Env-107 - Lecture note

Prof. Dr. Md. Anisur Rahman Khan (ARK)

AIR POLLUTION
Air pollution may be defined as any atmospheric condition in which certain substances are
present in such concentrations that they can produce undesirable effects on man and his
environment. These substances include gases (sulphur oxides, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide,
hydrocarbons, etc.), particulate matter (smoke, dust, fumes, aerosols), radioactive materials and
many others. Most of these substances are naturally present in the atmosphere in low
concentrations and are usually considered to be harmless.
Structure of the Atmosphere
The atmosphere is made up of several layers. The structure of the atmosphere and the
relationship between altitudc and air temperature for the lower atmosphere are shown as an
idealized diagram in Figure 22.1.

The lower part of the atmosphere (lower 10 to 12 km, or about 6 to 8 mi) is known as the
troposphere, and it is here that weather occurs. In the troposphere, the temperature of the
atmosphere decreases systematically with elevation (from about 17C at the surface to -60C at
12 lcm above Earth's surface, the top of the troposphere) at a global average rate of decrease of
approximately 6.5C/km (7.3F/mi). At the top of the troposphere, the tropopause (about 12 to
20 km above sea level), with a constant temperature of about -60C, produces a lid, or cold trap,
on the troposphere. The cold trap causes condensation of atmospheric water vapor. Therefore,
there is very little water vapor in the stratosphere, which lies above the troposphere and is where
the atmosphere warms with increasing altitude. Condensation of water in the troposphere
produces clouds. The role of clouds, including how they develop and move, is an important area
of research to better understand the global processes that operate in the atmosphere.

Figure 22.1 also shows the stratospheric ozone layer, which extends from the tropopause to an
elevation of approximately 40 km (25 mi), with a maximum concentration of ozone above the
equator at about 25 to 30 km (16 to 19 mi). Stratospheric ozone (03) protects life in the lower
atmosphere from receiving harmful doses of ultraviolet radiation
Sources of air pollution:
Sources of air pollution are grouped into two major categories: stationery sources and mobile
sources. Stationery sources are those that have a relatively fixed location. These include point
sources, fugitive sources and area sources. Point sources emit pollutants from one or more
controllable sites, such as smokestacks of power plants. Fugitive sources generate air pollutants
from open areas exposed to wind processes. Examples include burning for agricultural purposes,
as well as dirt roads, construction sites, farmlands, storage piles, surface mines and other exposed
areas from which particulates may be removed by wind. Area sources are well-defined areas
within which are several sources of air pollutants-for example, small urban communities, areas
of intense industrialization within urban complexes and agricultural areas sprayed with
herbicides and pesticides. Mobile sources move from place to place while emitting pollutants.
These include automobiles, trucks, buses, ships and trains. Mobile sources move from place to
place while emitting pollutants. These include automobiles, trucks, buses, ships and trains.

Primary pollutants and secondary pollutants.

The primary pollutants are those that are emitted directly from the sources. Typical pollutants
included under this category are particulate matter such as ash, smoke, dust, fumes, mist and
spray; inorganic gases such as sulphur dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, nitric oxide, ammonia, carbon
monoxide, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen fluoride; olefinic and aromatic hydrocarbons; and
radioactive compounds.
The secondary pollutants are those that are formed in the atmosphere by chemical interactions
among primary pollutants and normal atmospheric constituents. Pollutants such as sulphur
trioxide, nitrogen dioxide, PAN (peroxyacetyl nitrate), ozone, aldehydes, ketones, and various
sulphate and nitrate salts are included in this category.
Of the large number of primary pollutants emitted into the atmosphere, only a few are present in
sufficient concentrations to be of immediate concern. These are the five major types particulate matter, sulphur oxides, oxides of nitrogen, carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons.
Carbon dioxide is generally not considered an air pollutant but, because of its increased global
background concentration, its influence on global climatic patterns is of great concern. The
radioactive pollutants are of specialized nature and they are discussed separately in this book.
Secondary pollutants are formed from chemical and photochemical reactions in the atmosphere.
The reaction mechanisms and various steps involved in the process are influenced by many
factors such as concentration of reactants, the amount of moisture present in the atmosphere,
degree of photo activation, meteorological forces, and local topography.

Particulate Matter
In general the term "particulate" refers to all atmospheric substances that are not gases. They
can be suspended droplets or solid particles or mixtures of the two. Particulates can be composed
of inert or extremely reactive materials ranging in size from 100 m down to 0.1 m and less.
The inert materials do not react readily with the environment nor do they exhibit any
morphological changes as a result of combustion or any other process, whereas the reactive
materials could be further oxidized or may react chemically with the environment.
The classification of various particulates may be made as follows:
Dust - It contains particles of the size ranging from 1 to 200 m. These are formed by natural
disintegration of rock and soil or by the mechanical processes of grinding and spraying. They
have large settling velocities and are removed from the air by gravity and other inertial
processes. Fine dust particles act as centers of catalysis for many chemical reaction taking place
in the Atmosphere.
Smoke - It contains fine particles of the size ranging from 0.01 to 1 m which can be liquid or
solid, and are formed by combustion or other chemical processes. Smoke may have different
colours depending on the nature of material burnt
Fumes - These are solid particles of the size ranging from 0.1 to 1 m and are normally released
from chemical or metallurgical processes.
Mist - It is made up of liquid droplets generally smaller than 10 m which are formed by
condensation in the atmosphere or are released from industrial operations.
Fog - It is the mist in which the liquid is water and is sufficiently dense to obscure vision.
Aerosol - Under this category are included all air-borne suspensions either solid or liquid; these
are generally smaller than 1mm.
Of all the different types of particulates in the atmosphere, the presence of trace elements such as
cadmium, lead, nickel and mercury may constitute the greatest health hazard. Many of the trace
metals are toxic and are concentrated in the finest of particulate matter in a variety of combined
forms such as oxides, hydroxides, sulphates, and nitrates.
PHOTOCHEMICAL AND INDUSTRIAL SMOG
Any chemical reaction activated by light is called a photochemical reaction. Air pollution
known as photochemical smog is a mixture of primary and secondary pollutants formed under
the influence of sunlight (Figure). The resulting mixture of more than 100 chemicals is dominated
by photochemical ozone, a highly reactive gas that harms most living organisms (Figure).

The chemistry of photochemical smog formation is as follows:

It begins when nitrogen and oxygen in air react at the high temperatures found inside
automobile engines and the boilers in coal-burning power and industrial plants to pro duce
colorless nitric oxide. Once in the troposphere, the nitric oxide slowly reacts with oxygen to
form nitrogen dioxide, a yellowish-brown gas with a choking odor. The NO, is responsible
for the brownish haze that hangs over many cities during the afternoons of sunny days,
explaining why photochemical smog sometimes is called brown-air smog

What Is Industrial Smog

Fifty years ago, cities such as London, England, and Chicago and Pittsburgh in the United
States burned large amounts of coal and heavy oil (which contain sulfur impurities) in power plants
and factories and for space heating. During winter, people in such cities were exposed to industrial
smog consisting mostly of (1) sulfur dioxide, (2) suspended droplets of sulfuric acid (formed
from sulfur dioxide), and (3) a variety of suspended solid particles and droplets (called aerosols).
The chemistry of industrial smog is fairly simple. When burned, the carbon in coal and oil is
converted to carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide. Some of the unburned carbon also ends up in
the atmosphere as suspended particulate matter (soot).
The sulfur compounds in coal and oil also react with oxygen to produce sulfur dioxide, a colorless,
suffocating gas. Sulfur dioxide also is emitted into the troposphere when metal sulfide ores
(such as lead sulfide) are roasted or smelted to convert the metal ore to the free metal.
In the troposphere, some of the sulfuz dioxide reacts with oxygen to form sulfur trioxide,
which then reacts with water vapor in the air to produce tiny suspended droplets of sulfuric
acid. Some of these droplets react with ammonia in the atmosphere to form solid particles of
ammonium sulfate. The tiny suspended particles of such salts and carbon (soot) give the resulting
industrial smog a gray color, explaining why it is sometimes called gray air smog.

Urban industrial smog is rarely a problem today in most developed countries because coal and
heavy oil are burned only in large boilers with reasonably good pollution control or with tall
smokestacks (which transfer the pollutants to downwind areas). However, industrial smog is a
problem in industrialized urban areas of China, India, Ukraine, and some eastern European
countries, where large quantities of coal are burned with inadequate pollution controls.
According to a recent UN study, 13 of the world's 15 cities with the world's worst air pollution
are found in Asia (10 of them in China)-mostly from burning coal and leaded gasoline.
Factors Influencing the Formation of Photochemical and Industrial Smog
The frequency and severity of smog in an area depend on (1) local climate and topography, (2)
population density, (3) the amount of industry, and (4) the fuels used in industry, heating, and
transportation.

Air pollution can be reduced by:

-Rain and snow, which help cleanse the air of pollutants. This explains why cities with dry
climates are more prone to photochemical smog than ones with wet climates
-Winds, which (1) help sweep pollutants away, (2) dilute pollutants by mixing them with cleaner air,
and (3) bring in fresh air. However, these pollutants are blown somewhere else or are deposited from
the sky onto surface waters, soil, and buildings.
Three factors that can increase air pollution are
Urban buildings, which can slow wind speed and reduce dilution and removal of pollutants.
Hills and mountains, which tend to reduce the flow of air in valleys below them and allow
pollutant levels to build up at ground level.
High temperatures, which promote the chemical reactions leading to photochemical smog
formation.
ACID DEPOSITION
Most coal-burning power plants, ore smelters, and other industrial plants in developed
countries use tall smokestacks to emit sulfur dioxide, suspended particles, and nitrogen oxides
above the inversion layer, where mixing, dilution, and removal by wind are more effective. Thus
tall smokestacks reduce local air pollution but increase regional air pollution downwind.
The primary pollutants, sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, emitted into the atmosphere
above the inversion layer are transported as much as 1,000 kilometers (600 miles) by
prevailing winds. During their trip, they form secondary pollutants such as (1) nitric acid vapor,
(2) droplets of sulfuric acid, and (3) particles of acid-forming sulfate and nitrate salts .
These acidic substances remain in the atmosphere for 2-14 days, depending mostly on
prevailing winds, precipitation, and other weather patterns. During this period they descend to
the earth's surface in two
(1) wet deposition (as acidic rain, snow, fog, and cloud vapor with a pH less than 5.6) and (2)
dry deposition (as acidic particles). The resulting mixture is called acid deposition sometimes
termed acid rain. Most dry deposition occurs within about 2-3 days fairly near the emission
sources, whereas most wet deposition takes place in 4-14 days in more distant downwind
areas.
Effects of Acid Deposition on Human Health, Materials, and the Economy
Acid deposition
Contributes to human respiratory diseases such as bronchitis and asthma
Can leach toxic metals such as lead and copper from water pipes into drinking water.
Damages statues, buildings, metals, and car finishes. Limestone and marble (which is a form of
limestone) are especially susceptible because they dissolve even in weak acid solutions
Decreases atmospheric visibility (mostly because of sulfate particles).
Can lower profits and cause job losses because of lower productivity in fisheries, forests, and
farms.
Effects of Acid Deposition on Aquatic Ecosystems
Acid deposition has many harmful ecological effects when the pH of most aquatic systems

falls below 6 and especially below 5. These effects include

Loss of essentially all fish populations below a pH of 4.5.
Release of aluminum ions attached to minerals in nearby soil into lakes, where they can kill
many kinds of fish by stimulating excessive mucus formation. This asphyxiates the fish by
clogging their gills.
Much of the damage to aquatic life in sensitive areas with little buffering capacity is a result
of acid shock. This is caused by the sudden runoff of large amounts of highly acidic water and
aluminum ions into lakes and streams, when snow melts in the spring or after unusually
heavy rains.
Because of excess acidity In Norway and Sweden, at least 16,000 lakes contain no fish, and
52,000 more lakes have lost most of their acid-neutralizing capacity.
Effects of Acid Deposition on Plants and Soil Chemistry
Acid deposition (often along with other air pollutants such as ozone) can harm forests and
crops, especially when the soil pH falls below 5.1. Effects of acid deposition on trees and other
plants are caused by chemical interactions in forest and cropland soils and include

Damaging leaves and needles directly.

Leaching essential plant nutrients such as calcium and magnesium salts from soils. This reduces
plant productivity and the ability of the soils to buffer or neutralize acidic inputs.
Releasing aluminum ions attached to insoluble soil compounds, which can hinder uptake and
use of soil nutrients and water by plants.

Dissolving insoluble soil compounds and releasing ions of metals such as lead, cadmium,
and mercury that can be absorbed by plants and are highly toxic to plants and animals.
Promoting the growth of acid-loving mosses that can kill trees by (1) holding so much water that
feeder roots are drowned, (2) eliminating air from the soil, and (3) killing mycorrhizal fungi that
help tree roots absorb nutrients .
Weakening trees and other plants so they become more susceptible to other types of damage
such as (1) severe cold, (2) diseases, (3) insect attacks, (4) drought, and (5) harmful mosses.
It is important to note that most of the world's forests and lakes are not being destroyed or
seriously harmed by acid deposition. Instead, acid deposition is a regional problem that can
harm forests and lakes downwind from (1) power plants, smelters, and industrial plants that
burn coal without modern air pollution equipment and (2) large car-dominated cities without
adequate controls on emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx) from motor vehicles. Mountaintop
forests are the terrestrial areas hardest hit by acid deposition because (1) they tend to have thin
soils without much buffering capacity, and (2) trees on mountaintops (especially conifers such
as red spruce and balsam fir that keep their leaves year round) are bathed almost continu ously in very acidic fog and clouds.
For example, scientists have analyzed decades of data on nutrient losses from soils at Yale
University's Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest in New Hampshire. They found that since 1960
acid deposition has leached out more than 500% of the available calcium in the generally alkaline
(and thus buffering) soils found in this research forest. As a result, no net tree growth has
occurred since the 1980s.

Common Criteria Air Pollutants

CARBON MONOXIDE (CO)
Description: Colorless, odorless gas that is poisonous to air-breathing animals; forms during the
incomplete combustion of carbon-containing fuels (2C + 02 --* 2C0).
Major human sources: Cigarette smoking (p. 228), incomplete burning of fossil fuels. About 77%
(95% in cities) comes from motor vehicle exhaust.
Health effects: Reacts with hemoglobin in red blood cells and reduces the ability of blood to bring
oxygen to body cells and tissues. This impairs perception and thinking; slows reflexes; causes
headaches, drowsiness, dizziness, and nausea; can trigger heart attacks and angina; damages the
development of fetuses and young children; and aggravates chronic bronchitis, emphysema, and
anemia. At high levels it causes collapse, coma, irreversible brain cell damage, and death.
NITROGEN DIOXIDE (NO2)
Description: Reddish-brown irritating gas that gives photochemical smog its brownish color; in the
atmosphere can be converted to nitric acid (HN03), a major component of acid deposition.
Major human sources: Fossil fuel burning in motor vehicles (49%) and power and industrial plants
(49%).
Health effects: Lung irritation and damage; aggravates asthma and chronic bronchitis; increases
susceptibility to respiratory infections such as the flu and common colds (especially in young children
and older adults).
Environmental effects: Reduces visibility; acid deposition of HN03 can damage trees, soils, and
aquatic life in lakes.
Property damage: HN03 can corrode metals and eat away stone on buildings, statues, and
monuments; NOZ can damage fabrics.
SULFUR DIOXIDE
Description: Colorless, irritating; forms mostly from the combustion of sulfur-containing fossil fuels
such as coal and oil (S+02 _* S02); in the atmosphere can be converted to sulfuric acid (H2SO4), a
major component of acid deposition.
Major human sources: Coal burning in power plants (88%) and industrial processes (10%).
Health effects: Breathing problems for healthy people; restriction of airways in people with asthma;
chronic exposure can cause a permanent condition similar to bronchitis. According to the WHO, at
least 625 million people are exposed to unsafe levels of sulfur dioxide from fossil fuel burning.
Environmental effects: Reduces visibility; acid deposition of H2SO4 can damage trees, soils, and
aquatic life in lakes.
Property damage: SO, and H2SO4 can corrode metals and eat away stone on buildings, statues, and
monuments; SOZ can damage paint, paper, and leather.
SUSPENDED PARTICULATE MATTER (SPM)
Description: Variety of particles and droplets (aerosols) small and light enough to remain suspended
in atmosphere for short periods (large particles) to long periods (small particles) cause smoke, dust,
and haze.
Major human sources: Burning coal in power and industrial plants (40%), burning diesel and other
fuels in vehicles (17%), agriculture (plowing, burning off fields), unpaved roads, construction.
9

Health effects: Nose and throat irritation, lung damage, and bronchitis; aggravates bronchitis and
asthma; shortens life; toxic particulates (such as lead, cadmium, PCBs, and dioxins) can cause
mutations, reproductive problems, cancer.
Environmental effects: Reduces visibility; acid deposition of H2SO4 droplets can damage trees,
soils, and aquatic life in lakes.
Property damage: Corrodes metal; soils and discolors buildings, clothes, fabrics, and paints.
OZONE (O3)
Description: Highly reactive, irritating gas with an unpleasant odor that forms in the troposphere as
a major component of photochemical smog (Figures 17-3 and 17-6, p. 424).
Major human sources: Chemical reaction with volatile organic compounds (VOCs, emitted
mostly by cars and industries) and nitrogen oxides to form photochemical smog .
Health effects: Breathing problems; coughing; eye, nose, and throat irritation; aggravates
chronic diseases such as asthma, bronchitis, emphysema, and heart disease;
educes
resistance to colds and pneumonia; may speed up lung tissue aging.
Environmental effects: Ozone can damage plants and trees; smog can reduce visibility.
Property damage: Damages rubber, fabrics, and paints.
LEAD
Description: Solid toxic metal and its compounds, emitted into the atmosphere as particulate matter.
Major human sources: Paint (old houses), smelters (metal refineries), lead manufacture, storage
batteries, leaded gasoline (being phased out in developed countries). Health effects: Accumulates in
the body; brain and other nervous system damage and mental retardation (especially in children);
digestive and other health problems; some lead-containing chemicals cause cancer in test animals.
Environmental effects: Can harm wildlife.

Effects of Air Pollution

Substantial evidence has accumulated that air pollution affects the health of human beings and
animals, damages vegetation, soils and deteriorates materials, affects climate, reduces visibility
and solar radiation, impairs production processes, contributes to safety hazards, and generally
interferes with the enjoyment of life and property. Although some of these effects are specific
and measurable, such as damages to vegetation and material and reduced visibility: most are
difficult to measure, such as health effects on human beings and animals and interference with
comfortable living.

Effects of Air Pollution on Atmospheric Properties

Air pollutants affect atmospheric properties in the following ways:
1. Visibility reduction
2. Fog formation and precipitation
3. Solar radiation reduction
4. Temperature and wind distribution alteration
These effects are primarily associated with the urban atmosphere. In addition, there is much
current interest in possible effects of air pollutants, mainly carbon dioxide and particles, on the
atmosphere as a whole.

10

In addition to reducing visibility, air pollution affects urban climates with respect to increased
fog formation and reduced solar radiation. The frequency of fog formation has been observed to
be higher in cities than in the country in spite of the fact that air temperatures tend to be higher
and relative humidities tend to be lower in cities as opposed to the country.
Effects of Air Pollution of Materials
Air pollutants can affect materials by soiling or chemical deterioration. High smoke and
particulate levels are associated with soiling of clothing and structures, and acid or alkaline
particles, especially those containing sulfur, corrode materials, such as paint, masonry, electrical
contacts, and textiles. Ozone is particularly effective in deteriorating rubber.
Effects of Air Pollution on Vegetation
Pollutants which are known phytotoxicants (substances harmful to vegetation) are sulfur dioxide,
peroxyacetyl nitrate (an oxidation product in photochemical smog) and ethylene. Of somewhat
lesser severity are chlorine, hydrogen chloride, ammonia, and mercury. In general, the gaseous
pollutants enter the plant with air through the stomata in the course of the stomatal respiration of
the plant. Once in the leaf of the plant, pollutants destroy chlorophyll and disrupt photosynthesis.
Damage can range from a reduction in growth rate to complete death of the plant. Symptoms of
damage are usually manifested in the leaf, and the particular symptoms often provide the
evidence for the responsible pollutant. Table summarizes the symptoms characteristic of plant
damage by several pollutants.

Indoor Air Pollution

Human kind faces the most prolonged and worst exposure to pollution within the four walls of
his home. Indoor air pollution can have an astonishing variety of sources including cooking gas
ranges, space heaters, fire places, wood-or coal burning stores, cigarette smoking, household
products like detergents, waxes, polishes, air freshners, pesticides, glues, paints, hair sprays,
oven cleaners, permanent press fabrics, synthetic fibres and leaning activities like dusting and
vaccum cleaning. And of course whatever pollutes the outside air eventually becomes indoor
pollution as well, specially in older leaky buildings.
An open flame produces carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides both discussed in details above.
Biomass fuels (wood, crop residues and animal dung), burnt indoors for daily cooking and space
heating in millions of households across the developing world, are slowly turning these homes
into death traps.
Six major categories of ill health can be attributed to indoor exposures.
i. Acute respiratory infections (ARI) in children.
ii. Adverse pregnancy outcomes for women exposed during pregnancy. in. Lung cancer.
iv. Chronic lung ailments (bronchitis and asthama) and associated heart maladies.
v. Diseases of the eyes.
vi. Increase in the severity of coronary artery disease.

11

Not many people are aware that the nail-polish remover they use could be the cause for their
diminished mental capacity, or that the batteries from their personal stereos are slowly
discharging poisonous mercury into the air. Air inside a building can be laden with a witch's
brew of chemicals, gases, smokes, odours, fumes, microorganisms and other pollutants
sometimes in concentrations high enough to pose serious threats to health. Some of the worst
offenders are photocopying machines and other electrical equipment (emitting ozone), solvent
clearners like paints or paint thinners (sources of benzene), carpets and plastic products (sources
of benzene), insect sprays, mothballs, floor waxes, aerosol (sprays cleaners), oven and window
cleaners, air freshners and insulation foams and disinfectants (formaldehyde sources). Even the
innocuous bricks and walls of some houses shelter and emit gases like randon; paints containing
asbestos and asbestos-insulated walls also lead to polluted air.
These pollutants, besides causing irritation of eyes, lungs and throats and retarding mental
capacity, can act as catalysts for asthma attacks, and scientists believe that they may even lead to
accelerated growth of tumours.
Prevention and Control
The control of air pollution is ultimately an engineering problem. The WHO (1968) in its
publication (12). "Research into Environmental pollution" recommended the following
procedures for the prevention and control of air pollution:
(i) Containment: That is prevention of escape of toxic substances into the ambient air.
Containment can be achieved by a variety of engineering methods such as enclosure, ventilation
and air cleaning. A major contribution in its field is the development of "arrestors" for the
removal of contaminants.
(ii) Replacement: That is, replacing a technological process causing air pollution by a new
process that does not. Increased use of electricity and natural gas in place of coal is an example
of replacement.
(iii) Dilution: Dilution is valid so long as it is within the self-cleaning capacity of the
environment. For example, some air pollutants are readily removed by vegetation. The
establishment of "green belts" between industrial areas is an attempt at dilution. The capacity for
dilution is, however, limited and trouble occurs when the atmosphere is overburdened with
pollutants.
(iv)Legislation: Many countries have adopted legislation for control of air pollution.
(v) International Action: To deal with air pollution on a world-wide scale, the WHO has
established an international network of laboratories for the monitoring and study of air pollution.
The network consists of two international centers at London and Washington, three centers at
Moscow, and Tokyo and 20 laboratories in various parts of the world (13). These centers will
issue warnings of air pollution where and when necessary.

12