and (3) oceanic fisheries (which supply about 7% of
the world's food).
Plants and Animals that feed the World
Although the earth has perhaps 30,000 plant species with parts that people can eat, only 15
plant and 8 terrestrial animal species supply an estimated 90% of our global intake of calories.
Just three grain crops-wheat, rice, and corn-provide more than half the calories people
consume. These three grains, and most other food crops, are annuals, whose seeds must be
replanted each year.
Two-thirds of the world's people survive primarily on traditional grains (mainly rice,
wheat, and corn), mostly because they cannot afford meat. As incomes rise, people
consume more grain, but indirectly in the form of meat (mostly beef, pork, and chicken),
eggs, milk, cheese, and other products of grain-eating domesticated livestock.
Fish and shellfish are an important source of food for about 1 billion people, mostly in Asia
and in coastal areas of developing countries. But on a global scale fish and shellfish supply
only (1) 7% of the world's food, (2) less than 6% of the protein in the human diet, and (3) 1%
of the energy in the human diet.

Major Types of Food Production

The two major types of agricultural systems are industrialized and traditional.
Industrialized agriculture, or high-input agriculture, uses large amounts of fossil fuel
energy, water, commercial fertilizers, and pesticides to produce huge quantities of single
crops (monocultures) or livestock animals for sale. Practiced on about 25% of all cropland,
mostly in developed countries, high-input industrialized agriculture has spread since the mid1960s to some developing countries. Plantation agriculture is a form of industrialized
agriculture practiced primarily in tropical developing countries. It involves growing cash
crops (such as bananas, coffee, soybeans, sugarcane, cocoa, and vegetables) on large
monoculture plantations, mostly for sale in developed countries. An increasing
amount of livestock production in developed countries is industrialized. Large
numbers of cattle are brought to densely populated feedlots, where they are fattened
up for about 4 months before slaughter. Most pigs and chickens in developed countries
spend their entire lives in densely populated pens and cages and are fed mostly
grain grown on cropland.
Traditional agriculture consists of two main types, which together are practiced by
about 2.7 billion people (44% of the world's people) in developing countries and provide
about 20% of the world's food supply. Traditional subsistence agriculture typically uses
mostly human labor and draft animals to produce only enough crops or livestock for
a farm family's survival. In traditional intensive agriculture, farmers increase their
inputs of human and draft labor, fertilizer, and water to get a higher yield per area of
cultivated land to produce enough food to feed their families and to sell for income.
There are inputs of land, human and animal labor, fossil fuel energy, and financial
capital needed to produce one unit of food energy in various types of food produc tion systems. In North America, only 2.4% of the labor force is engaged directly in food
production, compared to 45-65% in developing countries. Croplands, like natural
ecosystems, provide ecological and economic services . The food, fiber, and animal feed
produced throughout the world is worth more than $1.3 trillion.
The growth in food productivity occurred because of technological advances such as (1)
increased use of tractors and farm machinery and high-tech fishing boats and gear, (2) inorganic
chemical fertilizers, (3) irrigation, (4) pesticides, (5) high-yield varieties of wheat, rice, and
corn, (6) densely populated feedlots and enclosed pens for raising cattle, pigs, and chickens, and
(7) aquaculture ponds and ocean cages for raising some types of fish and shellfish.
To feed the world's 9.3 billion people projected by 2050, we must
(1) produce and equitably distribute more food than has been produced since agriculture
began about 10,000 years ago and
(2) do this in an environmentally sustainable manner.
Some analysts believe we can continue expanding the use of industrialized agriculture to

produce the necessary food. But Analysts also contend that : (1) environmental degradation,
(2) pollution, (3) lack of water for irrigation, (4) overgrazing by livestock, (5) over fishing,
and (6) loss of vital ecological services - may limit future food production as human activities
continue to take over or degrade more of the planet's net primary productivity, which supports
all life.

Relationships between agriculture and the environment

Agricultural production involves biological processes which are determined by the
quality of seeds as well as environmental factors. The environmental factors affecting
growth and yield of crops include abiotic factors such as solar radiation, temperature,
rainfall and relative humidity, soil (pH, structure, texture) and biotic factors such as
beneficial and harmful micro-organisms (in soil and air), insects and other plants and
animals.
Solar radiation: Solar radiation or sunlight is essential (as a catalyst) for photosynthesis
the process by which plants produce carbohydrates from water and Carbon-di-Oxide
(CO2). Crop yields are generally proportionate to number of hours of clear sunshine
during its growth phase. Some crops require a critical minimum day length for certain
minimum number of days in order to produce flowers (Short-day crops) e.g., Aman rice.
On the other hand, some crops require certain minimum number of longer days (above
some critical level) in order to produce flower and fruits (Long-day crops) e.g., Radish.
Cloud cover in the sky during the growing season can affect the effective length of a day
and thus the growth and reproductive behavior of plants.
Temperature: For each stage of plant growth there are critical (threshold) and optimal
levels of temperature. For germination of seeds as well as for vegetative growth of plants,
a warm temperature is needed. Some species need cool growing period (e.g., wheat) for
good growth and yield. In temperature regions, increase in temperature in spring and
summer widens the scope of cultivating a wider range of crops in natural condition, with
higher yield. Growth and multiplication of micro-organisms (harmful, beneficial) is also
sensitive to temperature regimes. Generally plants and farm animals suffer from various
pest infestations (insect, diseases) at higher atmospheric temperatures, especially in
association with high relative humidity. Too cold weather also causes certain problems to
plants and animals. Growth stunting and other forms of cold injury, and even death, of
tropical crops occur in excessive cold temperature. Farms animals suffer from flu in cold
weather.
Rainfall: Rainfall or precipitation is the primary source of water for plants. Water is
essential for all physiological processes in the plant body from seed germination (or
root/shoot initiation in case of vegetative propagation) to fruit / seed development. Water
is the basic solvent for plant nutrients in the soil. In plant body is needed for translocation
of nutrients from soil/root to leaves and of prepared food (carbohydrate) from leaves to
different parts of the plant. Water maintains turgidity of plant cells.
Most species of plants uptake plant nutrients from soil in aerobic conditions and the plant
may die of water logging (saturation) due to excessive rainfall. On the other hand, aquatic

and some mesophytic plants uptake plant nutrients under reduced condition in the root
zone (e.g., wetland rice) for which sufficient rainfall (or irrigation water) is needed.
Relative Humidity (RH): Relatively high humidity is needed for seed germination and
for root and shoot initiation in vegetative organs (e.g., in nurseries). On the other hand,
high relative humidity (along with warm temperature) also provides favorable microclimate for the rapid growth and multiplication of pathogenic micro-organisms, which
often aggravates disease infestation in plants.
Soil pH: The availability of soil nutrients to plants (through roots) depends a lot on the
pH of the soil. In general neutral soils are most favorable for plant nutrient uptake. Under
acidic condition (pH < 7.0), some nutrients become fixed in the soil through formation of
complex chemicals and so happens in alkaline / saline soils too (pH > 7.0). The activities
of soil micro-organisms which helps in decomposition of organic matter and in various
other functions related to transformation of plant nutrients also depend on the level of soil
pH. In saline soils, uptake of water and plan nutrients in plants is inhibited and therefore
the options for growing crops in saline soil are limited.
Climate: Climate is the average and variations of weather in a region over long periods
of time (at least 30 years, as defined by the World Meteorological Organization- WMO).
The climate of a location is affected by its latitude, terrain, persistent ice or snow cover,
as well as nearby oceans and their currents. The natural distribution and suitability for
introduction/production of plants and animals in a region is determined by the climate of
the region.
Extreme weather events: Flood, drought, hailstorms, cyclones, etc. are considered as
extreme weather events. The extreme weather events are threats (risks) for agricultural
production activities.

Crops
A crop is any plant that is grown in significant quantities to be harvested as food,
livestock fodder, or for any other economic purpose. Although the earth has perhaps
30,000 plant species , only about 3,000 have been tried as agricultural crops, and 150
species have been cultivated on a large scale. Some crops provide food, other provide
commercial products, including oils, drugs, pesticides, and fibers. Most of the worlds
food is provided by only 15 crop species. Of these 15, six species provide more than 80%
of the total calories consumed by human beings either directly or indirectly. Other crops,
called forage, are important food for domestic animals.
It is useful to group farming into cash crops and subsistence crops. Cash crops are grown
to be sold or traded in a large market. Subsistence crops are used directly for food by the
farmer or sold locally where the food is used directly. Some cash crops may provide
nonfood products (latex from rubber trees).

Seasonal Crop Species in Bangladesh

Cropping seasons in Bangladesh can be broadly divided into two:
(1) Rabi (dry period; October to February) and
(2) Kharif (wet period; March to September).
Kharif is again divided into two: Kharif-1 (March to June) and Kharif-2 (July to
September). Although some of the crops are sown in one season they are harvested in
another season, i.e., there is overlapping of seasons. Again crops are also divided into
different groups as cereals, pulses, fiber crops, oilseeds, root crops, vegetables, spice
crops, fruit crops, etc.

Table: Different types of seasonal crop species in Bangladesh

Crop
Rice
Wheat
Maize
Barley, Kaon, Lentil, Khesari, Chickpea,
Blackgram, pigeonpea
Mungbean
Jute, Cotton, Sunhemp
Mustard
Soybean, Sunflower
Sesame, Groundnut
Potato, Sweet potato
Cabbage, Cauliflower, Broccoli, Carrot
Brinjal, Ladys finger (Okra)
French bean, Country bean, Winged bean
Field pea
Pumpkin, Radish, Teasle gourd, Bitter
gourd, Pointed gourd, Sweet gourd, Bottle
gourd, Cucumber
Amaranthus, Red amaranthus, Indian
spinach
Spinach,
Onion, Garlic, Coriander
Ginger, Turmeric
Banana, Papaya, Guava
Jackfruit, Pineapple, Mango, Blackberry,
Litchi, Citrus, Wood apple, Star fruit, Plum
Water melon,
Sugarcane, Tobacco, Tea, Coconut

Season
All season
Rabi (rainfed & irrigated)
All
Rabi
Kharif & Rabi
Kharif
Rabi
Kharif
All
Rabi
Rabi
All
Kharif
All
Rabi
Rabi
Kharif
All
Kharif
Rabi
All

Name of Some Crop Variety:

CEREAL CROPS: Rice, Wheat, Maize, Millets, Barley
PULSE CROPS: Chickpea, Lentil, Mungbean, Cowpea
OIL CROPS: Mustard, Groundnut, Sesame, Sunflower,Soybean, Linseed,
VEGETABLE CROPS: Brinjal, Cabbage, Cauliflower, Lady`s finger, Bottle
gourd, Pointed gourd, Pumpkin, Lettuce, Radish, Bean
SPICES CROPS: Onion, Garlic, Turmeric, Coriander, Chilli
FRUIT CROPS: Mango, Litchi, Guava, Safeda, Banana, Papaya, Coconut,
TUBER CROPS: Potato, Aroids, Sweet Potato
FLOWER CROPS: Rose, Tulip, Orchid

Characteristics of Bangladesh Agriculture

In Bangladesh agriculture is the single largest producing sector of economy since it
comprises about 30% of the country's GDP and employing around 60% of the total labor
force. The crop sub-sector dominates the agriculture sector contributing about 72% of
total production. Fisheries, livestock and forestry sub-sectors contribute 11%, 10% and 7
% respectively.
Agro-climatic conditions: Bangladesh enjoys a sub-tropical monsoon climate. The mean
annual rainfall ranges from 1194 mm to 3454 mm, 80% of which occurs during monsoon,
June-September. The mean maximum and minimum temperatures in summer (March June) are 32C and 21C and that in winter (November February) is 29C and 11C,
respectively. There are considerable variations in climatic conditions in different regions
of the country. About 88% area of the country is almost flat with fertile (mostly) alluvial
soil. About 12% area of the country is hilly (in the north-east and south-east periphery).
Based on land, soil and climatic characteristics, Bangladesh is divided into 30 agroecological regions (AEZ). The relative prevalence of different crops and cropping
patterns vary from one AEZ to another.
Mode of farming: The agriculture of Bangladesh is traditionally subsistence-oriented,
but commercial orientation is gradually taking place. Poultry farms, small-scale dairy
farms, beef fattening, goat farming, duck farming, commercial vegetable cultivation and
fruit orchards are expanding. Use of modern technologies, especially high yielding
varieties of major field crops and vegetables are increasing. The use of chemical
fertilizers and pesticides is increasing. The use of modern machinery is still limited but
the use of light machinery (power tiller, shallow tube well, paddy thresher) is gradually
expanding.
Major crops: Rice, Wheat, Maize, Jute, Sugarcane, Potato, Pulses (lentil, chick pea,
mung bean, black gram), Oil seeds (mustard, rapeseed, linseed), Tea and Tobacco are the
principal crops. Traditionally farmers grow a wide range of fruits and vegetables in their
homesteads mainly for own consumption, but commercial cultivation of selected
horticultural crops (fruits, vegetables, spices, flowers) is increasing. Small-scale dairy

farms and pond fisheries have also evolved as commercial ventures of farmers in many
areas of the country.

Soil
Soils may be defined as earth materials modified over time by physical, chemical, and
biological processes such that, in addition to supporting rooted plant life, they are altered
from the original parent material into a series of horizons that are sub-parallel to the
surface. Soils are crucial to life on Earth. To a great degree, soil quality determines the
nature of plant ecosystems and the capacity of land to support animal life and society.
The major components of soil are air, water, mineral matter (sand, silt, and clay), and
organic matter. About half the soil volume consists of solid material (mineral {45%} and
organic {5%}); the other half consists of pore spaces filled with air or water. Soils are
extremely important in many environmental considerations. As a result, the study of soils
continues to be an important part of environmental sciences.

Soil Fertility and Soil Erosion

A fertile soil is the one that rich in nutrients necessary for basic plant nutrition, including
nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calicium, magnesium, sulfur, boron, iron, zinc, copper,
manganese, molybdenum, cobalt and chlorine. It contains ample soil organic matter that
improves soil structure and soil moisture retention. Soil fertility refers to the capacity of
a soil to supply the nutrients and physical properties necessary for plant growth.
Ironically, agriculture depends heavily on soil quality, but agriculture can lead to a
decline in that quality. A high-quality agricultural soil has all the chemical elements
required for plant growth and a physical structure that lets both air and water move freely
through the soil, yet retains water well. Such a soil has high organic matter (organic
matter includes plant and animal residues at various stages of decomposition) content.
Organic matter in soil is rich in chemical nutrients and provides a physical structure
conducive to plant growth. When land is cleared of its natural vegetation, such as forest
or grassland, the soil begins to lose its fertility. Some of this occurs by physical erosion.
Soil erosion: Erosion is the wearing away of land surface by running water, wind, ice, or
other natural agents. Soil erosion in agricultural systems is a very important problem to
manage. Soil erosion is a naturally occurring process on all land. The agents of soil
erosion are water and wind, each contributing a significant amount of soil loss. Soil
erosion is one form of soil degradation along with soil compaction, low organic matter,
loss of soil structure, poor internal drainage, salinization, and soil acidity problems. These
other forms of soil degradation, serious in themselves, usually contribute to accelerated
soil erosion. Once the protection of the vegetative cover is lost, the soil is exposed
directly to water and wind, which remove the loosened soil. In addition, the introduction
of heavy, earth-moving machinery led to a considerable increase in the compaction
(packing down) of soil and the loss of the proper soil structure for crop production.
Farmed soil also loses fertility when chemical elements are dissolved in water and
transported away in streams and subsurface runoff. The loss of soil fertility is much faster
in warmer and wetter climates, such as tropical rain forests, than it is in colder or drier
climates.
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Plowing the Soil

Plowing is shattering soil uniformly with partial to complete inversion. The practice of
annual plowing and planting makes possible intense use of the land and high production
of crops. Plowing the soil and planting crops has been a way of life for several thousand
years and continues today, with, however major changes in soils. Plowing is unlike any
natural disturbances of the soil. Nothing in nature repeatedly and regularly turns over the
soil to a specific depth. Plowing opens the land to erosion even more than removal of the
original vegetation. Soil loosened by plowing can blow away when dry and wash away
with rainwater. Plowed lands tend to lose the upper layers, where the most fertile organic
matter is found. The less organic matter present in the soil, the more vulnerable the soil is
to further erosion. Once erosion starts, the process can easily accelerate. The current
threat of erosion is more ominous than at any time in history. In our generation, farmers
have had to more than double world food output to feed the unprecedented numbers of
people on Earth. Population pressures have led to overgrazing rangelands, deforestation,
and destructive crop practices like clearing and burning steep, forested slopes and
plowing grasslands. All these activities degrade or remove natural vegetation, causing the
underlying soil to become much more susceptible to the destructive action of erosion.
The result is a vicious downward cycle of deteriorationland degradation. Such land
degradation results in a reduced productive potential and a diminished capacity to provide
benefits to humanity.
All forms of agriculture lead to soil loss, but the rate of loss varies with the crop and the
methods of agriculture. Land used for row crops and small grains without soil
conservation practices result in greater erosion loss.

Sediment Damage
Much of this eroded soil ends up in waterways causing downstream sedimentation which
is a serious environmental effect of modern agriculture. Sediments fill in otherwise
productive waters, destroying some fisheries. In tropical waters, sediments entering the
ocean can destroy coral reefs that are near shore. Nitrate, ammonia, phosphates, and other
fertilizers carried by sediments can cause eutrophication in downstream waters; the
resulting buildup of algae reduces fish production. Polluted sediments also can transport
toxins. Sediment damage costs the US about $500 million/year in dredging expenses.

Making Soils Sustainable

Soil forms continuously. In Ideal farming the amount of soil loss would never exceed the
amount of new soil produced. On good lands, a layer of soil 1 mm deep, thinner than a
piece of paper, forms at a rate ranging from one per decade to one in 40 years.
Sustainability of soils can be aided by multiculture (planting several crops intermixed in
the same fields), terracing, crop rotation, Contour Plowing and no-till agriculture

Obviously, one way to counter soil erosion is to promote new soil formation. Another
way to counter erosion from plowing is contour plowing and No-Till (Conservation)
Agriculture
Contour Plowing
In traditional plowing, the plowed furrows make a path for water to flow, and if the
furrows go downhill, then the water moves rapidly along them, increasing the erosion
rate. In contour plowing, the land is plowed along the contours, perpendicular to the
slope and as much in the horizontal plane as possible. Plowing along the contours can
greatly reduce erosion loss owing to water runoff. In the recent past, contour plowing
has been the single most effective method for reducing soil erosion.
No-Till (Conservation tillage ) Agriculture
An even more efficient technique to slow erosion is to avoid plowing altogether: No-till
agriculture, (also called conservation tillage), is a recent form of combination of farming
practices that includes not plowing the land, using herbicides to keep down the weeds. In
no-till agriculture the land is left unplowed most years. Plant residues or other materials
are left to cover the surface and allowed to decay in place. In contrast to conventional
tillage (combined primary and secondary tillage operations normally performed in
preparing land for growing crop), the goal in managing weeds is to suppress and control
them but not to eliminate them at the expense of soil conservation. A variety of methods
are used to control weeds in no-till agriculture, including integrated pest management and
chemical herbicides. These practices can greatly reduce soil and water loss, reduces
traffic operations over the field which decreases soil compaction, reduces the use of
tractor fuel, and increases the profit.
Of a large number of factors determining sustainability of agriculture in a region,
population pressures and the availability of arable land are the most important. Whether
the land is plentiful or in short supply, maintenance and management of soil fertility is
central to the development of sustainable food production systems. The principles that
regulate soil fertility are fundamental to the philosophy of sustainability. The wisest
approach to sustainable agriculture involves a combination of different kinds of land use:
using the best agricultural lands for crops and poorer lands for pastures and rangelands
and avoiding the use of the best lands for grain production for animal feed.

Global Effects of Agriculture

Agriculture is the worlds oldest and largest industry; more than one-half of all the people
in the world still live on farms. Because the production, processing, and distribution of
food all alter the environment, and because of the size of the industry, large effects on the
environment are unavoidable. These effects can be both positive and negative. For
example, modern pesticides have created a revolution in agriculture in the short term, but
the long-term effects of some of these chemicals have proved extremely undesirable.

Agriculture has both primary and secondary environmental effects. A primary effect, also
called an on-site effect, is an effect on the area where the agriculture takes place. A
secondary effect, or off-site effect, is an effect on environment away from the agricultural
site, typically downstream and downwind.
Major environmental problems that result from agriculture include deforestation,
desertification, soil erosion, overgrazing, degradation of water resources, salinization,
accumulation of toxic metals, accumulation of toxic organic compounds, and water
pollution, including eutrophication.

Some global effects are :

Agriculture changes land cover, resulting in changes in reflection of light by the

land surface; the evaporation of water; the roughness of the surface; and the rate
of exchange of chemical compounds (carbon dioxide) produced and removed by
living things. Each of these changes can have regional and global climatic effects.

Modern agriculture increases carbon dioxide in two ways. As a major user of

fossil fuels, it contributes to the increased concentration of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere, adding to the buildup of greenhouse gases. Also, clearing land for
agriculture increases the decomposition of organic matter in the soil, transferring
the carbon stored in organic matter into carbon dioxide, increasing its
concentration in the atmosphere.

Agriculture can also affect climate through fire. Fires associated with clearing
land for agriculture may have significant effects on the climate because they add
small particulates to the atmosphere.

Another global effect of agriculture results from the production of nitrogen

fertilizer, which may be leading to significant changes in global biogeochemical
cycles.

Loss of bio-diversity: Agriculture affects species diversity. The loss of competing

ecosystems (because of agricultural land use) reduces biodiversity and increases
the number of endangered species. Conversion of forests, other natural vegetation
and home gardens into agricultural lands and other uses results in the loss of
biodiversity (flora, fauna) of the area. Many native species of plants and animals
have become extinct or at the verge of extinction (i.e., threatened) due the loss of
natural vegetation. Cultivation of selected varieties of agricultural crops has also
resulted in the loss of many native varieties of agricultural crops. Thus the gene
pool is becoming narrower due to modern agriculture.

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Environmental pollution by agro-chemicals. Modern agriculture is input intensive.

Large quantities of chemical fertilizers and pesticides are used in almost every
crop. Pesticide residues contaminate surface water as well as ground water
through run-off and percolation processes, respectively. Inland fisheries resources
and wildlife (birds) population are thus affected by pesticides. Pesticide residues
in agricultural produce are a particular concern for human health in many
countries.

Depletion of ground water: Cultivation of rice using ground water, especially in

low rainfall areas, depletes the ground water level jeopardizing not only the
sustainability of the farming practice but also the availability of drinking water.

Genetically Modified Organism (GMO) : A GMO is an organism whose genetic

material has been altered using the genetic engineering techniques generally
known as recombinant DNA technology. The GMOs have become a serious and
alarming cause of genetic pollution because the genetically engineered plants can
live and breed on their own and interbreed with naturally evolved wild varieties as
well as domesticated varieties derived from relatively natural hybridization.

Pest Control and Pesticides

A pest is any species that competes with us for food, invades lawns and gardens, destroys
wood in houses, spreads disease, or is simply a nuisance. All agriculture suffers from
pests. From an ecological point of view, pests are undesirable competitors, parasites, or
predators. Even today, with modern technology, the total losses from all pests are huge.
Preharvest losses are due to competition from weeds, diseases, and herbivores;
postharvest losses are largely due to herbivores.
The major agricultural pests are insects (feeding mainly on the live parts of plants,
especially leaves and stems); nematodes (small worms that live mainly in the soil and
feed on roots and other plant issues); bacterial and viral diseases; weeds (flowering plants
that compete with the crops); and vertebrates (mainly rodents and birds that feed on grain
or fruit). Although we tend to think that the major pests are insects, in fact, weeds are the
major problem in terms of potential crop loss. Farming produces special environmental
and ecological conditions that tend to promote pests. Worldwide, only about 100 species
of weeds, insects, fungi, and microbes cause about 90% of the damage to the crops we
grow.
To help control pest organisms, we have developed a variety of pesticides : chemicals to
kill organisms we consider undesirable. Pesticides are classified according to the target
organisms they are designed to control. Of the target organisms, weeds cause the most
significant economic loss due to their interference with crop production. Common types
of pesticides include insecticides (insect killers), herbicides (weed killers), fungicides
(fungus killers), nematocides (roundworm killers), and rodenticides (rat and mouse
killers).

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Before the industrial revolution farmers could do little to prevent pests except remove
them when they appeared or use farming methods that tended to decrease their density.
With the rise of modern agricultural sciences, chemical pesticides were developed.
Earlier chemical pesticides were broad spectrum, meaning that they affected a wide range
of organisms. One of the earliest pesticides used was arsenic, a chemical element toxic to
all life, including human.
The real revolution in chemical pesticidesthe development of more sophisticated
pesticidesbegan in 1939, when entomologist Paul Muller discovered that DDT
(dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane), a chemical known since 1874, was a potent
insecticide. DDT, the first of the so-called second-generation pesticides, soon became the
worlds most used pesticide, and Muller received the Nobel Prize in 1948 for his
discovery. Since then, Chemists have made hundreds of other second-generation
synthetic chemical pesticides (the first-generation pesticides were mainly natural
chemicals borrowed from plants that had been defending themselves from insects for
eons).
At first, DDT was thought to be the long-sought magic bullet (narrow spectrum chemical,
that is, lethal to a single pest species but not harmful to other forms of life. No pesticide is
that perfect). It appeared to have no short-term effect on people and seemed to kill only
insects.
Eventually, three facts about DDT were discovered: (1) it has long-term effects on other,
desirable organisms; (2) it is stored in oils and fats and is concentrated as it is passed up
food chains, so that the higher an organism is on a food chain, the higher the
concentration of DDT it contains, a process known as biomagnification; and (3) the
storage of DDT in oils and fats allows the chemical to be transferred biologically even
though it is not very soluble in water. As a result of these problems, DDT was considered
as the most notorious chemical of the last century, and as a result was banned in most
developed nations.
With the banning of DDT in developed nations, other chemicals became more prominent.
Chemicals were sought that were less persistent (the length of time they remain deadly in
the environment). These include organophosphates and carbamates. These chemicals are
more specific and decay rapidly in the soil. They too, are toxic to people and must be
handled extremely carefully by those who apply them.

Problems of Pesticide UseImpact on Other Organisms

Many of the pesticides are toxic to organisms other than those especially targeted. One of
the greatest concerns with the development and use of these substances is their slow
breakdown and their ability to accumulate in organisms.
A major problem of pesticide use is that their widespread use accelerates the development
of genetic resistance to pesticides. Because of genetic resistance, many insecticides (such

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as DDT) no longer protect people from insect-transmitted diseases (malaria, for example)
in some parts of the world.
Another problem is that broad-spectrum insecticides kill natural predators and parasites
that help control the populations of pest species. Also, pesticides do not stay put.
According to USDA, no more than 2% of the insecticide applied to crops by aerial or
ground spraying reaches the target pests. Also, less than 5%of herbicides applied to crops
reach the target weeds.
Pesticides that miss their target pests can end up in the air, surface water, groundwater,
bottom sediments, food, and nontarget organisms, including humans and wildlife.
At high enough levels, most pesticides can be toxic to humans. Scientists are becoming
increasingly concern about possible genetic mutations, birth defects, nervous system
disorders (especially behavioral disorders), and effects on the immune system.
High doses of certain pesticides given to animals can cause cancer, mutagenesis,
neuropathy, and death. Many pesticides have adverse reproductive and developmental
effects in wildlife.
Plants that are sensitive to pesticides can show rapid signs of growth irregularity, loss in
biomass, or death. Pesticides other than herbicides, such as insecticides, can also affect
plants that are not the specific target organism the pesticide was designed to control.
Soil and aquatic ecosystems contain a multitude of microorganisms, many of which are
beneficial. Contamination of these ecosystems can reduce microbial activity. In an
extreme case of contamination, the number and activity of soil microorganisms may be
reduced to essentially zero.

Integrated Pest Management

Modern approaches to pest control involve integrated pest management (IPM), an
ecosystem approach to pest management that integrates a variety of techniques.
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is a is a sustainable approach to managing pests by
combining biological, cultural, physical and chemical tools in a way that minimizes
economic, health and environmental risks. These methods are done in three stages of
prevention, observation, and finally intervention. It is an ecological approach that has its
main goal is to significantly reduce or eliminate the use of pesticides. IPM is moving
more towards biological control of pests which involves use of such biological tools as
parasitoids, predators, pathogens and weed feeders.
The IPM techniques include:
the use of natural enemies of pests, including parasites, diseases, and predators;
the planting of a greater diversity of crops to reduce the chance that pests will find
a host plant;
no-till or low-till agriculture, which helps natural enemies of some pests to build
up in the soil; and
the application of a set of highly specific chemicals, used much more sparingly
than in earlier approaches.

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IPM takes into account the effect of one species on othersfor instance, a decrease in
one species may lead to an increase in another and decreases in still others.
Four principles govern IPM:
1. The goal is control, not extinction. Pests are allowed to continue to exist at a low,
tolerable level; the method is considered a success if pests are kept at these levels
(older approaches involved heavy application of chemicals).
2. The use of natural control agents is maximized.
3. The ecosystem is the management unit.
4. Any control action can have unexpected and unwanted effects.
The components of IPM include chemicals, the development of genetically resistant
stock, biological control, and land culture. Land culture refers to how the land is
physically managed, including whether and how it is plowed, what kind of crop rotation
is used, the dates of planting, and basic means of handling crop harvests to reduce the
presence of pests in residues and products sold.

Biological Control
Biological control (biocontrol) is an alternative to pesticide use that relies upon natural
enemies to suppress pest populations. Biocontrol is just one component of IPM and is a
set of methods to control pest organisms by using natural ecological interactions
including predation, parasitism, and competition. It includes the intentional introduction
of predators, diseases, or other parasites of a pest. For example, ladybugs are common
predators of many plant-eating pests. It is possible to buy quantities of ladybugs for
release in home gardens or farms. The hope is that these ladybugs will feed on pests and
reduce their abundance.
There are many specialized and effective biological controls. One of the most effective is
a bacterial disease, Bacillus thuringiensis, which kills larval forms of many insect pests,
including many caterpillars. It is used widely. Other biological effective controls agents
are small wasps that are parasites of caterpillars. The wasps lay their eggs in the
caterpillars; the larval wasps then feed on the caterpillars and kill them.
The control of oriental fruit moth, which attacks a number of fruit crops, is an example of
IPM biocontrol. Biocontrol has also been successfully used to control certain terrestrial
and aquatic weeds.

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