Accessory Organs || Gall Bladder and Pancreas: Assist digestion but are not part

of the GI Tract
Acid-Base Balance, pH || Acids: substances that contain significant amounts of
hydrogen; Bases: substances low in hydrogen; pH: stands for percentage of
hydrogen - measure of acidity or level of hydrogen in any solution (human blood);
proteins are buffers that maintain proper acid base balance, attract hydrogen and
neutralize it, release it too if necessary
Adequate diet || An adequate diet provides enough energy, nutrients, and fiber to
maintain a person's health
Alpha-linoleic acid || essential fatty acid (omega-3 fatty acid): found in leafy green
veggies, flaxseed oil, soy oil, fish oil, and fish products
Alternative (non-nutritive) sweeteners || safe for adults children and people with
diabetes within FDA guidelines.
ADI estimates of the amount of sweetner that someone can consume each day
without adverse effects
AMDR of fats || ADMR for fat is 20-35% of total energy intake (reduce saturated
fats and trans fatty acids)
AMDR || A range of intakes for particular energy source that is associated with
reduced risk for chronic disease while providing adequate intake of essential
nutrients
amino acid || 9 essential
Aspartame || most popular alternative sweetener contains 4 kcal/gram
Balanced diet || One that contains the combinations of foods that provide the
proper proportion of nutrients
Bile || fluid produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder that emulsifies fats
in the small intestine
blood || travels through the GI tract and picks up nutrients that were absorbed
through the villi of the small intestine and carries them to the liver for processing
Cardiovascular Disease || Causes: dysfunction of the heart or blood vessels
Risk factors: overweight, physical inactivity, smoking, high blood pressure,
diabetes, high cholesterol
Prevention: Maintain total fat intake to within 20% to 35% of energy, Decrease
consumption of saturated fat, Increase your consumption of whole grains, fruits,
vegetables, Schedule regular physical check ups, Eat a healthful diet overall, Be
active, Maintain a healthy body weight, Avoid using and being exposed to
tobacco products
celiac disease || genetic disorder characterized by an inability to absorb a protein
called gluten, which causes an inflammatory immune response that damages the
lining of the small intestine
Cholesterol || is the most common sterol that occurs in our diet
o Has a bad reputation because it is often associated with saturated fatty acids
which can increase blood _____ levels and increased risk of heart disease
o Body requires it for neural cells, synthesis of hormones, bile and vitamin D
o Essential to human health, but it is already present in body
o Too much is still bad

complementary proteins || a. Meats

b. Dairy products
c. Soy products
d. Legumes
e. Nuts
f. certain whole grains
g. soy is complete protein
h. legumes: excellent source
i. rivals meat
ii. high in fiber, iron, calcium, and many B vitamins
iii. low in saturated fat and no cholesterol
iv. reduces risk for heart disease, lowers blood cholesterol levels
complex carbohydrate || Long chains of glucose molecules also called
polysaccharides, Starch, glycogen, fiber
Decrease risk of type 2 diabetes || i. Eat a balanced diet with whole grains, fruits,
legumes, vegetables
ii. Exercise regularly
iii. Maintain appropriate body weight
Deficiency issues || a. Protein deficiency symptoms are always observed with a
efficiency in either protein or energy
b. Mineral excretion (esp. Calcium & iron)
c. Dehydration
d. Increased risk of arthritis
e. Edema
f. Kidney & liver damage
g. Most of these problems mimic protein toxicity because the body is using
protein (AA's) for energy
denaturation || a. Proteins can uncoil and lose shape when exposed to heat, acid,
bases, heavy metals, alcohol
b. Protein loses shape, function lost
c. Will occur during protein digestion as a response to body heat and stomach
acids
Diabetes Type I || a. Form of diabetes in which body cannot produce enough
insulin
b. Cause is unknown
c. Usually diagnosed around 10-14 years of age
d. Only treatment is insulin injections
Diabetes Type II || a. Form of Diabetes in which body cells progressively become
less responsive to insulin or the body does not produce enough insulin
b. Obesity is often the trigger
digestion chemically || Saliva and Salivary Glands - begin the process of
chemical digestion, contains salivary amylase: enzyme that assists the body in
digesting and absorbing foods
digestion mechanically in stomach || Stomach mixing and churning the food until
it becomes chyme: A semifluid mass consisting of partially digested food, water,
and gastric juices

Dimensions of Wellness || Physical health, Spiritual health, Emotional health,

Social health, Occupational health
Dipeptide || two amino acids joined
Disaccharides || [2 molecules] lactose (glucose+galactose), maltose
(glucose+glucose) sucrose (glucose+fructose)
Duodenum || connected via the pyloric sphincter to the stomach
EER || ___ considers a person's level of physical activity (___ is higher for active
person)
Energy Contribution Fats (9kcal/gram) || Important energy source for our body at
rest and during low intensity exercise; Yield more energy per gram then
carbohydrates (9kcal/gram)
Energy contribution for carbohydrates (4kcal/gram) || The primary fuel source for
our bodies, particularly for the brain and for physical exercise
Energy Contribution Protein || Macronutrients that the body uses to build tissue
and regulate body functions. Proteins can provide energy but are not a primary
source (4 kcal per gram)
fiber || a. Non-digestible part of plants
b. Long polysaccharide chains but are not easily broken down and absorbed
found in whole grains, vegetables, fruits, nuts and legumes
Fluid and Electrolyte Balance || Molecules that help transport substances
throughout body and across cell membranes; Help to maintain fluid and
electrolyte balance by acting as a pump to assist in the movement of the
electrolytes sodium and potassium into and out of the cell; Carry vitamins and
minerals through the bloodstream to the organs and cells; Move glucose from the
bloodstream into the cells where it is used for energy
food allergy || an inflammatory reaction caused by an immune system
hypersensitivity to a protein component of a food
food intolerances || a cluster of GI symptoms that occurs following consumption
of a particular food but is not caused by an immune system response
Fructose || sweetest natural sugar found in fruits and vegetables, also called fruit
sugar, in processed foods comes in form of high-____ corn syrup
Function of fats || Energy: Fats store energy for later use at rest and during
exercise
Protection: Fats pad body and protect our organs
Insulation: Fats act as insulation to help retain body
Galactose || Doesn't occur alone in foods, joins with glucose to create lactose
Gall bladder || sac of tissue beneath the liver that stores bile and secretes it into
the small intestine
Gastro esophageal reflux disease || It occurs when the hydrochloric acid seeps
into esophagus and burns it causing a painful sensation in the center of the chest
(more than 2 times a week)
GI Tract || A long tube beginning at the mouth and ending at the anus
Glucagon || Hormone secreted by the pancreas in response to decreased blood
levels of glucose; Acts in opposite way to insulin; Causes the liver to take stored
glycogen into glucose which is secreted into bloodstream and transported to cells

for energy; Assists in breakdown of body proteins so liver stimulates

gluconeogenesis; Is secreted when you have not eaten for some time
Gluconeogenesis || If the diet does not provide enough carbohydrates the body
will make glucose from protein; Process involves breaking down the protein in
the blood and tissues and converting the components to glucose; using protein
for energy reduces the level of proteins available to make new cells, repair
tissues or perform other functions; Lack of carbs over a period of time and
deriving proteins from breakdown of tissues such as muscles, heart, liver and
kidneys can seriously damage these organs; Carbohydrates are protein sparing
(preserve body protein)
Glucose Pathways || Immediate energy needs (10%); Storage in liver & muscles
(60-90%); Majority will be stored, but it depends on diet and previous activity;
Converted and stored as fat (0-30%); Only excesses will be stored as fat;
Depend on total, type & time carbohydrates eaten; Glucose can be used for
energy, or it can be changed into fat and stored; Once its converted to fat, can't
be changed back to glucose
Glucose || Most abundant sugar in our diet.. the preferred source of energy for
our brain, important sources of energy for all cells
Glycogen || Animals store carbohydrates as glycogen; Mainly stored in the liver
and muscles; Broken down into glucose; Not found in food and therefore not a
source of dietary carbohydrate
HDL || Small, dense lipoprotein with a very low cholesterol content and a high
protein content; Good Cholesterol; produced in liver; circulate in blood and pick
up cholesterol from dying cells and artery plaques; remove cholesterol from
cardiovascular system; high levels of HDL in blood are associated with lower risk
of coronary artery disease; omega-3 fatty acids increase HDL cholesterol
Healthful Diet Definition || The proper combination of energy and nutrients
Hypothalamus || Triggers feelings of hunger or satiation (Fullness) by signals
from 3 sources: Nerve cells, Hormones, the amount and type of food we eat
Ileum || the last portion connected to the large intestine at the ileocecal valve
immune system, antibodies || a. Special proteins that help the body to defend
against foreign substances
b. When bacteria, viruses, toxins, etc. immune system produces antibodies that
attach and neutralize invaders
c. Adequate protein is necessary to support the increased production of
antibodies
d. If we do not eat enough protein are resistance is weakened
incomplete protein || Plant protein sources are considered incomplete protein
sources - wouldn't get all essential AA's
insoluble fiber || Does not dissolve in water; Cannot be digested and broken
down; Found in whole grains (wheat, rye, brown rice) and vegetables; Promote
regular bowel movements and reduce risk of diverticulosis
Insulin || Hormone secreted by the beta cells of the pancreas in response to
increased blood levels of glucose; Assists in maintain blood glucose by
increasing the movement of proteins from inside the cell to the cell membrane
which allows glucose to enter the cell

intake requirements for protein AMDR || ?

irritable bowl syndrome || interferes with normal functions of the colon, causes
abdominal cramps, bloating and constipation or diarrhea
Jejunum || middle portion of the small intestine
LDL || Molecule that results when VLDL releases triglyceride load ; "Bad
Cholesterol" - can cause blockage of arteries; circulate in the blood until they are
absorbed by the body's cells; Diets high in saturated and trans fatty acids
decrease removal of VLDL by body cells and increase VLDL levels in blood;
Accumulation causes plaque: cholesterol binds to cells and walls of blood
vessels causing hardening and blockage of the artery
Linoleic Acid || essential fatty acid (omega-6 fatty acid) found in vegetable and
nut oils
Lipoproteins || spherical compound in which triglycerides cluster deep into the
center of phospholipids and proteins
liver || The largest organ of the GI tract and one of the most important organs of
the body. Its functions include production of bile and processing of nutrient-rich
blood from the small intestine; functions to filter the blood from toxins (alcohol
and other drugs)
Liver; functions || function is to receive the products of digestion and then release
into the bloodstream those nutrients needed throughout the body
lymph || vessels pick up most fats and fat-soluble vitamins and transport them in
the lymph. These nutrients eventually enter the bloodstream at an area near the
heart where the lymphatic and blood vessels join together
Macronutrients || Carbohydrates (most available energy) Fats (reserve energy)
Proteins (emergency energy)
Main Source Protein || Meats Dairy products Nuts Seeds Legumes
Main Sources Carbohydrates || Fiber rich foods, Grains, Fruits, Vegetables,
Legumes
Seeds, Dairy products
Main Sources Fats || solid fats (butter, lard, margarine) liquid fats (oils)
Major Organs of body || mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large
intestine
Micronutrients || Vitamins, Minerals, Water
Moderate diet || Eating the right amounts of food to maintain a healthy weight and
to optimize our body's functioning
Monosaccharides || Glucose, Galactose, Fructose
nutrient transport || 2 main fluids that transport waste products throughout the
body
Nutrition definition || is the science that studies food and how food nourishes our
body and influences our health
Nutritive sweeteners || sucrose, fructose, honey and brown sugar
Pancreas || gland located behind the stomach that secretes digestive enzymes
Peptic ulcer || an area of the GI tract that has been eroded away by the acidic
gastric juice of the stomach
peptide bonds || dipeptide, tripeptide, polypeptide

Phospholipids || Type of lipid in which a fatty acid is combined with another

compound that contains phosphate; Present in peanuts, egg yolk, some
processed foods; Not essential fats (body can manufacture them)
polypeptide || chains of ten or more amino acids
Polysaccharides || starch, fiber, glycogen
protein energy || a. Proteins do not have specialized storage form for energy (like
carbohydrates/glycogen and fat/triglycerides)
b. When proteins need to be used for energy, taken from blood and body tissues
such as liver and skeletal muscle
c. Adequate amounts of carbohydrate and fat spare protein
d. During times of low carbohydrate and fat intake, the body breaks down
proteins into individual amino acids which break into building blocks for glucose gluconeogenesis
Protein Functions || Only effective when we consume adequate amounts of
energy as carbohydrates and fat; contribute to cell growth, cell repair and
maintenance; act as enzymes and hormones; Maintain fluid and electrolyte
balance; Transport nutrients/substances; Acid-base balance maintained;
Maintain strong immune system; Serve as energy source
protein structure || a. Long chains of amino acids
b. Joined to each other by peptide bonds
c. Structure of each protein dictated by DNA of a gene
RDA || Meets nutrient requirements of 97% of healthy individuals in particular life
stage and gender groups
saccharin || white crystalline sugar used in foods and beverages.
saturated fat || Long chain of carbon atoms bonded to other carbon atoms and to
hydrogen atoms
butter, lard, cream, whole milk, cheeses, beef, coconut oil and palm oil
Diets high in _____ ___ ____increase risk for heart disease
shape - amino acid || a. Shape determines function in the body
b. Structure and flexibility of proteins in red blood cells permit them to change
shape and flow freely through blood vessels to deliver oxygen and still return to
their original shape
simple carbohydrate || monosaccharide or disaccharide, such as glucose;
commonly called sugar
Six groups of Essential Nutrients || Carbohydrates, Fats, Proteins, Vitamins,
Minerals, Water
small intestine || Most digestion and absorption occurs in the _________
soluble fiber || dissolve in water; viscous - form a gel when wet; easily digested
by bacteria in colon; found in citrus fruits, berries, oat products, beans; reduce
risk of heart disease and diabetes
Starch || Storage form of glucose in plants; Found in grains, legumes, and tubers;
Our body must break down molecules into the monosaccharide glucose, can be
used to fuel our energy needs; alpha bonds between glucose molecules are
easily broken by human digestive enzymes

Sterols || Type of lipid found in foods and the body that has a ring structure;
Found in plant and animal foods;Fatty pa rt of animal products: butter, egg yolks,
whole milk, meats, poultry
Sucralose || artificial sweetner
supplementation || a. Many athletes and gym goes believe in protein
supplementation
b. We use very little protein for energy during exercise
c. Americans already consume more than 2 times the RDA for protein
d. Little evidence that protein supplements can build muscle or improve strength
e. Claims for amino acid supplements are unfounded
trans fat || i) Hydrogenation: the addition of hydrogen atoms to unsaturated fatty
acids- refers to number of hydrogen atoms
ii) Heath concerns: increase risk of heart disease, weaken immune function, and
harm cell membranes
treatment of type 2 diabetes || i. Losing weight
ii. Healthful eating patterns
iii. Exercising regularly
iv. Medications - improve sensitivity of body cells to insulin or reduce the amount
of glucose the liver produces
triglycerides || a. Molecule consisting of 3 fatty acids attached to a 3-carbon
glycerol backbone
UL || Highest average daily nutrient intake level likely to pose no risk of adverse
health effects to almost all individuals in a particular life stage and gender group
unsaturated fat || i) monounsaturated fatty acids (structure and sources):
fatty acid chain that has 1 carbon double bond (olive oil, canola oil, cashews)
ii) polyunsaturated fatty acids (structure and sources):
have more than one double bond in the chain ( canola, corn and safflower oil)
Values for Macronutrients || carbs (45-65%)
fats (20-35%)
protein (10-35%)
Varied diet || Eating different foods each day
allows us to optimize our chances of consuming the multitude of nutrients our
body needs
vegetarianism || a. Religious reasons
b. Ethical, personal philosophical reasons
c. Reduced risk of:
i. Obesity, type 2 diabetes
ii. Heart disease
VLDL || Liver a primary source; transport vehicles that carry triglycerides to other
cells of the body; Eat diets high in omega-3 fatty acids to inhibit production of
triglycerides; Exercise regularly to reduce VLDL by using them for energy
Wellness definition || the absence of disease