1

Atoms, Molecules and

Chemical Arithmetics
Chapter Overview
Units and Measurements
Atoms and Molecules
Matter and its Classification
Laws of Chemical Combinations
Daltons Atomic Theory
Atomic and Molecular Masses

Equivalent Mass or Equivalent weight

Mole Concept
Empirical and Molecular Formulae
Stoichiometry
Balancing of Chemical Equations

Units and Measurements

The description, interpretation and prediction of the behaviour of chemical substances can be done
on the basis of the knowledge of their physical and chemical properties determined from careful
experimental measurements.
l
The properties like mass, length, time, temperature etc are physical quantities and their
measurement does not involve any chemical reaction. These properties are expressed in numerals
with suitable units.
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To express the measurement of any physical quantity two things are considered :
1. Its unit
2. The numerical value (denotes magnitude of that quantity in terms of chosen unit). Hence,
Magnitude of a physical quantity = numerical value unit
Basic or fundamental units
l
Units
Derived units
1. The basic or fundamental units are those of length, mass, time, electric current, thermodynamic
temperature, amount of substance and luminous intensity.
2. Derived units are basically derived from the fundamental units, eg, unit of density is derived
from units of mass and volume.

2 | Chapter 1 Atoms, Molecules and Chemical Arithmetics

Various Systems of Measurement

Table 1.2 Some Major Derived Properties

(a) CGS System Also called Gaussian system and is based

on centimetre (cm), gram (g) and second (s) as the units
of length, mass and time respectively.
(b) FPS System A British system which used foot (ft),
pound (lb) and second (s) as the fundamental units of
length, mass and time.
(c) MKS System Called MKSA system later on. The
system, which uses metre (m), kilogram (kg) and
second respectively for length, mass and time;
Ampere (A) was added later on for electric current.
(d) SI System Internationally accepted system in 1960s,
hence called International system of units and contains
following 7 basic and 2 supplementary units :
(i) Basic units includes length in metre (m), mass in
kilogram (kg), time in second (s), electric current in
ampere (A), thermodynamic temperature in kelvin
(K), amount of substance in mole (mol) and
luminous intensity in candela (c).
(ii) Supplementary units includes plane angle in
radian (rad) and solid angle in steradian (sr).
Besides above written units, SI prefixes are very useful in
measurements. These prefixes are tabulated below:

Table 1.1 SI Prefixes

Multiple

Prefix

Symbol

Prefix

Symbol

10

deci

102

centi

exa

103

milli

10

peta

106

micro

1012

24

10

yotta

1021

zetta

1018
15

Multiple
1

tera

109

nano

10

giga

1012

pico

106

mega

1015

femto

atto

zepto

18

10

kilo

10

102

hecto

1021

10

deca

24

da

10

yocto

Instance 1 The correct conversion of 3 cal into joule is

(a) 12
(c) 12.54

Interpret

(b) 2
(d) 12.5
4.18 J
(d), Conversion factor =
1 cal
4.18 J
3 cal = 3 cal
1 cal
= 12.5 J

Instance 2 The relationship between picometer (pm) and

nanometer (nm) is
(a) 1 nm = 100.0 pm
(b) 1 nm = 10 pm
(c) 1 pm = 10 nm
(d) 1 pm = 100 nm

Interpret (a), 1 pm =1012 m,1 nm =109 m

Hence,

1 nm =1000 pm

Quantity
Area
Volume
Density
Velocity
Acceleration

Definition of quantity
Length squared
Length cubed
Mass per unit volume
Distance travelled per
unit time
Velocity changed per
unit time
Mass times
acceleration of object
Force per unit area

Expression in terms
of SI base units
m2
m3
kg /m 3 or kg m 3
m/s or ms1
m/s2 or ms2

kg m/s2 or kg ms2
(newton, N)
Pressure
kg /(ms2 ) or kg m 1 s2
(pascal, Pa)
Energy (work,
Force times distance
kg m 2 /s2 or kg m 2 s2
heat)
travelled
(joule, J)
Electric charge
Ampere times second A-s (coulomb, C)
Electric potential Energy per unit charge J/(A-s) potential
difference (volt, V)
Force

Precision and Accuracy

Precision is the measure of reproducibility of an experiment
while accuracy is the measurement of closeness of a result to its
true value. Good accuracy means good precision but reverse is
not always true.

Scientific Notation
In scientific notation, all numbers (however large or small)
are expressed as a number between 1.000 and 9.999 multiplied or
divide by 10, ie, here a number is generally expressed in the form
N 10n
Here, N is called digit term. It is a number between 1.000
and 9.999.
n is called an exponent.
eg, 138.42 can be written as 1. 3842 102
or 0.013842 can be written as 1. 3842 102

Significant Figures
The digits in a properly recorded measurement are known as
significant figures or in other words we can say that
significant figures are the meaningful digits in a measured or
calculated quantity.
l
A significant figure includes all those digits that are known
with certainty plus one more which is uncertain or estimated.
Always remember that greater the number of significant
figures in a reported result, smaller the uncertainty.
While determining significant figures
1. Read the number from left to right and count all the
digits, starting with the first digit that is not zero.
2. When adding or subtracting, the number of decimal
places in the answer should not exceed the number of
decimal places in either of the numbers. eg,
0.13
2 significant figures
1.5
2 significant figures
20.911
5 significant figures
22.541

Chapter 1 Atoms, Molecules and Chemical Arithmetics | 3

1.5 has only one digit after the decimal point and the
result should be reported only upto one digit after the
decimal point which is 22.5.
3. In multiplication and division, the significant figures in
the answer should be the same as that in the quantity
with the least number of significant figures. eg,
0.01208
= 0.512
0.0236
The number 0.0236 has only three significant figures
thats why the answer must also be limited to three
significant figures. Similarly, the product
132.07 0.12 = 15.8484
The answer 15.8484 should be reported as 15 because
0.12 has only two significant figures.
4. When a number is rounded off, the number of
significant figures is reduced. The last digit retained is
increased by 1 only if the following digit is 5and is left
as such if the following digit is 4. eg,
12.696 can be written as 12.7
18.35 can be written as 18.4
13.93 can be written as 13.9

Instance 3 Two students X and Y report the weight of the same

substance as 5.0 g and 5.00 g respectively. Which of the following
statements is correct?
(a) Both are equally accurate
(b) X is more accurate than Y
(c) Y is more accurate than X
(d) Both are inaccurate scientifically

Interpret (c), Due to the presence of more number of significant

figures (ie, 3) as compared to X, Y is more accurate.

Instance 4 The correct reported answer of the addition of 3.235,

2.56 and 8.256 will have significant figure
(a) two
(b) three
(c) four
(d) five

Matter and its Classification

Matter is anything which occupies space and has mass. All
the things around us eg, water, air, book, table etc are matter.
There are five states of matter namely solid, liquid, gases,
l
plasma and Bose-Einstein condensate. Out of these, three,
states ie, solid, liquid, gas are general states and taught in our
schools. These three states provide a basis for the physical
classification of matter.
Solids have a definite volume and shape; liquids have a
l
definite volume but not definite shape; gases have neither a
definite volume nor a definite shape.
These three states of matter are the result of competition
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between intermolecular interactions (attractive force
between molecules) and thermal energy (responsible for
repulsion between molecules).
Plasma is seen as a state containing gaseous ions and free
l
electrons and exists when gaseous state is taken to very high
temperatures (say 1000 to 1,000,000,000C). Here, it is
necessary that the entire gas as a whole have no charge and is
not of two much density. So in short we can say PLASMAS as
low density ionised gases at very high temperatures.
Plasmas can be seen in northern lights or ball lightenings,
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flames, lightenings, neon lights, stars in particular sun,
clouds of gas and dust around stars.
BE condensate was predicted in 1924 by Satyendra Bose
l
and Albert Einstein but due to lack of equipments, it was
only created in 1935 by Cornell, Ketterle and Weimann. Its
concept and existence is totally opposite to plasmas. The
state is conceptualised at super cold conditions.
l
The super cold above means only a few billionth of a degree
above absolute zero. Cornell and Weimann developed BEC at
such temperature with Rubidium.

Chemical Classification of Matter

Besides it, matter can be classified on other basis also. These
basis includes chemical composition and properties of matter. On
these basis matter can be classified as :
Matter

Interpret (c), The sum of digits is 14.051. As 2.56 has least

number of decimal places, ie, two, therefore sum should be reported
to two decimal places only. After rounding off, reported sum = 14.05
which has four significant figures.

Atoms and Molecules

An atom is defined as the smallest particle of matter which
cannot exist independently but can take part in a chemical
reaction.
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A molecule is defined as the smallest particle of matter
which can exist independently but cannot take part in a
chemical reaction.
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Both atoms and molecules are basic constituents of matter
with the condition that atoms combine to form the
molecules. The molecules may be
(i) monoatomic, ie, contain 1 atom only, eg, Na, K etc.
(ii) diatomic, ie, contain 2 atoms, eg, N 2, O 2 etc.
(iii) triatomic, ie, contain 3 atoms, eg, O 3 etc.
(iv) polyatomic, ie, contain more than 3 atoms eg, P4, S8 etc.

Mixture

Substance

Homogeneous Heterogeneous Compound

Elements
mixture
mixture
(a) Mixtures These have 1. Variable composition, 2. Variable
properties due to the fact that components retain their
characteristic properties. These may be separated into
pure components by applying physical methods.
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The homogeneous mixtures have same composition
throughout and their components are indistinguishable,
eg,a liquid solution of sugar and water etc.
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A heterogeneous mixture on the other hand do not
have the same composition throughout and the
components here are distinguishable, eg, a mixture of
grains of sand and salt. Here particles of each
component maintain their own identity.
(b) Pure substances These have 1. Fixed composition,
2. Non-variable properties. These cannot be separated
into simpler substances by physical methods.

4 | Chapter 1 Atoms, Molecules and Chemical Arithmetics

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An element is a substance that contains only one type of

atoms.
Compounds and elements can be differentiated as the
former can be decomposed into simple substances by
chemical changes while latter cannot be decomposed into
simpler substances by chemical changes.

Instance 5 Which one of the following is not an element?

(a) Graphite
(c) Diamond

(b) Silica
(d) Plasma sulphur

Interpret (b), Elements contain only one type of atom. Graphite

and diamond both contain only C (carbon), plastic sulphur contains
only S but silica (SiO2 )contains two different atoms, ie, Si and O, so it
is not an element.

Laws of Chemical Combinations

l

Lavoisier established the law of conservation of mass

according to which the matter can neither be created nor
destroyed in a chemical reaction.
Lavoisiers law of conservation of mass helped in establishing
the law of constant composition or the law of definite
proportions (given by J. Proust) which states, A sample of a
pure compound always consists of the same elements
combined in same proportions by mass, whatever be its
source. eg, ammonia always has the formula NH3 ie, one
molecule of NH3 always contains one atom of nitrogen and
three atoms of hydrogen or 17.0 g of NH3 always contains
14 g of N 2 and 3 g of hydrogen. These findings always remain
the same for NH3.

John Dalton observed that an element may form more than

one compound with another element. He noted that for a
given mass of an element, the masses of other elements (in 2
or more compounds) come in the ratio of small integers. This
is called law of multiple proportions. eg, in NH3, 14 g of
nitrogen requires 3 g of hydrogen and in hydrazine (N 2H4 )
14 g of nitrogen requires 2 g of hydrogen. Hence, fixed mass
of nitrogen requires hydrogen in the ratio 3 : 2 in two
different compounds (3 : 2 is a simple ratio). Thus, this is in
agreement with law of multiple proportions.

The volume of reactants and products in a large number of

chemical reactions are related to each other by small
integers, provided the volumes are measured at same
temperature and pressure. These lines are considered as
the law of definite proportions by volume given by
Gay-Lussac, a French chemist. eg, in the reaction of hydrogen
with oxygen to produce water it was found that 2 vol of H2
combines with 1 vol of O 2 to form 2 vol of H2O (steam). This
simply means that 100 mL of H2 gas combines with 50 mL of
O 2 to produce exactly 100 mL of steam (if all the gases are
measured at same temperature and pressure).
The volume of a gas (at constant pressure and temperature)
is proportional to the number of moles (or molecules) of gas
present. This is called Avogadros law. Hence, according to
this law :
Vn
where, n = number of moles of gas

In more simpler words the law can also be stated as equal

volumes of all gases under the same conditions of
temperature and pressure contain equal number of
molecules which is infact 6.023 1023 or in multiples of it.

Instance 6 Which of the following pairs of compounds illustrate law

of multiple proportions?
(a) Ethane, benzene
(c) KCl, KBr

(b) KOH, CsOH

(d) H 2 O, D2 O

Interpret (a), In case of ethane (C2 H 6 ) and benzene (C6 H 6 ), the

mass of carbon combined with fixed mass of the hydrogen bears
simple 1 : 3 ratio.

Daltons Atomic Theory

J. Dalton in 1803, proposed the atomic theory of matter on
the basis of laws of chemical combinations. According to which :
1. All matter is made up of indivisible and indestructible
particles called atoms.
2. All atoms of an element have identical mass and similar
chemical properties. (Atoms of different elements have
different masses and different chemical properties).
3. When atoms combine, they do so in the ratio of small
whole numbers to form compound atoms or simply
compounds or molecules. Compounds formed by such
combinations are alike in every respect.
4. Chemical reactions involve only combination, separation
or rearrangement of atoms.
5. Atoms are neither created nor destroyed in the course of
an ordinary chemical reaction.
This hypothesis of Dalton is even accepted today by the
scientific community with two modifications only :
(i) Atom is divisible and destructible,
(ii) All atoms of an element are not identical in mass.

Atomic and Molecular Masses

Atomic Mass
Dalton gave idea of atomic masses in relative terms, ie, the
average mass of one atom relative to the average mass of the
other. We can make accurate measurement of mass by comparing
mass of an atom with the mass of a particular atom chosen as
standard. On the present atomic mass scale, 12C is chosen as
standard and is arbitrarily assigned the mass of 12 atomic mass
unit (amu).
l
Hence, one amu or u (unified mass) is equal to exactly the
1/12th of the mass of 12C atom.
1
12 g
1u=

12 6.022 1023
= 1.66 1024 g
l

Since most of the elements have isotopes, the atomic mass of

an element is infact the average of masses of its all the
naturally occurring isotopes, eg, If an element exists in three
isotopic forms having atomic masses, m1, m2 and m3 in the
ratio, x, y and z, the average atomic mass,
m x + m2 y + m3 z
M av = 1
x+ y+z

Chapter 1 Atoms, Molecules and Chemical Arithmetics | 5

If in place of ratio, relative abundance is given, the
m r + m2 r2 + m3 r3
M av = 1 1
r1 + r2 + r3
l

here, r1, r2 and r3 = relative abundances of the isotopes.

The approximate atomic mass of solid elements except Be, B,
C and Si, is related to specific heat as
6.4
Average atomic mass =
specific heat
This is called Dulong and Petits method.
Mass spectrometer is used to determine the atomic mass
experimentally.

Molar Mass
Molar mass of an element is defined as mass of 1 mole of that
element, ie, mass of 6.023 1023 entities or particles of that
element. eg, molar mass of oxygen = 32 g/mol, that means
6.023 1023 molecules of oxygen weigh 32 g,
or molar mass of Na = 23 g/mol, that means 6.023 1023
monoatomic molecules of Na weigh 23 g.

When molar mass is divided by density, molar volume is

obtained. It is the volume of one mole of a substance. Since
molar volumes of solids and liquids do not vary much with
temperature and pressure, these can be calculated easily by
the following relation :
molar mass
Molar volume =
density
The molar volumes of gases, change considerably with
temperature and pressure. For an ideal gas the molar volume
at 0C and 1 atm pressure is 22.4 L.

Formula Mass
The formula mass of a substance is the sum of the atomic
masses of all atoms in the formula unit of the compound. It is
normally calculated for ionic compounds. eg, formula mass of
NH3 is 14 + 3 = 17 amu or u
or formula mass of NaCl is 23 + 35.5 = 58.5 amu or u.

Intext Questions 1.1

1. How many millimetres are there in 14.0 cm?
2. Explain why in calculations involving more than one arithmetic
operation, rounding off to the proper number of significant
figures may be done once at the end if all the operations are
multiplications or divisions or if they are all additions and
subtractions, but not if they are combinations of additions or
subtractions with divisions or multiplications.

3. Why do atomic masses of most of the elements in atomic mass

unit be in fractions?
4. On analysis it was found that the black oxide of copper and red
oxide of copper contain 79.9% and 88.8% of copper
respectively. This data is in accordance with which law of
combination?

Equivalent Mass or Equivalent Weight

The number of parts of a substance that combines with or
displaces, directly or indirectly, 1.008 parts by mass of hydrogen
or 35.5 parts by mass of chlorine or 8 parts by mass of oxygen is
called the equivalent mass of the substance. Mathematically,
mass of metal
Eq. wt. of metal =
1.008
mass of hydrogen displaced

mass of metal
8.0
mass of oxygen combined

mass of metal
35.5
mass of chlorine combined

Equivalent weight of acid

molecular weight of acid
=
basicity (number of replaceable H+ )
eg, Equivalent weight of H2SO 4 =

Equivalent weight of base

molecular weight of base
=
acidity (number of replaceable OH )
40
= 40
1
molecular weight of salt
Eq. wt. of salt =
total positive valency of metal atoms
eg, Equivalent weight of NaOH =

98
= 49
2

eg,

58.5
= 58.5
1
106
Equivalent weight of Na 2CO 3 =
= 53
2
Equivalent weight of NaCl =

Equivalent weight of a substance that undergoes

molecular weight
oxidation/ reduction =
change in oxidation number
eg, When KMnO 4 reacts under acidic conditions change in
oxidation number (from +7 to +2) is 5 hence;
158
Equivalent weight of KMnO 4 in acidic medium =
= 31.6
5
Weight of substance A Equivalent weight of A
=
Weight of substance B Equivalent weight of B
For volatile metal chlorides, eq. wt. and atomic weight are
related as
Atomic wt. = eq. wt. valency

Instance 7 0.5 g of a metal on oxidation gave 0.79 g of its oxide.

The equivalent weight of the metal is
(a) 10
(b) 14
(c) 20
(d) 40
wt. of metal
Interpret (b), Eq. wt. =
8
wt. of oxygen combined
0.5
=
8 = 14
0.79 0.5

6 | Chapter 1 Atoms, Molecules and Chemical Arithmetics

Instance 8 The equivalent weight of iron in Fe 2 O3 would be
(a) 18.6
(c) 56

Interpret

(b) 28
(d) 112
atomic wt. 56
(a), Eq. wt. of metal =
=
= 18.6
3
valency

Mole Concept
The word mole was introduced around 1896 by W. Ostwald
who derived it from Latin word moles means a heap or pile.
In 1967 this word was accepted as a unit of chemical substances
under SI system. It is represented by the symbol mol.
One mole of any substance is defined as :
l
(i) The amount which weighs exactly same as its formula
weight in gram or atomic mass in gram or molecular
mass in gram.
(ii) The amount which has same number of entities (atoms,
molecules or other particles) as there are atoms
in exactly 0.012 kg (or 12 g) of carbon-12 isotope
(ie, 6.023 1023 entities).
Here, 6. 023 1023 is called Avogadros number and
denoted by N A .
(iii) The amount which occupies 22.4 L at STP (if it is taken
for a gas).
The formulae used to convert amount of substance into
l
moles are :
amount of substance in gram
Number of moles =
molecular wt. in gram
number of particles at STP
=
Avogadro s number
volume of gas at STP (in L)
or
=
22.4
l
Elaborations of above written formulae are given below, but
before elaborations it is better to understand concentration
terms used in them. These concentration terms are as
follows :
1. Normality (N) Which is defined as the number of
g-equivalents of solute per litre of solution or as the
number of mg-equivalents of a substance per millilitre of
solution. eg, 0.12 N H2SO 4 means a solution which
contains 0.12 g-equivalent of H2SO 4 per litre of solution.
This also means that each millilitre of this solution can
react, for example, with 0.12 mg-eq. of CaO or with 0.12
mg-eq. of Na 2CO 3.
specific gravity % strength 10
Normality =
equivalent weight
l

2. Molarity (M) is defined as the number of moles of solute

per litre of solution or the same numerically, as the number
of mg-molecules per millilitre of solution. The molarity is
usually designated by M, eg, if the molarity of H3PO 4 is
0.18, it means a concentration corresponding to 0.18 mol
of H3PO 4 per litre of solution.
specific gravity % strength 10
Molarity =
molecular weight
3. Formality (F) is practically same as molarity.
gram formula weight
Formality =
volume in litre

4. Molality is defined as the number of moles of solute

dissolved in 1000 g of the solvent. It is designated by m.
Molality is independent of temperature, as it depends only
upon mass which does not vary with temperature.
moles of solute
Molality, m =
1000
weight of solvent (in g)

Formulae Used to Calculate the Number of Moles

weight in gram
molecular weight
weight in gram
2. Number of moles of atoms =
atomic weight
volume at NTP
3. Number of moles of gases =
standard molar volume
1. Number of moles of molecules =

(Standard molar volume = volume occupied by 1 mole of

any gas at NTP ie, 22.4 L).
4. Number of moles of atoms/molecules/ions/electrons
no. of atoms/ molecules/ ions/ electrons
=
Avogadro s number (N A )
N A = 6.023 1023
5. Number of moles of solute = molarity volume of solution
in litres
or
Number of millimoles = molarity volume in mL
millimoles
or
Moles =
1000
weight (g)
6. Number of equivalents of a substance =
equivalent weight
1000 weight (g)
7. Number of milli-equivalent (Meq)=
equivalent weight
= normality volume (mL)
8. Normality = molarity balance factor ( y ).
where,
y = acidity/basicity/number of replaceable
H-atoms/change in oxidation number.
9. Number of equivalents = y number of moles
10. Number of milli-equivalents = y number of millimoles
where, y is same as for formula (8).
n
11. Mole fraction of solute in the solution =
n+ N
where, n = moles of solute, N = moles of solvent
12. For very dilute solution,
Mm
Mole fraction of solute in solution =
1000
where, M = molecular weight of solvent, m = molality
13. Density of solution

1
molecular weight of solute
= molarity
+

molality

1000
(a) % by weight of solute in solution
weight of solute (g) 100
=
weight of solution (g)
(b) % by volume of solute in solution
weight of solute (g) 100
=
volume of solution (mL)

Chapter 1 Atoms, Molecules and Chemical Arithmetics | 7

14.
15.
16.
17.

1 mL, 1 N KMnO 4 1 mL, 1 N H2O 2,

1 mL, 1 N Na 2S2O 3 1 mL, 1 N I2 solution
1 volume H2O 2 = 0.1785 N H2O 2
If two compounds A and B neutralise completely each other
then
milli-equivalent of A = milli-equivalents of B

18. Molecular
phase).

weight = 2 vapour density

(for

Instance 13 Mole fraction of I2 in benzene is 0.1. The molality of I2

in C6 H 6 is
(a) 1.42
(c) 2.06

Interpret (a), Mole fraction of I2 = n = 0.1

n+ N

(c) 2, 5.313 1023

(d) 1,10.256 1023

weight
molecular weight
64
=2
Moles of O2 =

32
Also, Q 1 mole of O2 contains 6.023 1023 molecules
2 moles of O2 contains 6.023 1023 2
= 12.046 1023 molecules

Interpret (b), Q Moles =

1
500
= N

1000
10
1
2 1
N=
= = 0.20
10 1 5

Instance 11 If density of water is 1000 kg/m 3 then its molarity is

(b) 35.65 M
(d) 65.35 M

Interpret (c), Density of water = 1000 kg/m 3

1 m 3 water weights 1000 kg
103 L water weights 1000 kg = 106 g
106
Moles of water in103 L =

18
106
Now,
Molarity =
= 55.56
18 103
or
or

Molarity = 55.56 M

Instance 12 What is the normality of mixture obtained by mixing.

100 mL of 0.02 M H 2 SO4 and 100 mL 0.2 M NaOH?
(a) 0.2
(c) 0.01

(b) 0.1
(d) 0.25

Interpret (b),

H 2 SO4 + NaOH Na2 SO4 + H 2 O

Meq. before reaction 40

Meq. after reaction 20

20
0

Normality of H 2 SO4 (left) =

0
20

20
= 0.1
200

(ii)

Empirical and Molecular Formulae

Instance 10 What is the normality of NaOH, when 4 g are present

in 500 mL solution?
(a) 0.20
(b) 0.10
(c) 0.50
(d) 0.25
Interpret (a), Equivalent of NaOH = weight
eq. wt
4
1
=
=
40 10
500
Volume in litre =
1000
Eq. = N V (in litre)
Q

(a) 45.50 M
(c) 55.56 M

(i)

where, n and N are moles of I2 and C6 H 6 in solution respectively.

1000 mole fraction of I2
m=
(1 mole fraction of I2 ) M
1000 0.1
= 1.42
=
0.9 78

64 g O2 ?
(b) 2,12.046 1023

N
Mole fraction of benzene =
= 0.9
n + N

gaseous

Instance 9 How many moles and molecules of O2 are there in

(a) 3, 4.125 1023

(b) 3.205
(d) 1.86

0
20

The chemical formula of a compound which shows relative

number of atoms in its simplest ratio is called empirical formula.
The chemical formula of a compound which gives the actual
l
number of atoms of each element in a molecule is called its
molecular formula. It is important to note that the
molecular formula is generally an integral multiple of the
empirical formula, ie,
Molecular formula = (empirical formula) n
where, n = 1, 2, 3, K etc.
l

The molecular formula conveys two informations mainly :

1. The relative number of each type of atoms in a molecule,
2. The total of atoms of each element in the molecule.

Stoichiometry
The methods used to describe the atomic and molecular
masses constitute the generalised approach to chemical
calculations and quantitative methods called chemical
stoichiometry. (Stoichiometry from Greek words stoichion =
element; metron = measure). Solving of stoichiometric problems
require a firm grasp of mole concept, balancing chemical
equations and care in consistent use of units.
l
The numerals used to balance a chemical equation are called
stoichiometric coefficients. For the stoichiometric
calculations, the mole relationships between different
reactants and products are required, as from them the
massmass, massvolume and volumevolume relationships
can be obtained between different reactants and products.
l
The following steps are involved in stoichiometric
calculations :
1. Firstly a balanced chemical equation is written.
2. On the basis of this equation, the molar relationship is
written.
3. All the values are converted into desired parameters and
then, calculation is done by unitary method.

Limiting Reactant or Limiting Reagent

If a reaction involves two or more reactants, the reactant that
is consumed first is called limiting reagent or limiting reactant
as it limits the amount of product formed. eg, If 2 moles each of

8 | Chapter 1 Atoms, Molecules and Chemical Arithmetics

hydrogen and oxygen is ignited, the limiting reactant is hydrogen.
This is found as :
1. First we write the balance equation of formation of water.
1
H2 + O 2 H2O
2
1 mol

1
mol
2

Interpret (d), NH 3 + O2 NO + H 2 O
2NH 3 +
2 mol
2 17 g

1 mol

5
mol
2
5 6.8
6.8 g NH 3 will react with oxygen =
mol
2 2 17
= 0.5 mol

Instance 14 A compound contains 63.1% carbon, 11.92%

(c) C4 H 9 F

(d) C5 H11 F2

Interpret (c), (63.1 g C) 1 mol C = 5.26 mol C

12.0 g C

1 mol H
(11.92 g H)
= 11.8 mol H
1.008 g H
1 mol F
(24.97 g F)
= 1.31 mol`F
19.0 g F
Division by 1.31 yields the integer ratio 4 : 9 : 1 thus the empirical
formula is C4 H 9 F.

Instance 15 A compound having empirical formula (C3 H 4 O)n has

vapour density 84. The molecular formula of this compound is
(b) C6 H 8 O2
(a) C3 H 4 O
(d) C9 H12 O3

(c) C6 H12 O3

Interpret (d), Molecular mass = 2 VD

= 2 84 = 168
molecular mass
n=
empirical formula mass
=
Thus,

168
168
=
=3
12 3 + 4 + 16 56

molecular formula = (C3 H 4 O)3

Balancing of Chemical Equations

A balanced chemical equation gives a lot of quantitative
information about a chemical reaction. It provides the
quantitative relationship between the masses of reactants and the
products, ie, the quantity of substance consumed and produced
can be determined by it only.
Hence, here first of all we are describing the steps of simplest
and generalised method of balancing the equation, ie, the trial
and error method.
For the reaction :
C 3H8( g ) + O 2( g ) 3CO 2( g ) + H2O(l)
Step 1 Balance the number of Catoms :
Since 3 Catoms are present in reactants, hence 3CO 2
molecules are required on product side, ie,
C 3H8 + O 2 3CO 2 + H2O
Step 2 Balance the number of hydrogen atoms :
As 8 hydrogen atoms are present in reactants and one
molecule of water contains 2H atoms in it, hence the product side
should contain 4H2O molecules, ie,
C 3H8 + O 2 3CO 2 + 4H2O
Step 3 Balance the number of oxygen atoms :
As 10 oxygen atoms are present on the product side and
reactant side have only 2 oxygen atoms, hence the O 2 molecule on
the reactant side should be multiplied by 5 ie,
C 3H8 + 5O 2 3CO 2 + 4H2O

= C9 H12 O3

Instance 16 1.2 g magnesium (at. mass = 24) will produce

magnesium oxide equal to
(a) 0.05 mol
(c) 40 mg

(b) 40 g
(d) 4 g

Interpret (a), Mg + 1 O2 MgO

1 mol
24 g

= 0.05 mol

Instance 17 NH 3 + O2 NO + H 2 O
In the above equation, the moles of oxygen required for reacting with
6.8 g NH 3 is
(a) 5
(c) 1

Step 4 Verify that the number of atoms of each element is

balanced in the final equation.
(The equation shows 3 Catoms, 8 Hatoms and 10 O-atoms
on both the sides of arrow.)
l

1 mol
1 mol

24 g Mg produces MgO = 1 mol

1 1.2
1.2 g Mg will produce MgO =
mol
24

(b) 2.5
(d) 0.5

5 mol
2
5 mol
2

2 17 g NH 3 reacts with oxygen =

2. From the equation, it is clear that for 1 mole of hydrogen

half mole oxygen is required. Hence, for 2 mol hydrogen,
oxygen required = 1 mol. Thus, for this process, oxygen is
in excess and hydrogen is limited, so hydrogen is the
limiting reagent.
hydrogen and 24.97% fluorine. Its empirical formula is
(a) C3 H7 F
(b) C4 H 5 F2

5
O2 2NO + 3H 2 O (balanced equation)
2

The above trial and error method is also called POAC

(principle of atomic conservation) method.
Another method for balancing the equation is called
equivalent (or milliequivalent) method. This method is
based on the fact that for the different amounts of reactants
and products involved in a reaction, the number of
equivalents or milliequivalents are equal for each reactant
and each product.
eg, for the reaction
VO + Fe2O 3 FeO + V 2O 5

Equivalent or meq. of VO = equivalent or meq. of Fe2O 3 =

equivalent or meq. of FeO = equivalent or meq. of V 2O 5.

Chapter 1 Atoms, Molecules and Chemical Arithmetics | 9

This method is generally applied in volumetric stoichiometric
analysis.
One more method for balancing the equations is oxidation
l
number method which we will discuss in detail in Redox
Reactions and Electrochemistry chapter.

POAC (Principle of atomic conservation) tells us about the

fact that in a reaction the atomic masses/moles of atoms are
conserved. This principle is the basis of mole concept and
proved very helpful in solving stoichiometric problems.

Intext Questions 1.2

1. How are 0.50 mol Na2 CO3 and 0.50 M Na2 CO3 different?
2. Write the empirical formula of the compounds having
molecular formulae H 2 O2 , B2 H 6 and Fe 2 O3 .

3. Which reactant checks the amount of barium phosphate

formed, when 2 moles each of barium chloride and sodium
phosphate react?

Caution Points
1. While calculating the significant figures of numbers, it is
better to convert them into scientific notation because
exponential term does not contribute to the significant
figures.
2. Law of definite proportions and law of multiple
proportions do not hold good when same compound is
prepared by different isotopes of the same element, eg, H2O
16

18

and D 2O or H2 O and H2 O. Moreover, law of conservation

of mass does not hold good for nuclear reaction.

3. Atomic and molecular masses of elements and compounds

are always constant but equivalent mass may vary with
change of valency.
4. The valencies of elements forming isomorphous compound
(ie, the compound that have similar constitution and
chemical formulae) are same. eg, valencies of Cr, Se and S
in K 2CrO 4, K 2SeO 4 and K 2SO 4 are same.

10 | Chapter 1 Atoms, Molecules and Chemical Arithmetics

Chapter Compendium
1. Units of length, mass, time, electric current, temperature,
amount of substance and luminous intensity are called
fundamental or basic units. All other units are derived from
these units, so called derived units.
2. All non-zero digits or zero present between two non-zero
digits are significant. Zero of the left side of a number are
never significant while that of right side, if present after a
number and also a decimal point, are significant. eg,
0.0245 contains 3 significant figures. 0.02450 contains 4
SF and 2000 contains only 1 SF.
3. A more precise result is obtained when expressed to greater
number of decimal points, eg, between 1.5 and 1.51, the
latter is more precise than the former.
4. Anything that occupies space and has mass is called matter.
On physical basis, it is classified into solid, liquid and gases
while on the basis of chemical composition, it is classified
as mixture and substance.
5. Daltons atomic theory has been modified and replaced by
modern atomic theory.
6. Law of conservation of mass state that in a chemical
change, mass is neither created nor destroyed. In any
chemical reaction,
Total masses of reactants = Total masses of products
7. Law of gaseous volumes is proposed by Gay-Lussac, which
state that gases react with each other in simple ratio of
their volumes and if product is also in gaseous state, its
volume also bears a simple ratio with the volumes of
gaseous reactants under similar conditions of temperature
and pressure.
8. Atomic and molecular weights are expressed with respect
to carbon-12 as reference in amu (or u).
1 u =1.66 1024 g

9. Vapour density is the ratio of the mass of certain volume of

a gas or vapour to the mass of same volume of hydrogen
under similar conditions.
density of a gas
VD =
density of hydrogen
=

mass of certain volume of a gas

mass of same volume of hydrogen

Molecular mass = 2 vapour density

molecular weight
10. Eq. wt. =
acidity or basicity or change in oxidation no.
wt. of substance 1 eq. wt. of substance 1
11.
=
wt. of substance 2 eq. wt. of substance 2
12. A mole (mol) is defined as the number of atoms in 12.0 g
of C-12. which is equal to 6.02 1023. This number is
called Avogadros number.
number of particles
No. of moles =
NA
=

given mass of substance

GAW/GMW

volume of gas at STP

22.4

13. Empirical formula represents the simplest relative whole

number ratio of atoms while molecular formula represents
the actual number of atoms of each element in one
molecule of a substance.
14. Limiting reagent, ie, the reactant which is present in small
quantity or which is consumed first, controles the amount
of product obtained.
15. While balancing, the number of hydrogen and oxygen
atoms are balanced at last.

Illustrative Solved Examples

Example 1 10 g of hydrogen fluoride gas occupies 5.6 L of volume at
NTP. The molecular formula of the gas is (at. mass of F = 19)
(a) HF

gas = 10 g
22.4
L
volume
will
be
occupied by hydrogen fluoride

10
gas =
22.4
5.6
= 40 g
Among the given molecular formulae, molecular mass of H 2 F2
is 40. Thus, the molecular formula of the gas is H 2 F2.

Example 2 A sample of pure compound contains 2.04 g of sodium,

2.65 1022 atoms of carbon and 0.132 mol of oxygen atoms. Its
(b) Na2 C2 O4
(d) None of these

(c) Na2 CO3

Solution (c), No. of moles of Na =

Number of moles of C =

2.04 g
= 0.0887 mol
23 g mol 1

2.65 1022 atoms

= 0.0440 mol
6.02 1023 atoms mol 1

Number of moles of O = 0.132 mol

Ratio of number of moles =
Na
0.0887
2

:
:
:

C
0.0440
1

:
:
:

0
0.132
3

Empirical formula of the compound is Na 2CO 3.

Example 3 One volume hydrogen combines with sulphur to give one

volume of a gas X. If the vapour density of X is 17, the number of sulphur
atoms in the gas X is
(a) 1
(b) 2
(c) 3
(d) 4

Solution (a), Hydrogen + Sulphur

1 vol
1 molecule
2 atoms

(b) 6.5625 104

(a) 781.25

Solution (c), Q 5.6 L of volume is occupied by hydrogen fluoride

empirical formula is
(a) NaCO2

oxygen in the ratio 3 : 1 by mole. If the cylinder is known to contain

2.5 104 g of oxygen, what is the total mass of the gas mixture?

(b) H 3 F3
(d) H 4 F4

(c) H 2 F2

Example 4 A cylinder of compressed gas contains nitrogen and

1 vol
1 molecule
1 molecule

The formula of X is H 2 Sn.

Molecular mass of X = 1 2 + n 32 = 2 + 32n
= 2 VD
= 2 17 = 34

2 + 32n = 34
n =1

(c) 9.06 10

(d) 6.023 105

Solution (c), Number of moles of oxygen in the cylinder

=

mass in gram
molecular mass in gram mol 1

2.5 104
32
= 781.25
Number of moles of N 2 = 3 781.25 = 2343.75
Mass of nitrogen in the cylinder = 2343.75 28
= 65625 g
= 6.5625 104 g
Total mass of the gas in the cylinder
= 2.5 104 + 6.5625 104
= 9.0625 104 g
=

Example 5 Two metallic oxides contain 27.6% and 30.0% oxygen

respectively. If the formula of the first oxide is M 3 O4 , then that of the
second will be
(a) M 2 O5
(b) M 2 O3
(c) MO
(d) MO2

Solution (b), As 1st oxide is M 3 O4 ,

72.4 parts of M = 3 atoms of M
and

27.6 parts of O = 4 atoms of O.

3
70 parts of M =
70 atoms of M
72.4
= 2.9 atoms of M
4
30 parts of O =
30 atoms of O
27.6
= 4.35 atoms of O

Ratio of M : O in the 2nd oxide

= 2.9 : 4.35 = 1 : 1.5 or 2 : 3
Hence, the formula is M 2 O3 .

Example 6 The density of a gaseous element is 5 times that of

oxygen under similar conditions. If the molecule of the element is
triatomic, what will be its atomic mass?
(a) 53.33
(b) 55.84
(c) 43.47
(d) 78.86

12 | Chapter 1 Atoms, Molecules and Chemical Arithmetics

Solution (a), Molecular mass of oxygen = 32
32
Vapour density of oxygen =
= 16
2
Thus, vapour density of the gaseous element = 16 5 = 80
Molecular mass of the gaseous element = 80 2 = 160
mol. mass
As the molecule is triatomic, its atomic mass =
atomicity
160
=
= 53.33
3

Example 7 What is the empirical formula of vanadium oxide if

Solution (c), % of V = 1.53 100 = 55.83

2.74
% of O = 44.17

Element

55.83

44.17

Atomic ratio
55.83
=1.1
52
44.17
= 2.76
16

Example 10 1.020 g of metalic oxide contains 0.540 g of the metal.

Solution (b), Mass of oxygen in the oxide

Simplest ratio
1.1
=1
1.1
2.76
= 2.5
1.1

V : O = 2: 5
Thus, empirical formula = V2 O5

Example 8 The sulphate of a metal contains 20% metal. This

sulphate is isomorphous with zinc sulphate hepta hydrate. The atomic
mass of the metal is
(a) 30
(b) 12
(c) 24
(d) 36
Mass of metal sulphate
Solution (c),
Mass of metal
SO24

eq. mass of M + eq. mass of

eq. mass of M
100 E + 48
=
20
E
5E = E + 48
4E = 48 or E = 12
As metal sulphate is isomorphous with ZnSO4 7H 2 O,
Valency of M = Valency of Zn = 2
Hence,
At. mass of M = Eq. mass valency
= 12 2 = 24
=

x=7

On solving,

If the specific heat of the metal, M is 0.216 cal deg 1 g 1 , the molecular
formula of its oxide is
(a) MO
(b) M 2 O3
(c) M 2 O4
(d) M 2 O

2.74 g of metal oxide contains 1.53 g of metal?

(b) VO
(a) V2 O3
(d) V2 O7
(c) V2 O5

Solution (b), Let the number of molecules of water of

crystallisation is x.
Formula of divalent hydrated metal sulphate will be
MSO4 xH 2 O
Molecular mass of salt = 65.4 + 96 +18x
= (161.4 + 18x )
18 x
% of water =
100 = 43.85
161.4 + 18 x

Example 9 Hydrated sulphate of a divalent metal of atomic weight

65.4 loses 43.85% of its weight on dehydration. The number of
molecules of water of crystallisation in the salt is
(a) 5
(b) 7
(c) 14
(d) 9

=(1.020 0.540) = 0.480 g

0.540
Equivalent mass of the metal =
8 = 9.0
0.480
According to Dulong and Petits law,
6.4
6.4
Approx, atomic mass =
= 29.63
=
sp. heat 0.216
at. mass 29.63
Valency of the metal =
=3
=
9.0
eq. mass
Hence, the formula of the oxide is M 2 O3 .

Example 11 The atomicity of a molecule, M, if 10 g of it combine

with 0.8 g of oxygen to form an oxide, is (specific heat of the molecule, M
is 0.033 cal deg 1 g 1 and molecular mass of molecule is 199.87 g)
(a) 1
(b) 2
(c) 3
(d) 8

Solution (a), Equivalent mass of M

mass of metal
8
mass of oxygen
10
=
8 = 100
0.8
6.4
6.4
Approximate atomic mass =
=
sp. heat 0.033
=

=193.93 g
193.93
= 2 (nearest whole number)
100
So, accurate atomic mass = eq. mass valency
= 100 2 = 200 g
mol. mass 199.87
Atomicity =
=1
=
at. mass
200
Valency of M =