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    NEOLIBERALISM as CXCEPTION | MUTATIONS IN CITIZENSHIP AND SOVEREIGNTY | Ailova Ong sone an on wet ea (MEE et Sorseh Halle ® ALAN DUNDES, ear friend ad colleague © 2c06 Duke Univers Press Aleighesesened Prined inthe United Sans of American acidtre papers Designed by Any Rath ochanan Typeseein Caer 8e Cone Gale by Keyseme Typeseing re {braryof Congress Catling ubkewion Dats and retention aeknoredgrnents appear the se primes pages of eis ok, CONTENTS Acknowledgments ix 1. Etbiesin Contention tery Solidarity: Peminise Virnwe under “Moderate Isami” 31 2. Cyberpubles and the Pails of Diasporie Chinese Potties 53 1, Spcesof Governing + Gradua Sovercigny 75 ++ Zoning Teshnologiesin Eas Asia 97 IIL, Cinnitsof Esporte 5. Latitudes, or How Markers Streh che Rounds of Governmensaliey 6, Higher Learning in Global Space 139 7. Labor Achitaage: Displace aa Betrayal in Silicon Valley = IN. Tie Fd of Eonegence 8 Baroque Feulogy Eifervescent Citizenship. m= +5. A Bioearmygraphie: Maids, Neosiaver: oR he "Chinese Sout” in Shanghai? 29 Notes 24% Biblingsaphy 200 Indes 2-9 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ‘The essays gathered i this volume have been part of m ongoing refection on ‘wnat mightbe called an anthropology ofthe global, My aim his been to pose big questions through an ethnographic investigation of the lines of mutation that shape diverse situations of contemporary living [hank the many ind viduals and interdiseiplinary programs that invized me to speak orto submit papers on these themes. Their enthusiasm and interest have stimulate! me to revise work in progress and to purstie new lines of tnking, Some of dre fiends whose help, comments, and conversations have benefited me include Stephen J. Collier, Ching Kwvan Lee, Ryan Bishop, Lisa Hoffman, Jesse San- ford, Dar Rudnyekyj, Donald Nonini, Andrew Ross, and Ken Wissoker. [ also thank Shannon May for her suggestions anc skilful eiting, Part ofthe ‘work was funded bya MacArthur Foundation grant toundcrtake research on risk and (in)sceutity in Asian cities, ‘As always, my busband, Robert R, Ng, provided a nice bslanee of sup- port ane! detachment, conditions chat freed me to write in ehe mids of a busy family ite inrropuction ‘Nealiberaion as Exception, | Bxception to Neoliberation [Neolibertion sccms to mean many different things depending on one’s van tage point. In much of the world, it has become a code word for America’s ‘overweening power, Asian politicians and pundits view “American neoliber- alison” asa strategy of market domination that uses intermediaries such ashe Inernational Monetary Fund (19s) co pry open small economies and expose them to trade policies that play havoc with these nations’ present and fare ‘economic welfare, For example, in the decade of the emerging Asian econo- imies (19805-908), Asian leaders proclaimed that “Asia can say no” to Amer: ‘an ncolberaism, Such rhetoric beeame more vociferous after the “Asian financial ersis” of 1997-98." In popular discourses, neolderalsm also repre- sents unregulated financial lows that menaced national curcencies and living conditions, South Korean anti-neoliberal protestors who lost their jobs due to imposed economic restructuring sported T-shirts tat proclaimed, “ie ‘means ™M Fed! In Latin America, che US. dive for opem matkets and P nce tke invasion of ragy ti tiques of neoliber tization i called “savage neoliperalismn” have ineludled the perception thar America woul stoop to conquest in order to grab oil resunces For major corporations. Thus, in the global popular imagination, American nealiberalism is viewed as a raulicalized capitalist imperialism shar is inereasingly ted ro favlessiness and tnilitary action, As we shall see below, despite suet widespread criticism, Asian governments have seletivelyadlopred neoliberal forms in creating exo nnomie zones and imposing marker eriteriaon citizenship. Neoliberntinw ar Lage ly the United States, in contrast, wealilemtian is seldom part of popular Uligcourse outside the aeaderny. Rather, numbers polices anal neucmacrs iam ave the sgories thar code the ensemble of thinking. and strate: 2+ Tntoduetion gies seeking to elimi te social programs and promote the interests of big capital. Liberty has become a word that designates “free economic action” rather than political liberalism, which has become a disty word, In eather broad terms, one can say that the Democratic Party promotes itself as the Gefencier of individual rights and civil libestics against the excesses of an unfettered, market-driven ethos, while the Republican Party relics on a neo: liberal (fead neoconservative) discourse of individual solutions to myriad social problemas. Both kinds of liberalism focus on fice subjects as a basic rationale and rurget of government, but while the Democrats stress individ tal and civil freedoms, the Republicans underline individual obligations of selfreliance and selémanagement. For instance, the conservative colum- hist William Safire weites that “a Republican brain” chooses values that “in- chide selfreliance over community dependence, intervention over isolation, sel-clscipline over society's regulation, finding pleasuse in work rather than working to find pleasure?” In politcal life, both kinds of liberal rationalities fequently overlap and fuse, but Republicans have strengthened neoliberal ism’s hold on America by casting (political) “liberalism? as “un-American” ‘Such partisan debates in fact highfight the chasm ¢hat is opening up between politcal liberal ideals of democracy and the neoliberal rationality of individ- ‘ual esponsibility and fate, Upon his reelection to a second term, President George W. Bush claimed 1 political *mandate® to transform life in the United States. In a raft of proposed new “market-based policies” he has proposed to dismantle fianda- ‘mental aspeets of American liberal democracy insttutionalized since the New Deal, from the privatization of Social Security and health care to the abolition ofthe progressive rax code, Bush calls his nev vision the “ownership socieey” an explicit claim that American citizenship under his watch will shift towarel a rimitive, narrow vision of citizenship that inclucles only property owners, "ging “an independent and egoistical individual” in isolated puesuit xeonomic self-interest In his second inaugural address, President Bush ‘explicit abour “preparing our people for the challenges of li in a free ety. by making every citizen an agent of his or her own destiny” This coliberal view of citizenship also has the motal support of evangelical Chris tian roups* Buc president attempts to marketize politics and reenginecr citizenship hhave not gone unchallenged. Close to half the citizemcy thas opposed such polices of privatization, For decades, a ptethora of protest movements have deleted the steady erosion of the civil rights of prisoners, workers, women, Inwoduetion + 3 hhomosesuals, minorities, and aliens, to name only a few. They promise to continue the fight to protect individual liberty and the national patrimony, ‘Bur the Bush administration continues to seck to reverse antipoverty pro: ‘grams, heath coverage, environmental protection, and food safery, among ‘other policiss, in che spirit ifnot in the name of neoliberal reason. This cluster ‘of ncoliberal logic, religion, rights, and ethics has become the problemr-space of American citizenship, with outcomes as yet unknown, Nevertheless, a6 1 mentioned above, since the 19705, “American ncoliberalism” has become a global pheriomeron that has been variously received and critiqued overseas. Neoliberalism and Exceptions ‘This book argues that asa new mode of political optimization, neoiberalisn sna —is reconfiguring relationships between governing an the ity, Neo liberalism is often ciscussed as an economic doctrine with a negative relation to stave power, a market ideology that secs to limit the scope and activity of ‘governing. But neoliberaism can alo be conceptualized as anew relationship ‘between government anel knowledge through which governing activities are recast as ronpolitcal and nonidcological problems that need technical soho governed, power and knowledge, and sovercignty and territor tions.” Indeed, neoliberalism considered asa technology of government isa ‘governing in order lation asa governing technology profounaly ative way of rationalizing governing and se to opt is thus a hiwrieal proces that unevenly articulates siwated politcal con stellations. An ethnographic perspective eveas specifi alignments of market iy, sovereignty, and citizenship thar mately constitute distinctive ie” The spread of neoliberal c rmilieus of abor and lifear the exjge of emergence. T focus on the active, interventionist aspect of neoliberalisin in. non Wester rlism as eseeprion avticulages sovereign rule and regimies of citizenship, OF course, the dllerenee between salieri as eomtests, where ne con awhac the “normative one” exception ad exceptions to neoliberalis bi isin a particular milieu of investigation. Thi book focuses on the interplaw “ cexceprionsin emerging couneries where nesliberatism itsell not che characteristic of technologies of governing. We find neoliberal incerventions jan anal pon in Fiberal demoracies as well ay ity pascolon socialise situations in Kast and Sourheast Asia, ‘Thus newliberalisny as exep- leulations tion is inrraduced in sitevof teansormacion where marketlriven are bring facroduced inthe management of popu 4+ Introduction tion of special spaces. The articulation of neoliberal exceptions, citizenship, and sovereignty procuces a range of possible anthropological problems and ‘ttcomes.€ At the same time, exeeptions 10 neolibernliom are also invoked, in political «cisions, to exehuce populations and places from neoliberal calculations and choices. Exceptions ro neofiberalism can be modes for protecting social safety nets or for stripping away all fornis of political protection. In Russia, for instance, subsidized housing and social rights are preserved even when neo liberal eeehniques are introduced! in urban budgetary practic time, in Southeast Asin, exceptions to neoliberalsm exclude migrant workers fon the living standards created by market-driven polices. In other words, 2 Ae the same ‘xclade noneitizens fiom the benefits of capitalist development. Bur there is an overlap in the workings of neoliberal exceptions and «xeeptions to market caeulations, Populations governed by neoliberal rech- nologies are dependlenton others who are exchided from neoliberal consider- ations, The articnla ion Of populations and spaces subjected to neoliberal horns and those outside the preview of these norms crystallizes ethical di- lemmas, threatening to displace basic values of social equality and share Fate. ‘The chapters that follow pre inverplay of exception 'clationships. New forms of governing and being govemed and new notions ‘of what ie means to be human are atthe edge of emergence In this approach, I bring together two concepts—ncolibe ‘exception—that others have dealt with separately: Neoliberalisn as a tech= wlogy of governing relies on caleilative choices and techniques in the do of citizenship and of governing, Following Poucaule, “governmen= refers to the array of knowledges and techniques that are concerned with the systematic and pragmatic guidance and regulation of everway con duct As Foucault puts it, governmentalty cov tality a range of practices that and instrumentalize the strategies that indivi ual in their ficedom can use in dealing with: mentality “constitute, define, orga eh other!" Neoliberal govern filtration of market-driven wuths and eslelations into the domain of politics. In contemporary times, neoliberal rationality orms action by many re alts from th xs and furnishes the coneepes that inform the dividuals who are then induced wo selmanage accord ing wo market principles of discipline, efficiency, andl eompesitivencs, ‘The political exception, in Carl Schmitt's Formulation, isa political de government of free Inwoduction 5 sion thet is made outsice the joridical order and general rule, Schmitt has argued thatthe sovereign produces and guarantes the situation in its totale ity. He has monopoly over this last decision. ‘Therein lies the essence of the state's sovereignty, which must be juridically defined correct, not a5 the monopoly to coerce oto rule, but asthe monopoly 0 decide” * The condi- tion of esception is thus a political liminality, an extraordinary decision £0 depart from a generalized political normativity, to interven in the logics of ag. and of being ruled. The Schonitian exception is invoked to delineate fu ends and foes ina context of war. Giorgio Agamben has usel the exception as a fundamental principle of sovereign rule that is predicated on the divi sion between cit political protections. In contrast, { conceptualize the exception more broadly, as an extraori nary departure in policy that an be deployed to include as wells to exclude, As conventionally understood, the sovereign exception marks out excludable subjects who are denied protections. But the exception can also be a positive 1 in a juridical order and outsiders stripped of jucdical- 1s of Yealeulative on to inelude selected populations and spaces as tay formulation, we need to explore the hinge beoween neoliberalsm as extep: tion an exception 0 neoliberalism, the interplay among technologies of governing and of dseiplining of inclusion and excision, of giv value for den globalization bas disquieting echieopolitical implications for cose who are inched as well as those who are exeled in shifting rechnologies of govern value to human conduct. ‘The polities of exception in an era of ing and of demarcation. This book will explore how the market-criven logie ‘or exception is deployed in a variety of ethnographic contests and the ethical risks and interrogations set in motion, unset ng established practices of citizenship and sovereigaty Interielationships among exceptions, polities, and citizenship erystallize problems of contemporary living, and they also trame ethial debates over ws toe human today: For instance, neoliberal exceptions have beer variously invoked in Asian settings to recalculate social criteria of cit ‘enship, to remoralize ecemonie action, and Ho vedene spaces in relation to marketdiiven choiges, These arsiculaians have eng ringer axl ambigous outcomes that cannot be predieted betorehand, Neo liberal decisions have ereated new Soxms af inchsion, setting apart sone citizen-subjeets, and ereatin enjoy extraonlinary pofitieal benefice and econo gain, Tere is he Sehmittian eaeeption thar abandons 6 + Introduction certain populations and places them outside political normativity, But artic: ulations beiween neoll I exceptions and exceptions to neoliberalism have ‘rutiplied possibilities for moral claims and values assigned to various hu ‘man categories, so that different degrees of protection can be negotiated for the politically excluded. ‘The yoking of neoliberalism and exception, I suggest, has the following implications for our understanding of how citizenship and sovereignty are ‘mutating in articulation and disarticulation with neoliberal reason and mech- anisms, First, a focus on neoliberalism recasts our thinking about the con: nection between government and citizenship as a strictly juridicallegal xe lationship. It is important to trace neoliberal technology to a biopolitical ‘mode of governing that eenters on the capacity and potential of individuals andthe population asiving resources tha may be hamessed and managed by governing regimes. Neaiteaism as used here applies to two kinds of ope ‘mizing technologies. Telmolaies of subjectivity rely on an aay of knowlege and expert systems to induce sel animation and self goveiment so that cit zens can optimize choices, eficieney, and competitiveness in turbulent mi ket conditions. Such techniques of optimization include the adherence t0 health regimes, acquisition of stills, development of entrepreneurial ves tures, and other techniques of selfengineering and capital accumulation Tednolagies of subjection inform political strategies that differently regulate populations for optimal productivity, inereasingly through spatial practices that engage marker forces. Such regulations include the fortresization of twban space, the contol of travel, and the recruitment of ceetain kinds of actors to growth hubs. As ofty inter tion of optimization, neoliberalism interacts with regimes ng and regimes of citizenship to produce conditions that change ad ‘ministrative steategies and citizenship practices. Ie Follows that the inieration ‘of market logic into polities conceptually unsettles the notionof citizenship as alegal status rooted in anation-state, and in stark opposition to a condition of statelessness 4 Furthermore, the neoliberal exception articulates citizen clements in political spaces that may be less than # some cases, or exceed national borders in others. ational tersitory in The elements that we think of as coming together to ceate citizenship — Fights, entitlements, tervtoriality,a nation —are becoming disarticulated al ‘eartculated with forces st into motion by warket forees. On the one hand, citizenship elements such as entitlements andl hervefits are increasingly ascxi ated wich neoliberal criteria, so that mobile individwals who possess h Introduction +7 capital or expertise are highly valued and can exercise cite tke ad in dive loins. Mel ezens who a jag prt Te 86h tradable competence oF potential become devalued ancl tae mapa © exelionary practices, On the oe ban theresa of STH thats, te national space ofthe onan seme ei iene usta Oem ons 100) Sih ro aaa von eee conltons for des aims ofan ve chat Neo cee izenship, oc of a universal spaces of exception ; not fir neatly into a conventional aotion of over eeath rights. In shor, component of citizenship have developed art links toe spas, becoming reared reine a ia ie to diverse locations and ethical situations, Such de- and Toning of i actors, and spaces have been occasioned by regime of human inking of citizenship elements, the dispersion and realignment of rend aco exception refines the study of sate i Second, neoliberalisn as exception roi ee yet sven J the nation, o¢ that will eves market strategies, resources, and actors. Jong conceptualized a8 2 political singular that steamrolls across the terrain o eve, vty mone auycracy.” In actual practice, sovercigaty rategies thar encounter diverse seore bure tually impose a uniform sta manfted in sip ofl conti and contestations, and proxtuce divers cxtcomes In aaa etinernesone th global wakes and relator isttations over pron to create new economic possi- 14 contingent outcomes. In the cou mnaintan, sove echniqnes for governing the bilvies, spaces, and techniques for gs wnt aren os frames of eso Fei agen jonstate, Fors ign rule invokes the rent poet The : ys thar both in Southeast figment and eatendl the space of the mat and Baa Asi, zing ecole have sane ses es #2 RIE achieve strategie goals of ruling group ebon spatial coneentation of sage politcal, esonon auteacs Foreign investment, exhiollgy transfer jn growth, Market driven soateg jemand of lobs capital fr diverse 8 ee sous, dierent a mic, and social conditions snd international expertise ‘oF spatial fiag. to particular zones of i pe ot spores mentation respond to the dem: injeving a pargetn of nancontig wal ga eal sovereigany” Furthermore, ovine ses oF "gaara oF art we as corporations and Ncos exert indirest power have an emergent situation oF osertappieg rious populations at different political seal ori optimization are repositioning the metrop- lis as a ub for enrolling netivosks oF resoarces 8: Traduction metropolis the hub of a distinctive ecosystem, Saskia Sassen has proposed an influential model oF a few “global cities" — New York, Lonclon, and Tokyo— that control key funetions and services thar sustain global cites. This rans national urban system dominates “cities in the glabal south which ate most! in the mid-range of the global hierarchy” The explosive growth of Shang- hai, Hong Kong, and Singapore suggests the rise ofa diferent kind of space ‘ime synergy prompted by neoliberal exceptions. Market driven calculations «reare novel possibilities for combining and recombining external and inter= nal elements to reposition these cities as the sites of nergence and new circulations. Situated mobilizations of strategic knowledge, resources, and actors con. figure vibrating webs of interaction, chat is, spacetime “ecosystems” that extend the scope of hypergrowth zones, This govennmentality-as-ccology strategy does nor seck vo fit emerging Asian centers into a preexisting trans: ‘ational urban systems, Rather, the logicis to reposition the hometown (aes) in its selfspun web of symbiotic relationships among diverse clements (eco system) for the strategic Production of specific material and social values," ‘This Microsofélike approach creates “platforms? "services, tools, or tech nologies~ tharother members of the ecosystem can use ro enhance their own performance,” Ie is a hub strategy that uses eapital not to perfoum con ventional city functions but wo leverage their relationships fo ovative collaborations with global companies and research institutions that become intertwined with the future of che site. Third, the caleulative mechanisins of open markets articulate new ar ngements and tertitorializations of capital, knowledge, and labor across national borers. Michael Haudt and Antonio Neg’ influential book, Ei dire contends that economic globalization has produced a uniform global ‘abor regime. But the complex int icuhir networks challenge sweepi ions betwveen diverse zones and ps laims abouta unified landscape of labor regulation, Rathes, I argue, dffeeont vectors of capital construct spaces ef exception —“latuces” —thar coordinate different axes of labor regulation andl of abor disciplining, Lateral procuccion systems permit he stretching a governmentality as well as cocreive labor regimes actuss rnultiple sites. Lati= tudinal spaces are thus formed by a hybrid mix of regulatory and incan labor regimes thae sare ope: al with litle regard for bor rights across fy Fung zones. Nevertheless, the latitudinal controls ave subject ro unexpected and unbiden challenges chat rise intermittently from mobilities of labor among various sites, troduction + 9 Fourth, neoliberalism, as an ethos of ticulates other ethical regimes in particular contexts, Market rationality that A goveening, encounters and ar= promotes individualism and entreprencurialism engenders clebates about the é. For instance, in Southeast norms of citizenship and the value of human Asia, the neoliberal exception in an Islamie publie sphere catalyzes debates cover female virtue, Uiamar resist the new autonomy of working women, while feminists claim a kind of gender equality within the mits of Islam. national hun ‘Contrary to the perception thar er nism replaces situ ated ethics, questions of status andl morality are problematized and resolved in particular milieus shaped by economic rationality religious noes, and

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