Soil Fertility Kit

A toolkit for acid upland soil fertility

management in Southeast Asia

Introduction
Process and practical tools
Principles and methods
Essential information

Thomas Dierolf, Thomas Fairhurst and Ernst Mutert

Soil Fertility Kit: A toolkit for acid upland soil fertility management in Southeast Asia
Handbook Series

T. Dierolf
T. H. Fairhurst
E. W. Mutert
Copyright 2000
by Deutsche Gesellschaft fr Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH; Food and Agriculture
Organisation; PT Katom; and Potash & Phosphate Institute (PPI), Potash & Phosphate Institute
of Canada (PPIC).

All rights reserved

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the Potash & Phosphate Institute.
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Although the authors have used their best efforts to ensure that the contents of this book is
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on an as is basis, without warranty. Neither the author nor the publisher shall be liable for any
liability, loss of profit, or other damages caused or alleged to have been caused directly or
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Type setting by Tham Sin Chee.

First edition 2000

ISBN xxx-xx-xxxx-x

About the publisher

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of phosphorus and potassium in crop production systems.
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Acknowledgements

(i)

Contents

(ii)

Foreword

(iii)

Introduction
The acid, upland soil farming
environment in Indonesias
outer islands

In this section
A-1

The Upland Environment in Indonesia

A-2

The Link Between Poor Soil Fertility Management and the

Poverty Spiral

A-3

Improving Soil Fertility to Get Out of the Poverty Spiral

A-4

Characteristics and Distribution of Acid, Upland Soils of

Indonesia

A-5

How to Use This Handbook

2
Plate A

A sequence of six steps that lead to the degradation of acid, upland soil.

1 Forest land is opened up for timber extraction by

timber companies.

3 After logging, the land is prepared for transmigrant

farmers.

5 The farmer may crop the land twice before soil

fertility is exhausted.

2 Timber is extracted using heavy equipment that

damages the fragile soil.

4 The remaining trees and vegetation are burnt to

fertilize the farmers crops.

6 The land is abadoned and colonized by alang-alang

(Imperata cylindrica).

3
A-1 The Upland Environment in
Indonesia
About 30% (or ~58 M ha)of the land in
Indonesia is used for agriculture (Table A-1).
13% of this land is classified as lowland and
is mainly used for stable and productive
irrigated rice systems. Lowland rice soils
(paddy soils) are more fertile compared to
upland soils . These lowland areas are
supported by a well-developed infrastructure
of roads, markets, electricity, water supply,
agricultural supply shops, and health clinics
and schools (Plate A-1a, b). The area under
irrigated rice cultivation cannot be increased
easily and the situation is further aggravated
as large areas of the most productive rice lands
are converted to industrial use and housing
each year.
The greatest potential for future increases in
agriculture production and productivity in
Indonesia lies in the remaining 87% (or ~50 M
ha) of agricultural land classified as upland
or rainfed land. Upland soils occupy 26% of
the total land area in Indonesia and are found
mainly in Sumatra, Irian Jaya and Kalimantan
(Table A-1). At present, only 18 M ha of the
uplands are being used, while >30 M ha are

either under fallow or man-made savannah

(alang-alang sleeping land ) (Table A-1). In
addition to its low fertility status, the uplands
are also characterized by diverse, potentially
unstable agricultural systems (Plate A-1c).
These areas often have a poor infrastructure,
severely limiting the farmers access to
agricultural supplies, services and information
(Plate 1c, d).
The fragile upland soils are vulnerable to
degradation when cleared of their protective
forest cover (Figure A-1).

A-2 Characteristics and

Distribution of Acid, Upland Soils
of Indonesia
Distribution
About 22% (or ~42 M ha) of the land area in
Indonesia is made up of low pH soils with low
fertility status and the potential for aluminium
toxicity (Figure A-2).
Characteristics of main soil types
The main soil types are red-yellow podzolic
soils and, to a lesser extent, Latosols and
Andisols (Table A-2, Plate A-3).

Table A-1 Distribution of land types in the islands of Indonesia. The greatest potential for
future increases in agriculture production and productivity lies in 87% of the agricultural land
classified as upland or rainfed land.

Island

Lowland

Upland
Other
,000 ha

Total

Land area
%

Java

3,561

5,887

3,771

13,219

Sumatra

1,923

14,463

30,977

47,363

25

Kalimantan

973

7,992

45,035

54,000

28

Sulawesi

772

5,821

12,502

19,095

10

10,444

31,747

42,200

22

376

5,403

9,290

15,069

7,614

50,010

133,322

190,946

100

26

70

100

13

87

Papua
Other islands
Total
% land area
% agricultural land

100

Plate A-1
a) Lowland irrigated rice
systems produce 94% of
Indonesia s rice. The
lowlands have good
infrastructural support.

b) Agriculture input supply

shops like this one in a
lowland rice production area
are often not found in farming
districts in the uplands. With
only limited access to inputs,
farmers are often unable to
adopt new technology.
c) The uplands are
characterized by diverse,
potentially unstable
agricultural systems.
d) As part of the package , a
transmigrant farmer is
provided with a temporary
house. He will need to
transform the productivity of
his land rapidly in order to
generate sufficient funds to
build a permanent house.

Figure A-1
Representation of the three
main landuse systems in
Indonesia.
Under forest-tree crops and lowland
irrigated sawah, the soil is
permanently covered and protected.
The intermittently covered uplands
are exposed to soil degradation from
erosion, surface runoff and
excessive temperatures.

5

Red-yellow podzolic soils (USDA Ultisols)
Red-yellow podzolic soils are clayeytextured with a red or yellow subsoil and
are usually found in landscapes with rolling
hills. Intensive weathering and leaching due
to high temperatures and rainfall over
thousands of years have removed nutrients
from the soil. As a result, the red-yellow
podzolic soils are usually poor in N, P and
K. Al-toxicity and P fixation are also
common in these soils (Part 2-1).

Figure A

Latosols (USDA Oxisols, Inceptisols)

Latosols are usually found in the flatter
areas. They are older and more depleted
of nutrients than red-yellow podzolic soils.
However, their physical properties and soil
structure often make them more suitable
for agricultural use. These soils sometimes
show strong P sorption.

Andosols (USDA Andisols)
Andosols develop from volcanic ash near
volcanoes. They are much younger than

Map of Indonesia showing extent of acid soils.

Table A-2 The main soil types in indonesia, (particularly in Sumatra, Kalimantan and
Papua) are acid, low fertility, red-yellow podzolic soils and latosols.

Island
Java

R-Y podzolic

Latosols

Andisols

Others

Area
M ha

2.5

21.4

6.4

69.7

13.2

Sumatra

33.7

14.3

5.8

46.2

47.4

Kalimantan

26.9

8.3

2.3

62.5

54.0

Sulawesi

7.8

15.0

0.8

76.4

19.1

Irian Jaya

28.4

0.9

0.0

70.7

42.2

Others

21.4

7.2

0.7

70.7

15.1

Total

24.9

9.6

2.7

62.8

191.0

Plate A-4
Typical acid upland soil
profiles in Indonesia.
red-yellow podzolic soils and latosols. They
are usually more fertile than podzolic soils
and latosols, but they also be very infertile.
Andosols have the capacity to fix
phosphorus, and it may be necessary to
apply large amounts of P fertilizer to correct
P deficiency (Part 2-7).

A-3 The Link Between Poor Soil

Fertility Management and the
Poverty Spiral
In the past, the traditional slash-and-burn
agricultural system practiced extensively on
acid, upland soils was sustainable. This was
because at any one time, farmers made use
of only a small part of the total land area to

support a subsistence (i.e., not cash crop)

economy (Plate A-5 ).
With the move toward a cash economy, and
the pressure on land availability in the uplands
due to the population increase, these systems
are no longer unsustainable. The fallow period
is seldom long enough for complete restoration
of soil fertility, and nutrients removed in crop
products, surface runoff, and erosion, are not
being replenished by mineral fertilizer inputs.
These are the main reasons for declining soil
fertility in slash-and-burn agriculture as it is
practiced today (Figure A-3).
Slash-and-burn and much of the fallow-based
agriculture have developed into unsustainable,
low productivity agricultural systems in the
uplands (Plate A-6a). Often, crops can only

Plate A-5
Slash-and-burn agricultural
systems are sustainable only
where sufficient land is
available for the required
fallow period.

Figure A-3
The downward spiral to the
poverty trap for upland farm
families is closely related to
low soil fertility.

Plate 1-6

a) Short fallow periods

result in a decrease in soil
fertility, low productivity
farming systems and human
poverty.
b) The only rice plant able
to grow and thrive in this field
is planted into soil enriched
with nutrients contained in
ash.
c) Inappropriate agricultural
techniques in the uplands
have led to environmental
destruction, land degradation
and human poverty.

c
Plate A-7

a) With proper soil, crop,

water, and fertilizer
management, the uplands
can sustain productive
agricultural systems such as
this tree-crop system.
b,c,d,e) Productivity may be
increased substantially when
properly managed livestock
are integrated into upland
farming systems.

grow in patches of soil enriched by the ashes

from fires used to burn the fallow biomass
(Plate A-6b). Inappropriate agricultural
techniques have also led to environmental
destruction, degradation, and poverty (Plate
A-6c). A downward spiral eventually leads
upland farm families into a poverty trap cycle
of low inputs, low yields, and low income
(Figure A-3).

A-4 Improving Soil Fertility to Get

Out of the Poverty Spiral
It is possible to develop sustainable, productive
farming systems in the uplands. The most
suitable farming systems are based either on
tree crops or mixed crop-livestock systems

(Plate A-7) which, when properly implemented,

can be as profitable to the farmer as lowland
rice cultivation.
A key to achieving and maintaining intensified,
integrated, and productive systems is the
proper management of soil fertility. Figure A-1
showed how nutrient depletion results in yield
and income reduction. This situation can be
corrected by first increasing soil fertility to allow
productive cropping, and then maintaining soil
fertility, by replacing nutrients removed and lost
from the upland agricultural system using
proper crop residue management techniques,
and through the addition of mineral fertilizers.

Part 1

A Cyclic Process and Practical Tools to Improve Soil

Fertility Management in Acid Uplands
Step 1
Step 2
Step 3
Step 4

Part 2

Confirm that the soil is an acid, upland soil

Identify major soil fertility problems
Make recommendations for improvements
Test, evaluate and follow-up the recommendations

Principles and Methods

Chemical Characteristics of Acid, Upland Soils
Physical Characteristics of Acid, Upland Soils
Biological Characteristics of Acid, Upland Soils
Causes of Upland Soil Fertility Problems
Plant Nutrition and Nutrient Cycles
Nutrient Requirements of Integrated Upland Systems
Soil Fertility Management
Nutrient Sources
Biological Soil Fertility Management
Indirect Management Effects on Soil Fertility

Part 3

Essential Information for Upland Extension Workers

Soil and Plant Sampling Analysis
Soil Chemical Properties for 45 Crops
Critical Leaf Nutrient Concentrations for 45 Crops
Nutrient Uptake and Removal for 45 Crops
Properties of Nutrient Sources (Residues and Fertilizers)
General Fertilizer Recommendations and Examples of Field Tests
Management of Micronutrients
Balance Nutrient Recommendations for 45 Crops
Timing of Fertilizer Applications
Fertilizer Storage
List of Important Legume Species for Acid, Upland Soils
English, Indonesian and Latin names for Important Crop Species
List of Conversion Factors
Glossary of Terms

A-5 Who should use this

handbook
This handbook will equip extension workers
with methods, principles, and tools so that they

can assist farmers manage the quantity and

availability of nutrients in acid, upland soils
where accurate and complete recommendations based on soil and plant testing are not
possible.

10

11

Part 1
A cyclic process and practical tools
to improve soil fertility management
in acid, upland soils

In this section
1-1

Outline of the Process

Step 1: Confirm that the Soil is an Acid, Upland Soil

Step 2: Identify Major Soil Fertility Problems
Step 3: Make Recommendations for Improvements
Step 4: Test, evaluate and follow-up the recommendations

12
Plate 1

One recommended sequence for acid, upland soil rehabilitation.

1 There are more than 11 M ha acid, upland soils in

Indonesia.

-P

-K

3 Deficiency symptoms in maize are useful for

diagnosing soil fertility problems.

2 P (left) and K (right) deficiencies are endemic when

these soils are cropped.

4 Install soil conservation measures to reduce the

loss of added nutrients.

Apply and incorporate ~1 t rock phosphate ha-1.

6 Rehabilitate the soil before cropping by using

legume cover plants.

13
Plate 1

...continued.

7 Legume cover plants respond well to the rock

phosphate application.

9 Soil particle aggregation is improved due to

increased biological activity.

11

11 Unproductive acid, upland soils can be

transformed into productive land.

8 Biological activity in the soil increases due to the

legume cover plant litter fall.

10

10 The response to N and K fertilizers is large after

applying rock phosphate.

12

12 The residual effect of rock phosphate persists over

several crop seasons.

14
1-1 Outline of the process
A participatory process for improving soil
fertility management requires that the farm
family and extension worker do the following:
1 Discuss the general soil fertility of a farm
and the options available to the
household for improving soil fertility, and
2 Select techniques from a range of
options and test them in farmers fields.
On the first attempt, go through all the steps
listed below. The procedure can be completed
more quickly when you have become more
familiar with the process.

Bappeda Tk. I and II (Land Unit and Soil

Map at a scale of 1:250.000)

LREP I and Land Systems and Land
Suitability maps (scale 1:250.000)

Balai Pengajian Teknologi Pertanian
(Institute for the Assessment of
Agricultural Technology) agro-ecological
zone maps.

Local Universities (soil science faculty).
Information is usually available in different
forms and scales and must be carefully
interpreted. If soil maps and/or soil analysis
data are available for the area, use the
following criteria to determine whether acid,
upland soils are present:

Go through the procedure step-by-step.

Important information is gathered in Steps1.1 1 Soil classification. A list of acid soil types
2.6 shown below.
is shown in Part 3-1.
Compile the results of your information in Table 2 Soil chemical data: Check available soil
1-9. Then examine the evidence and make a
analysis data. If the pH is between 4.0
diagnosis.
5.5, and the soil test is <15 (Bray II), <7
(Olsen 3), < 2 (ammonium acetate/acetic
The first part of the process is like a detective
acid) mg P kg-1 soil, it is likely to be an
trying to solve a case. Examine all the
acid upland soil.
evidence, question the appropriate witnesses
and suspects, and ask the right questions!

Step 1 Confirm that the soil is an

acid, upland soil
Step 1.1 Get regional-level soil
information
First, find out about the basic soil types in the
region (province, district, or subdistrict level).
This is to determine the likelihood that the
farms that you will visit may be on acid, upland
soils. This information should be made
available to extension workers by the districtlevel center for extension and information.
In Indonesia this information can be obtained
from:

Centre for Soil and Agroclimate
Research, Bogor. The Centre has soil
maps of all of Sumatra, Java, and many
other parts of Indonesia.

Kanwil BPN Tk. I (Land Use Maps at
scales of 1:25.000 and 1:100.000)

Location: acid, upland soils are:

most likely to occur in areas formerly
occupied by forest, between 50150 m
above sea level, on rolling or undulating
topography, and

least likely to occur near coastlines on
sandy soils, in lowland swamps or
frequently flooded soils, or where
irrigated rice is grown.
Regional-level soil information should only be
used to give you an idea of what types of soils
are found in your area. If all the soils in your
area are peat or swamp soils, this handbook
is not suitable for you. If you conclude that
acid, upland soils occur in your subdistrict or
district, move on to the next step.
Step 1.2 Get farm-level soil information
The next step is to check whether the soil on
a particular farm is an acid, upland soil type.
The soil type will be influenced by its position
in the landscape (e.g., less acid soils in the
valley bottom, more acid soils on hill slopes),

15
Table 1-1
Activities involved in the process. The section numbers indicate where these
topics are discussed in further detail in Part 2.

Step
1

Activity

Purpose

Confirm that the soil is an acid, upland soil.

1.1

Get regional information on

soils.

Determine if acid, upland soils occur in the subdistrict or district.

1.2

Get farm-level soil

information.

Determine if the field soil is likely to be an acid,

upland soil.

Diagnose major soil fertility problems and identify how soil

fertility management can be improved.

2.1

Gender analysis: tasks and

control.

Determine who does what so that the appropriate

family members are involved.

2.2

Map of the field and nutrient

flows in the household.

Develop an overall understanding of the farming

system and nutrient flows in it.

2.3

Household soil fertility

management.

To learn about farmer knowledge and practices.

2.4

Cropping/fertility history.

Determine the possible effects of past

management on soil fertility.

2.5

Nutrient deficiency
symptoms.

Identify critical soil fertility problems that need to

be corrected.

2.6

Evaluate soil fertility

practices.

Learn about current practices that could be

improved.

2.7

Diagnosis.

Determine possible fertility problems and

management that could be improved.

3
3.1

Make recommendations to improve on present practices.

Discuss and make
recommendations.

Recommend ways to overcome nutrient problems

and to improve current practices.

Test, evaluate and follow-up on the recommendations.

4.1

Test the recommendation

on the farm.

Choose recommendations with the household to

test under farm conditions.

4.2

Monitor and evaluate the

test with the farmer.

Evaluate the test results with the houshold

4.3

Yield sampling.

Measure and compare yield in the different

treatments.

4.4

Partial budget.

Calculate the cost and benefits of the different

treatment.
Assist the household to adopt/adapt the results
and share with other households.

4.5

Follow-up the field test with

the farmer.

Evaluate whether the recommended practices

were suitable.

4.6

Disseminating the field test

results.

Discuss a plan for follow-up action with other

farmers in the village.

16
and the material from which it is derived (e.g.,
limestone, volcanic ash, granite rocks, etc.).
Because of the range of parent materials in
mountainous areas, there may be a range of
different soil types present, even in one village.
Four other characteristics provide further
evidence that the soil on the farmers field is
an acid, upland soil:
1 the soil has a pH 5.5,
2 the soil has reasonably good drainage
(i.e., it is not frequently flooded),
3 the soil is a mineral soil (i.e., it does not
have a thick organic layer at its surface),
and
4 the soil is probably not of recent volcanic
origin (i.e., the soil is not located near an
active volcano).
Measure the soil pH and examine weed
and crop vegetation
Measure the soil pH with a low cost field pH
test kit (e.g., Hellige Pehameter, Plate 1-1a).
Refer to Part 3 for proper sampling techniques.
If you cannot measure soil pH, make the
following observations and enquiries:
1 Examine the native vegetation and
identify indicator plants and weeds and
evaluate the growth of crop and weed
plants. Some plants such as the Straits
rhododendron (Melastoma
Malabathricum), alang-alang (Imperata
cylindrica) and tropical bracken
(Dicranopteris linearis) are indicators of
acid soil conditions (Plates 1-1).
2 If crops tolerant of acidity and high Al
saturation (e.g., rubber, cassava) are
grown on a large scale in the area, then
the soil is probably acid (Table 3-5).
3 Ask the farmer if he has applied lime
within the past five years and if so, how
much? An application of 1 t ha-1
agricultural lime (2030% CaO) will
increase the pH of the top soil (020 cm)
by 0.250.5 pH units. If the land is
continuously cropped, pH will decrease
by 0.51 pH units over the following five
years.

4 The presence of limestone rock on or

adjacent to the field indicates that the soil
probably has high pH and is not an acid
soil. However, acid soils also sometimes
occur in the vicinity of limestone outcrops
in so-called karst landscape.
Check the soil drainage
Acid, upland soils are usually not flooded for
long periods of time. If the soil is always flooded
or frequently underwater for long periods at a
time, it is probably not an acid, upland soil.
Presence of sago palm (Metroxylon sagu) or
gelam (kajuput oil tree, Melaleuca
leucadendra) indicates periodically flooded
soils.
Move on to the next section if you conclude
that the soil is probably an acid, upland soil.

Step 2 Identify major soil fertility

problems
Step 2.1 Household and gender analysis:
tasks and control
Identify which household member does the
various farm tasks, makes decisions, and has
access to resources that are related to soil and
crop management (Plate1-2). This will guide
you to talk with the appropriate household
members when asking questions about soil
and crop management practices and when
selecting recommendations to test.

Example 1. If you want to estimate how
much forage is removed from a field
during the year, make sure you ask the
person that cuts the forage! In many
cases, a child or the wife (not the
husband) may cut and carry forage from
the field to the cow shed.

Example 2. Discuss proposals to
modify fertilizer rates with the person who
decides on how much fertilizer to
purchase before testing the
recommendation in the field!
The checklist in Table 1-2 provides useful hints
to help you identify the appropriate person to
contact. Change or add to the checklist to suit

17

aa

bb

Plate 1-1
a) A handheld field pH meter
is a simple and accurate way
to identify an acid soil.

cc

dd

b) Straits rhododendron
(Melastoma malabathricum)
is an indicator of acid soil
conditions.
c) P-deficient alang-alang
(Imperata cylindrica) leaves
lying on an eroded, acid soil.
d) Dicranopteris linearis and
alang-alang indicate
impoverished soil

your needs. Use the checklist in a group

interview to acquire a general picture of the
village or with a single family to develop a
detailed picture of the household. In all cases,
you should involve both male and female
participants, adults, and young people involved
in the tasks listed in the checklist. It may be
helpful to divide a large group by gender and/
or by age to get a more realistic picture and
foster open discussion.
Step 2.2 Map nutrient flows on the farm
Together with the farm household, draw a map
and discuss the major nutrient flows in the
household. Fertilizer, crop biomass, and
animal manures are usually the major sources
and forms of nutrients in a farm household
(Figure 1-1) (Part 2-4).
Follow the following approach described in
Figure 1.1:

Draw each of the farmers fields,
including the home garden, and indicate
their relative size and distance from each
other.

Mark the major infrastructure (e.g., home,

animal stall, field shed, etc.) on the map.

Indicate the major crops (e.g., food, cash,
forage, etc.) grown on each field.

Indicate the number of animals of each
type of livestock in the location where
they spend most of their time.

Indicate the amount of fertilizer applied
for each field every year.

Indicate how much and what type of
vegetation (e.g., grain, fruit, biomass) is
removed from each field every year.
Draw a line to link the source of the
material and its destination. Material is
usually either taken to another field/stall
on the farm or sold to another farmer.

Indicate approximately how much animal
waste is deposited in each field or animal
stall. If manure produced on-farm is
moved from the animal shed to a field,
indicate this with arrows.

Indicate any other large addition or
removal of nutrients in other forms on the
map.

18
Table 1-2
Use this checklist to make sure that you talk to the appropriate person when
asking questions about farm management and when deciding on recommendations to test.

Who does
the task?

Activity

Who makes
the decision
when or how
to do the
task?

H W C O H W C O

Fertilizer
Purchases fertilizers
Application rates
Applies fertilizer at planting
Applies fertilizer during cropping

Livestock
Grazes livestock
Cuts/carries fodder from field
Stall feeds livestock
Handles animal manures in stall
Carries manure to the field
Applies manure to the crop

Crops
Decides what crops are grown
Prepares soil for planting (ploughing, hoeing).
Manages crop residues (e.g. piled, returned to the field).
Manages rice straw ( e . g . b u r n e d , f e d t o c a t t l e ) .
H=husband; W=wife; C=children; 0=other (e.g., hired labour, relative)

After drawing the map, try to answer the

following questions:
1 Are more nutrients being removed or
added to each field? Are more nutrients
being removed or added to the farming
system?
2 Is animal manure being applied to any of
the fields? If yes, why? If no, why not?

Step 2.3 Ask about the household s soil

fertility management
You will need to both observe and ask
questions of household members in order to
understand the soil fertility management of a
farm. Some farmers may already know much
about the soil on their farms and what soil
fertility management techniques have worked
well in the past. (Remember that the best
farmers in the village likely produce crop yields
two times as large as the average farmer!) This

19
can be valuable information to help diagnose
soil fertility problems and ways to improve soil
fertility management. Ask open questions to
uncover aspects of their soil fertility
management that might be overlooked if you
ask closed questions (Table 1-3a). You may
add or remove questions from Table 1-3b as
necessary.
This information can be useful in two ways:
1 It provides you with local knowledge and
practices that may not be included in this
handbook.
2 Much of this information will be useful for
answering questions that appear in the
diagnosis process in Step 2.7.
Use some of this information to improve the
map prepared in Step 2.2.
Step 2.4 Ask about the cropping/fertilizer
history
Acid upland soil properties, especially those
affecting soil fertility (Parts 2-1 to 2-3) can be
changed greatly by farm management. This
section will show you how to collect information
on the farmers past field management, which
you will then use to estimate whether or not
the present soil fertility management is
sustainable.

Answers to the following questions are

required:
1 Are the soils low in native soil fertility
status?
2 Is there a large net loss/removal of
nutrients from the field?
3 Have any large amounts of lime, P
fertilizer or crop residues been applied to
the soil in the past five years.
Cropping History
Draw up a cropping history to find out whether
soil fertility is limiting crop yields. Table 1-4a
shows an example how this data can be
collected. The farmer s last four crops
(beginning with the most recent) were maize,
maize, soybean, and maize. Yields for each
crop were recorded. Next, ask if there were
any major pest, disease, drought, or poor stand
(from poor seed quality) problems for any of
the crops. This helps to eliminate causes of
low yields other than low soil fertility. Finally,
ask what are average, good yields for the crop
in the area. Table 1-4a shows that maize yields
have been declining but they are still above
the average, good yields for maize in the area.
Using Table 1-4b to interpret this information,
we see that this situation falls under box #3,

Figure 1-1
Together with the farm
household, draw a map to
provide a basis for
discussion on the major
nutrient flows into their
households.

20

Plate 1-2
Knowledge of the roles and
responsibilities in the
household is required to
identify the appropriate
people when obtaining
information or making
recommendations.
meaning that there are no major soil fertility
problems, but that there is probably poor soil
fertility management.
In fact, you may ask the farmer to draw the
yields on a graph (Figure 1-2). To do this, first
ask what the average, good yields are for the
area and draw a horizontal line across the
middle of a blank graph. Label the vertical axis
as crop yield, and have the yields range from
0 t ha-1 to about double the average, good
yields for the area (e.g., if average, good yields
for the area is 4 t ha-1, then label the vertical
axis from 0 to 8 t ha-1; the horizontal line
representing average, good yields will be at 4
t ha-1). Then ask the farmer to draw a dot that
represents the crop yield somewhere above
or below the horizontal line for each time the
crop was grown (do not include crops that had
major problems with pests, drought, disease,
or poor stands). The dot should be placed
depending on what the crop yield was as
compared to average, good yields for the area.
Connect the dots for each crop and you will
have a trend line that may look similar to one
of the lines shown in Figure 1-2. Each crop
type should be done on a separate graph.
Nutrient Budget
Calculate a simple nutrient budget to
determine whether the current management
system results in the net addition or removal
of nutrients from the field. Systems are not
sustainable when more nutrients are removed

in the harvested product than are added in

manures and fertilizer (Part 2-4).
Table 1-5 shows an example of a nutrient
budget for a farmer who planted a crop of
maize followed by groundnut in a 1-ha field
for one year. The farmer applied 125 kg urea
and 50 kg TSP to the maize; 25 kg urea and
25 kg TSP to the groundnut; and 2 t fresh cattle
manure to the maize. Use the tables in Part 3
to convert mineral and organic fertilizer to
nutrients (e.g., urea to N) as well as to calculate
the amount of nutrients removed in either grain
or biomass.
In this system, the farmer removed all of the
maize grain, stalks, and leaves, but only
removed groundnut grain. Although groundnut
stems and leaves were returned to the field,
they are not counted as nutrient additions
because the nutrients contained in the
groundnut stems and leaves originated from
the field itself (Part2-4)!
In this field, there is an overall loss of N and K.
Nutrient management in this field is
unsustainable, and because the low yields
indicate that field is already poor in nutrients,
yields will probably decline in subsequent
seasons.
Finally, do not forget to ask if any additions of
P fertilizer, lime, or organic materials obtained
from off-farm sources were applied during the
past five years. If large amounts of any of these

21
10
9

Crop yield (t ha-1)

8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1

Year
Field 1

Field 2

Field 3

Field 4

Field 5

Figure 1-2 A chart of previous crop yields helps to indicate soil fertility changes in a
particular field. Soil fertility is probably declining in Field 3 but is stable in Field 1. This
probably means that either Field 1 is better managed or that the native soil is more fertile in
Field 3.
materials were added within the past five
years, they could help to explain present high
yields despite poor management.
Step 2.5 Identify nutrient deficiency
symptoms
Nutrient deficiency symptoms can be used as
a diagnostic tool to demonstrate soil fertility
problems to farmers (Plate 1-3). Crop plants
lacking a particular nutrient often exhibit
deficiency symptoms specific to a particular
nutrient (Part 2-5 and Part 3-4).

Important concepts
If leaf deficiency symptoms are detected, plant
growth has probably already been affected by
a shortage of nutrients. Similarly, a plant may
already need more nutrients before deficiency
symptoms become evident (referred to as
hidden hunger). It is often difficult to distinguish
nutrient deficiency symptoms from disease
symptoms and other plant disorders.
Furthermore, diseases are often more

prevalent where crops are poorly supplied with

nutrients!
Apart from N, P, and K, other nutrients (e.g.,
Mg, S, and sometimes Ca) may also be
deficient and present leaf deficiency symptoms
in crop plants. Table 1-6 summarizes the
conditions under which the various nutrients
limit crop growth.
Maize is an excellent indicator of deficiency
symptoms. A set of illustrations for identifying
nutrient deficiencies in crop plants is provided
in Part 3-4. When identifying nutrient deficiency
symptoms, it is important to distinguish
between older and younger leaves. Using your
knowledge about the general fertility of acid,
upland soils, past soil and crop management
practices, and the incidence of leaf nutrient
deficiency symptoms, you should be able to
determine whether N, P, K or other nutrients
are deficient.

22
Table 1.3a

Examples of open and closed questions.

Type

Question

Possible answer

Open

Describe how you prepare land for

planting.

First the land was cleared, then

ploughed, then planted.

Closed

Did you prepare the land for planting?

Yes (or no)!

Table 1.3b Examples of questions to ask households to learn about farmer knowledge to
better understand the soil fertility management of the farm.

Questions

How this information can be

used

What is the land tenure status of your fields?

May indicate how much the farmer is

willing to invest in soil fertility
management (less likely if tenant
farmer).

What are good/poor properties of your soil?

Identify if soil is acid, upland soil.

How does your soil fertility compare with other

farms in the village/region? Explain why.

Identify general level of fertility.

What crops grow best here without a need for

extra fertilizer?

Identify general level of fertility.

Do particular crops grow only on parts of the

field. Why?

Identify poor and good areas of a field.

Has the soil fertility increased, decreased, or

stayed the same. How do you know this?

Identify if current practices are

maintaining fertility.

What do you do to prevent soil erosion and

surface water runoff?

Identify if this is a problem and if it can

be improved.

What do you do to improve soil fertility? Why?

Compare with principles in handbook.

What practices do you think decrease soil

fertility? Why?

Compare with principles described in

this handbook.

Step 2.6 Evaluate current soil fertility

practices: a checklist
After determining whether or not there are any
nutrient deficiencies in the field, use a checklist
to assess the soil fertility management
practices of a particular household (Table 17). This information will be helpful in identifying

possible improvements to the farmers soil

fertility management practices.
Step 2.7 Evaluate the information and
provide a diagnosis
Use the checklist in Table 1-8 to organize the
information you have collected related to

23
Table 1-4a This example shows how to organise data to compare crop yields from a farm
over time and with farms in the surrounding area.

Observations

Crop name
(4 = most recent)

Crop sequence

Crop species

Explanation

What were the yields of

the farmer's crop (t/ha)?

For a particular crop species:

decreasing yields could mean
declining soil fertility; increasing
yields could mean increasing soil
fertility.

Was the crop affected by

disease, pest, drought,
poor stand, or other
problems?

No

No

No

No

Soil fertility may not be the main

factor affecting crop yields if 1
of these factors occurred.

What are considered

average, good yields for
this crop in the area
(t/ha)?

If yields are less than average,

good yields for the area, soil
fertility problems are likely.

M = maize; S = soybean

Table 1-4b Use this chart to help interpret information gathered from Table 1.04a.

Present situation

Yields from a particular crop are:

Decreasing

Increasing

Yields are less than the

average, good yields for the
region.

Soil fertility problems

and poor
management.

There may or may not be soil

fertility problems even when soil
fertility management is good.

Yields are similar or larger

than average, good yields for
the same region.

No major soil fertility

problems. Poor soil
fertility management.

Either poor soil fertility and good

management or good soil
fertility and poor management.

specific nutrients. Try to identify the nutrient

whose management most needs to be
improved.

in its management, as wells as some other

management practices that can be improved.

Table 1-9 summarizes your investigation. First,

write down the nutrient that you think most
needs to be improved. Next, answer the
questions that follow with either a YES or NO
(these should be based your answers in Table
1-7). When this table is complete, you will have
identified a nutrient which needs improvement

Step 3 Make recommendations

for improvements
Step 3.1 Suggest some initial
recommendations
The initial recommendations for improvements
to the farmer s soil fertility management
depends on the various factors: previous

24
Table 1-5
A nutrient budget for a farmer who planted a crop of maize followed by groundnut in a 1-ha field for one year.

Nutrient additions

kg ha-1
Urea

TSP

KCl

125

58

50

23

25

12

50

23

As mineral fertilizer
1

Maize

Groundnut

As farm yard manure

3 Maize

4 Groundnut

68

48

Sub-total a (1 + 2 + 3 + 4)
Estimated losses b

25% of a

Total A (a - b)

17

0% of a

12

10% of a

51

36

a) grain

40

10

b) stalks + leaves

25

32

c) grain

27

19

92

14

61

-41

22

-54

Nutrient removal
Crop

Yield
(t ha-1)

Maize
Ground
nut

Product

2.5

1.0
d) stems + leaves

Total B

Balance (A - B)
Table 1-6

Some conditions where nutrients may limit crop growth in acid, upland soils.

Nutrient

Conditions where nutrient becomes limiting

Any acid, upland soil that has not received large amounts of P fertilizer.

When large amounts of straw have been applied, when SOM status is low,
when high N-demanding, non-N fixing crops (e.g., maize, rice) are grown.

When a soil has been cropped for several seasons with little or no addition of
K fertilizer. This occurs more readily when crop residues are not returned to
the soil.

Mg
S
Ca

As for K.
When crop residues are not returned, when S-containing materials are not
applied (e.g., ammonium sulfate, kieserite, dolomite).
Mostly limits nut formation in peanuts grown on acid soils.

25

Plate 1-3
Check for indicator plants
and nutrient deficiency
symptoms:
a) Potassium deficiency in
cover plant (Pueraria
phaseoloides).

b) Phosphorus deficiency
in maize.
c) A normal maize leaf
(upper) compared with
potassium deficient (middle)
and phosphorus deficient
(lower) leaves.
d) Use a corn doctor sheet
to identify nutrient deficiency
and disease symptoms.

diagnosis process, how much time the farmer

is willing to invest, labor, and capital, and on
the relationship between the farmer and the
extension worker. Because most upland
farmers are poor, it may be most appropriate
for the extension worker to suggest small,
incremental changes for the farmer to test.
Recommendations can be drawn up to
improve five major aspects of soil fertility
management. These five points are listed in
order of the difficulty involved in changing the
farmer s practice (Table 1-10). The
recommendations may not always result in
increased production in the short term, but they

may show the farmer how to save time and

costs by changing management practices.

Important aspects
Other important aspects of soil fertility
management are listed below. Although this
handbook deals mainly with the management
of mineral and organic fertilizer materials, an
understanding of these aspects is important
as they are part of an integrated approach to
nutrient management.

26
Table 1-7
Use this checklist to identify possible improvements to the farmers soil fertility
management practices. Look for more information in Part 2 Sections or Part 3 Tables that
are shown in the last column.

Practice

Yes / No

Section

Timing of fertilization
Is fertilizer applied at the correct time?

3-9, Table 3-22

Is fertilizer applied when there is sufficient soil moisture?

2-8

Fertilizer application method

Is fertilizer incorporated in the soil?

2-8

Is fertilizer placed near the crop plant root zone?

2-8

Is fertilizer likely to damage the seed and/or seedling?

2-8

Are incompatible fertilizers being mixed?

3-10

Balanced fertilization
Is the most deficient nutrient applied?

2-7

Organic material management

Are crop residues returned to the soil?

2-4, 2-8

Are residues/ash spread evenly over the field?

2-4, 2-8

If livestock are being fed on vegetation that was grown

on this field, is the manure being returned to the field?

2-4, 2-8

Is animal manure applied to the field?

2-4, 2-8

Is animal manure stored properly?

2-8

Fertilizer application rate

Are recommended application rates being followed?

3-2, 3-21

Other practices
Have soil conservation measures been installed?

2-10

Is soil fertility being built up?

2-7

Have practices to maintain soil fertility been adopted?

2-7

Are animals integrated into the upland farm field?

2-4, 2-6, 2-8

Are trees integrated in the upland farm field?

2-5, 2-9, Table 325

Are legumes integrated into the upland farm field?

2-9, Table 3-25

Mixed tree-crop-livestock systems (Part

2-6)
Livestock and trees can both intensify landuse
and may provide income stability to a foodcrop-

based upland farming system.

27
Cropping patterns, rotations, improved
fallows (Part 2-7)
Important strategies include changing the crop
to suit the soil, not vice versa;residue utilization
to reduce fertilizer costs; using rotations to
break disease and pest cycles; and short-term
soil fertility improvement by the use of
improved short-term fallows.
Introduction or improvement of legumes
(Part 2-9)
Introducing legume species or improving the
performance of legumes already present in the
farming system may reduce N fertilization
costs. However, the technology (e.g.,
rhizobium inoculation, introduction of improved
varieties) is often not available to farmers.
Soil and water conservation (Part 2-10)
Unless soil and water conservation measures
are introduced, attempts to improve to soil
fertility may be wasted due to the loss of
nutrients by erosion and leaching. It is often
difficult to convince farmers to adopt soil and
conservation methods as short-term economic
returns are small. In addition, farmers will
always be reluctant to introduce soil and water
conservation practices unless they result in
increased crop yields and farm income. For
this reason, soil conservation must always be
introduced together with soil fertility
improvement, and vice versa.

Example 1. Where livestock have been
integrated into the farming system,
farmers are more likely to plant forage
plants along contour terraces.

Example 2. Farmers may be convinced
to plant rubber along contours because it
reduces the amount of labour required for
tapping.

Example 3. Soil P deficiency must be
corrected before improved fallows using
legume cover plants produce a
satisfactory effect on soil fertility.
3.2 Select a recommendation
Some aspects that need to be considered
when providing recommendations are listed
in Part 2-7.

After discussing some of your initial

recommendations with the household, ask
them to select up to four recommendations that
they might like to test. Make a table similar to
Table 1-11 and list down the selected
recommendations. Next, ask the household to
rate how easy or hard it would be to adopt
that recommendation on a large scale (1 ha),
based on capital inputs, labor inputs, technical
feasibility/difficulty, and social considerations.
In the example shown in Table 1-11, each
recommendation has a major difficulty (hard).
A lot of capital is required to follow the
recommended dose, much labor is required
to return the manure to the field, and farmers
in the area never incorporate mineral fertilizer
(social aspect). Rather than conclude that
none of these recommendations can be tested,
you and the household are challenged to come
up with alternatives, such as an increasing in
the fertilizer rate rather than applying the
recommended rate; or substituting some
animal manure for mineral fertilizer.

Step 4 Test, evaluate and followup the recommendations

Step 4.1 Test the recommendation onfarm
Major principles for conducting field tests:

Together, the farmer and extension
worker draw up a plan and decide what
needs to be tested.

Simple tests are implemented to
compare improved soil fertility
management practices with the farmers
practice.
The improved practice should have the
potential to increase income or reduce costs
by a significant margin to justify carrying out
the investigation. Examples include:

Increasing yield by improving the balance
between nutrients. Fertilizer costs remain
the same but yield is increased.

Replenishment of soil P by using a large
one-off application of rock phosphate

28
Table 1-8
Use the table to identify possible nutrient problems. The more times you answer
yes for a nutrient, the more likely that its management needs to be improved. Select the 1 or
2 nutrients that need improved management and put these into Table 1-9.

Criteria

Yes / No

P deficiency
Are P nutrient deficiency symptoms present?
No large applications of P have been done in the past five years (e.g., 1 t
ha-1 rock phosphate, more than 300 kg SP-36/TSP per year)?
Does the nutrient budget indicate more P is removed than is applied ?
Are crop yields are lower than average, good yields in the region?
Is the soil pH < 5.5?

K and/or Mg deficiency
Are K and/or Mg nutrient deficiency symptoms present?
Is the crop residue usually removed or not evenly returned to the field?
Has the field has been cropped for many years?
Does the nutrient budget indicate K and/or Mg removal?
Have crop yields been steadily declining?

N deficiency
Are N nutrient deficiency symptoms present?
Does the nutrient budget indicates N removal?
Are non-legume crops usually planted?
Are crop yields lower than average, good yields in the region?

Increasing the amount of N and K

fertilizer applied to crops planted in soil
where P has been replenished.

Reducing N losses by incorporating N
fertilizer in the soil. In this way a smaller
amount of N fertilizer results in the same
or a larger yield compared with surfaceapplied fertilizer.
Make the plots large enough to provide
convincing evidence to the farmer on the effect
of the treatments. As a guideline, test plots
should be 1001,000 m2. (e.g., plot sizes of
10 m x 10 m to 25 m x 40 m)

Choosing treatments
Discuss the recommendations with the farmer.
Explain the expected effect of the different
treatments. Discuss the requirement for
additional inputs and the comparative cost of
each management practice. For example,
additional capital may be needed to purchase
more fertilizer, or additional labour may be
required to incorporate fertilizer and lime (Step
3.2).
When selecting a recommendation to test, try
to keep it simple enough that it is feasible for
the farmer to adopt if successful. See Part 3-6
for some examples of treatments to test. The

29
Table 1-9
Use this table to summarize your investigation. Use Table 1-8 to determine
which nutrient, if any, needs improved management and put this in the upper part of this
table. Then use table 1-7 to fill in the lower part of this table. Use all of this information to
start developing recommendations with the household to improve their soil fertility
management.

Nutrient
Nutrient that most needs management improvement
Use Table 1-8a to answer this question

Yes / No
Can fertilizer timing be improved?
Can the fertilizer application method be improved?
Can fertilizer balance be improved?
Can organic material management be improved?
Can the fertilizer dose be improved?
Is there any other practice that can be improved (insert here)
_________________________________________?
Is there any other practice that can be improved (insert here)
_________________________________________?
Use Table 1-7 to answer the above questions

farmers practice is always included to compare

with the treatment plots.
If a farmer is planting a 1 ha field, then select
two areas each of 100 m2. In one plot carry
out the recommended practice. In the rest of
the field (which includes the other plot), the
farmer simply continues his/her normal
practice. The yield in the two windows is the
basis for comparison (Figure 1-3).
Selecting a test location
Selecting a proper test location ensures that
differences in crop yield between the plots is
due to the treatments and not because of soil
or location differences. The two plots should
therefore be as similar as possible. For
example, do not site one plot at the bottom of
a hill and another at the top of a hill, or one
plot on an area that was often fertilized in the
past and another plot on an area that has never
been fertilized (Figure 1-3).

Applying the treatments

Both plots should receive the same
management except for the additional aspects
included in the improved soil fertility
management practice. All plots should be
planted at the same time, and all maintenance
activities carried out at the same time in each
plot. However, improved soil fertility may
shorten the period to crop maturity and result
in differences between the treatments in
harvest date.
Step 4.2 Monitor and evaluate the test
with the farmer
Together, the extension worker and the farmer
choose objectively verifiable indicators to
monitor and evaluate the plots. Some
examples of indicators are listed in Table 112, but the farmer may add others more suited
to local conditions.

30
Table 1-10 Discuss and summarize your findings with the family mebers. Together make
recommendations to improve five aspects of soil fertility management. Some examples are
listed in the table.

Problem
1

Improve timing of fertilizer application.

Farmers apply fertilizers

at the wrong time.

Incorporate fertilizer to reduce leaching and volatalization

losses.
Apply fertilizers near the crop root zone.

Introduce balanced fertilization.

Farmers apply large

amounts of N fertilizer but
insufficient P and K
fertilizer.

Apply P and K fertilizers at planting.

Apply N fertilizers in split applications according to crop
growth stage.

Improve method of fertilizer application.

Farmers are not

incorporating the fertilizer.

Recommendation

Apply P and K fertilizers with N fertilizers in balanced

applications (total quantity and cost of fertilizers is
increased).
Reduce the amount of N fertilizer applied and increase the
amount of K and P fertilizer applied (total quantity and cost
of fertilizer remains trhe same.
Apply a large one-time application of P fertilizer to replenish
soil P content.

Improve organic material management.

Farmer burns rice straw

in one large heap in the
corner of the field.

Spread the straw before burning.

Spread the ash over the whole field before burning.
Arrange to burn in different parts of the field in successive
seasons.

Residues are removed

from the field to feed
farmer's cattle.

Return animal manure to the field.

Optimize fertilizer use.

Fertilizer rates are below

the economic optimum.

Increase the total amount of fertilizer applied in increments.

Implementing and monitoring the field

test
The extension worker should visit the test site
and guide the farmer at the following stages:

Plot layout - make sure that plots are
located and laid out correctly

Treatment application - make sure that

the treatments are properly implemented
according to plan in each plot (Plate 1-5).

Crop growth period - one visit during the
vegetative phase or at flowering to
discuss any obvious treatment
differences or any problems (e.g., pest

31

Plate 1-4
Regularly monitor and
evaluate the field test with
the farmer.
Table 1-11 Based on the example shown in this table, the household makes an analysis of
some of the factors that can affect the testing and adoption of a recommendation. Rate each
recommendation according to how easy it would be to implement on a large scale (e.g., 1
ha) based on the capital required, labor required, technical constraints, and social
considerations.
Relative ease with which a recommendation can be
adopted based on various considerations

Recommendations

Capital

Labor

Technical

Social

Incorporate fertilizer

Easy

Hard

Easy

Hard

Apply recommended fertilizer dose

Hard

Easy

Easy

Easy

Return animal manure from the stall

to the field

Easy

Hard

Easy

Hard

and disease) that may affect the results

(Plate 1-6).

Harvest time - to help the farmer evaluate
the final results and take samples for
yield comparison, or partial budget
analysis (Step 4.4).
Evaluating the field test
Evaluation ranges from a simple comparison
to determine whether the recommended
practice was effective or not, based on visual
observations, to more complete yield recording
in each of the treatments (Plate 1-4). Some
form of economic analysis is essential if the
farmer is to be convinced that increased yields
and costs result in greater profits (and no

significant increase in risk). It may be useful

to involve neighboring farmers in the
monitoring and evaluation of the field test.
Step 4.3 Yield Sampling
There are several sampling methods for
comparing yields in the different treatments
(Part 3-2 and 3-3).
Step 4.4 Partial budget analysis
A partial budget analysis allows the farmer to
compare the returns to any investment in
labour, capital, or other resources. Only costs
that are different in the two treatments are
included (hence the term partial budget).
The additional income the farmer gets from
applying the recommended dose of fertilizer
to 1 ha of groundnut is shown in Table 1-13.

32

Figure 1-3
Design a simple, inexpensive
field test with the farmer to
test a recommendation. In
this example, the effect of
incorporating fertilzer on crop
yield is under test.
The farmer needs to increase the fertilizer dose
by a total of 200 kg, which requires an
additional man-day to spread the fertilizer.
Together, this cost an additional $33 ha-1. But
based on the field test, the farmer gets a yield
increase of 0.75 t groundnut ha-1, which can
be sold for an additional $47.50. Thus, the
farmer gets $47.50 ha -1 for an additional
investment of $33 ha-1, equivalent to a net
increase in profits of $ 14.50

The recommended practice does not

produce a short-term benefit. Some
soil management practices only
provide an increase yield and income
over a period of several cropping
seasons.

Discuss the possible residual effects of

different aspects of the treatments on future
crop productivity during the discussion with the
farmer.

In some cases a difference may not be

expected (e.g., a demonstration to show
that the same economic return can be
achieved with less costly soil fertility
practices).

Step 4.5 Follow-up the field test with the

farmer
What to do with the results: A very important
part of the process is the follow-up action after
the field test has been completed.
Below are some suggestions on what to do
depending on the test results:
1 The farmer practice is better (in terms of
yield or return per unit input), or there is
no difference, or if something went wrong
with the test.
Some possible explanations (which should
be discussed with the farmer) include:

Another factor (pest, drought) masked
the difference between the
treatments.

Plots were not properly selected (e.g.,
the farmers practice was implemented
on more fertile soil than the improved
soil fertility management practice).

The extension worker and farmer should

evaluate whether the recommended
practice was suitable.

2 The farmer practice is actually better then

the recommended practice.
In all cases, the farmer and extension
worker should discuss the implementation
of a second test in the following season,
after taking into account the evaluation of
the first test.
3 The recommended practice is better.
The farmer determines whether or not to
adopt the practice in its original or a
modified form. It may be advisable to run
the test for a second season to confirm that
the technology is sufficiently robust to
produce good results under different
growing conditions and seasons.
Step 4.6 Disseminate the field test
results
If positive results are obtained, the farmer and
extension worker may wish to share the results

33
Table 1-12 These are examples of indicators to evaluate simple field tests.
Harvest yield

Cost of inputs

Tolerance to drought

Plant colour

Net income

Flavour of grain

Plant height

Labour requirement

Amount of biomass

Number of pods/plant

Size of leaves

Time to harvest

Moisture level of soil

Ease of crop harvest

Soil loss

Table 1-13 Example of a partial budget analysis for comparing the recommended fartilizer
dose with the farmers practice for groundnut.

Additional income from recommended practice

Recommended practice

-1

1.25 t groundut @ $ 60 t

75.00

Farmer practice

0.5 t groundnut @ $ 55 t-1

27.50
Net additional income (A)

47.50

Materials

Additional fertilizer required: 25 kg urea, 125 kg TSP,

and 50 kg KCl @ $ 0.14 kg-1

28.00

Labour

1 man-day labor for spreading @ $ 5 man-day-1

Additional income from recommended practice

5.00

Total additional costs (B)

33.00

Margin over additional costs from using recommended practice (A - B)

14.50

Plate 1-5
The improved treatment (left)
compared to the control
(right) in an on-farm trial to
test the addition of fertilizers
P and lime.
with other farmers in the village (Plate 1-6). This
is always more effective where the neighboring
farmers have been fully briefed from the outset
on the aims of the test.

34

Plate 1-6
a) Share the field results
with other farmers.
b) With improved soil fertility,
unproductive alang-alang
(right) has been transformed
into productive land (left).

35

Part 2
Principles and methods

In this section
2-1

Chemical Characteristics of Acid, Upland Soils

2-2

Physical Characteristics of Acid, Upland Soils

2-3

Biological Characteristics of Acid, Upland Soils

2-4

Causes of Soil Fertility Problems in the Uplands

2-5

Plant Nutrition and Nutrient Cycles

2-6

Nutrient Requirements of Integrated Upland Systems

2-7

Soil Fertility Management

2-8

Nutrient Sources

2-9

Biological Soil Fertility Management

2-10 Indirect Management Effects on Soil Fertility

36
2-1 Chemical characteristics of
acid upland soils
Acid, upland soils are usually low fertility status
(Plate 2-1) because of either some or all of
the following factors:

The soil originated from low nutrient
content material (e.g., acid igneous rocks
contain a small amount of potassium;
acid volcanic rocks are poor in nutrients).

Nutrients have been removed because of
the long-term effect of weathering under
high rainfall and temperature, resulting in
low soil pH and poor nutrient status.

Soils have been depleted of nutrients due
to exploitative agriculture (e.g., slash and
burn agriculture, continuous rotations
without the use of mineral fertilizer,
removal of crop residues, unbalanced
fertilizer use).
Critical values for soil chemical properties for
45 upland crops are shown in Table 3-6. The
effects of nutrient deficiencies on crop growth
are shown in Table 2-1.

Soil acidity
Soil pH is a measure of soil acidity. A soil pH
of 7.0 is termed neutral, soil pH <7.0 is acid
and pH >7 is alkaline. The pH of most soils
ranges from about 4 to 9. Acid, upland soils

of Indonesia usually range from pH 4.0 to 5.5.

Many crops are adapted to acid soils and grow
well in low pH soils (pH 4.5-5.5).
A simple, accurate way to measure soil pH is
to use a pH meter kit. A small amount of soil is
placed in the receptacle. Indicator fluid is
added and gently agitated. Indicator fluid is
allowed to run along the groove and the soil
pH is read off the scale (Plate 1-1a).
Low soil pH does not limit crop growth, but
soil pH influences other factors that can affect
crop growth (Figure 2-1 and Table 2-2). Low
pH reduces the availability of some nutrients
to plants, reduces biological activity, and
increases the likelihood of Al toxicity (Table 35). Applying large amounts of acidifying N
fertilizers (e.g., ammonium sulphate)
decreases the soil pH.
There are a number of benefits from increasing
soil pH (Figure 2.1):

Al, Mn, and Fe toxicity are decreased,

biological activity is increased,

the soil can store and make more
nutrients available to plants, and

P-fixation is decreased.

Aluminium toxicity
Aluminium is present in all soils and in highlyweathered soils it may only become toxic when

Plate 2-1
Upland soils are usually low
in inherent fertility. Nutrients
need to be added to achieve
productive agricultural
systems

37

Figure 2-1
Soil pH influences soil
nutrient availability to plants
and soil micro-organism
activity.
the pH is less than 5.5. However, not all highlyweathered soils are affected by Al tocitity.
Usually, the main reason for increasing the pH
in an acid soil is to reduce Al toxicity. Al toxicity
affects crop growth mainly by reducing root
growth, and a common symptom of Al toxicity
is stunted roots. Some crops, like maize and
soybean, are more susceptible to Al toxicity
than others (Plate 2-2a). Al toxicity is more
often a problem in the subsoil (i.e., soil depth
of >20 cm). Crop roots may grow properly in
the topsoil, but cannot scavenge for water in
the subsoil because of Al-toxicity. During a
dry period (sometimes only a few days in
length), plants cannot absorb sufficient water
(shown by leaf rolling in maize) because the
topsoil has dried out and the roots cannot
reach the water that may be available in the
subsoil (Plate 2-2b).
Where Al toxicity is a problem, one or both of
the following strategies may be used:

1 Change the crop

Some crops, (e.g., cassava), are quite
tolerant of Al-toxicity while others, (e.g.,
soybean), are very sensitive (a summary
of this is provided in Table 3-5). Even within
a species, varieties differ in their tolerance
of Al-toxicity. Unless Al toxicity is corrected,
the farmer s choice of crops (and therefore
scope for farming systems development)
is severely constrained.
2 Modify the soil
Modifying the soil is usually more costly
than changing the crop, but it provides
additional benefits. Apply organic materials
to reduce Al-toxicity in the subsequent
cropping season. About 1 t of organic
material (fresh weight) is equivalent to the
effect of about 100 kg of lime. Because
organic materials usually only reduce Altoxicity for one or two seasons, fresh
organic material must be added regularly.

38
Table 2-1
growth.

Common nutrient deficiencies/toxicities in acid, upland soils and effects on crop

Characteristic

Effect on crop growth

Low soil
phosphorus (P)
status

Many crops, especially legumes, do not grow well in low P-status

soils. Usually, P must be added in the form of a mineral fertilizer
such as TSP or rock phosphate.
Where cropping systems are planned to rely on biological N2
fixation, P deficiency often indirectly limits the supply of N to crop
plants (Part 9.2).

Low soil nitrogen

(N) status

The soil N supply depends on the amount of soil organic matter

(SOM). The greater the amount of SOM, the more N that the soil
can supply to plants.
Low soil N reduces the growth of all non-legume plants (e.g.,
cereals). Almost all crops, however, benefit from some N inputs
(Table 3-15).

Low soil
potassium (K)
status

Potassium usually becomes deficient in soils that have been

cropped for several seasons or years without the use of K fertilizers
such as KCl.
In many crops, most of the K taken up by the plant is contained in
crop residues and therefore K deficiency is more likely to occur
where crop residues are removed from the field (Part 4.4).

Low soil calcium

(Ca) status

Many crops can grow in low Ca status soils, but some crops (e.g.,
groundnut) do not form properly developed pods/shells in low Castatus soils.
Calcium is usually applied in liming materials such as agricultural
lime, calcite or dolomite (Part 1.2).

Low soil
magnesium (Mg)
status

Magnesium usually only becomes a problem in soils that have been

cropped for several seasons or years without the addition of Mg
fertilizers (e.g., dolomite, kieserite).
Mg deficiency is more common where crop residues are removed
from the field (Part 4.4).

Low soil
micronutrient
status (Zn, B,
etc.)

Micronutrients are nutrients that are required by the plant in

relatively small quantities.
Micronutrient deficiencies usually become more important to correct
if a field has been intensively cropped for several years without the
addition of micronutrients (Part 3).

Alternatively, apply calcitic or dolomitic lime,

which can reduce Al-toxicity for up to 5 years
if the amount applied is large (>3 t ha-1 liming
material). The application of 1 t ha-1 rock

phosphate may have a small liming effect by

increasing the soil pH by about 0.20.3 units.
The best method to decide how much lime to
apply is first to determine the sensitivity of the

39
Table 2-2

Factor

Effect

Al toxicity

Al toxicity decreases with increasing pH (Figure 2-1).

P availability

P availability is greatest from pH 5.5 7.0.

Micronutrient availability
(nutrients required in small
amounts by plants )

All micronutrients, except Mo, are more available from pH

5.5 6.0 (Mn and Fe toxicity is minimized in this range).

Cation exchange capacity

(the ability of a soil to retain
cations such as Ca, Mg, K)

The cation exchange capacity increases with increasing

pH in highly weathered soils. This means the soil is able
to retain more Ca, Mg, K, which might otherwise be lost
to leaching.

Nitrogen mineralization (the

release of N from organic
into plant available forms)

Soil organisms required for N mineralization function best

at soil pH 5.5 6.5.

N-fixation (the conversion of

N from the atmosphere into
forms that can be used by
plants)

N-fixing nodules are less likely to occur and function less

effectively at pH <5 (Part 2-9).

Disease

Some diseases can be controlled by manipulating soil pH

(e.g., potato scab incidence decreases with decreasing
pH).

Rock phosphate (RP)

dissolution

Soil pH must be <5.5 for RP to dissolve and release P for

plant uptake (Part 2-8).

crop and then measure the soil Al-saturation

with a soil test.
Soil testing for Al saturation may not always
be available or affordable so it may be
necessary to make an approximation as
follows:

If the soil pH is above 5.5, then lime is
probably not needed.

If the pH is below 5.5, then some lime
may be needed.
The guidelines in Table 2.3 should be used
with caution because other factors such as
soil type and the choice of crop will affect the
lime requirement.
These guidelines can be used to select a lime
dose that can be tested in a simple field trial
using small 100-1000 m2 plots (Step 4.1). For
example, Table 2-3 shows that if the soil pH is
4.5, then the lime requirement to reduce Al

-1
saturation to 3040% is about 13 t lime ha
.
Approximate critical Al saturation levels for
various crops are given in Table 3-5. A simple
field trial could be used to test the effects of 3
t ha-1 lime compared to a plot where lime was
not applied. The farmer may also decide to add
another treatment of 1.5 t ha-1 lime to determine
whether the economic return would be greater
with a smaller application of lime.

Low phosphorus availability

Acid, upland soils are not only low in native
soil P, but they also can fix P that is added to
the soils in fertilizers. P-fixation is a chemical
process in which P added in fertilizer materials
is fixed by the soil and becomes unavailable
or only slowly available for plant uptake. Crops
differ in their tolerance of low soil P fertility
status (Table 3-4). P fixation is mainly a
problem in volcanic soils, and in some acid,
upland soils with a clayey texture that contain

40

Plate 2-2
a) Maize roots are very
sensitive to AL toxicity. The
roots on this plant are
stubby, stunted and
discoloured due to soil Al
toxicity.

b) When combined with

blanced fertilization, liming
can raise the productivity of
crops sensitive to low pH and
Al toxicity. Note the poor
growth of the unlimed plot in
the foreground.

c) The poor growth of

maize plants in the Lime
only plot show that N, P and
K nutrients must be applied
in addition to lime to achieve
satisfactory yields.
Table 2-3

Lime requirement for various crops at different levels of Al saturation.

pH in
water

Aluminium
saturation
(AS)

4.0 4.9

Approximate time requirement to reach

10 20% AS

30 40% AS

(e.g., for soybean,

mungbean)

(e.g., for maize,

groundnut)

70 30%

1 4 t lime ha-1

1 3 t lime ha-1

5.0 5.5

30 0%

0 4 t lime ha-1

0 0.5 t lime ha-1

> 5.5

0%

0 t lime ha-1

0 t lime ha-1

large amounts of Al and Fe oxides (in welldrained soils, Fe oxides account for their
reddish color). A large application of P fertilizer
is required on these soils to overcome Pfixation such that some of the applied P is
available for plant uptake (Plate 2-4). Although
TSP can be applied, rock phosphate is a more
suitable P material for acid, upland soils where
the pH is <5.5. The acid soil helps dissolve
the rock phosphate. Because the P in rock

phosphate is only slowly available, a large

initial application of about 1 t ha-1 is required,
but the residual effect persists for several years
(Part 3-8).

2-2 Physical characteristics of

acid, upland soils
When carefully cleared of their protective
natural forest cover, the physical properties of

41

a
Plate 2-3
a) A large application of
reactive rock phosphate (90
130 kg P ha-1) is required to
overcome low soil P status.
b) The rock phosphate
should, if possible, be
ploughed into the soil to
reduce losses of P fertilizer
from surface runoff and
erosion.

c) Excellent groundnut
growth can be achieved after
P-deficiency has been
corrected by an applicaton of
1 t rock phosphate ha-1 (right
side of photo). Soil
conservation measures must
also be installed to minimize
the loss of added fertilizer P,
and improved germplasm
should be used to take
advantage of the increased
soil fertility.
d) Upland soils usually
have good physical
properties, as shown by this
topsoil where the clay
particles have aggregated
into larger particles. Water
infiltration is more rapid in
well-aggregated soils.
e) Erosion of the topsoil
exposes the clayey subsoil
that has poor physical
properties, water infiltration is
low and the soil is hard to
cultivate.

most acid, upland soil types are suitable for

crop production (Plate 2-4d). However, their
physical properties are easily destroyed by
improper cultivation, especially practices that
result in the loss of topsoil due to erosion (Plate

2-4e), surface runoff or excessive mechanical

mixing of subsoil and topsoil. Each aspect of
soil physical fertility has different effects on
crop growth (Table 2-4). The different terms
are defined in Table 3-31.

42
2-3 Biological characteristics of
acid, upland soils
Soil is a living body and biological processes
that depend on an adequate population of soil
invertebrates, bacteria and fungi are vital to
soil fertility. Each particular aspect of biological
soil fertility has different effects on plant growth
(Table 2-5).
Soil organic matter (SOM) is organic material
of biological origin found beneath the soil
surface that has partly or completely
decomposed. SOM is about 58% carbon. SOM
has a number of important functions in the soil:

Store for N, P, S, and most micronutrients

Contributes to the soil s capacity to retain
nutrient cations (Ca, Mg, and K)

Source of energy for microbial
decomposition of organic residues (e.g.,
leaf litter, crop residues).

Increases soil water-holding capacity

Improves soil structure through greater
soil aggregation, resulting in more rapid
water infiltration and reduced runoff.
SOM should be distinguished from organic
material, which includes the above- and belowground litter, crop residues, mulches, green
manures, animal manures, and sewage.
Low SOM status indirectly affects crop growth
in many ways. In acid, upland soils the SOM
is an important source of nutrients and
contains much of the N, P and S reserves in
tropical soils. Therefore, if the amount of SOM
is small, the stocks of these nutrients will
probably also be small.
The concentration of SOM in tropical soils is
not smaller compared with temperate soils as
has sometimes been stated. A sample of soils
from both temperate and tropical regions
showed that soils in both climatic regions
averaged 2.8% SOM in the 0-15 cm soil layer.
The greater concentration of SOM in the
topsoil is one of the main functional differences
between the topsoil and subsoil of many acid,
upland soils.

It is very difficult to increase the amount of

SOM in the soil once SOM has been depleted.
The concentration of SOM in a soil is
determined by the amount of organic material
added to the soil and its rate of decomposition.
For example, SOM status decreases in soils
after the rainforest cover has been removed
and the land brought into agricultural
production (Figure 2-2). This is because the
amount of organic material added to the soil
is small, cultivation increases the rate of SOM
decomposition, and organic material is
removed in the harvested portion of the crop
and through burning crop residues or native
vegetation (Part 2-4).
About 10 t ha-1 yr-1 organic material is added
to soils under rainforest in leaf, twig and tree
fall and SOM concentration is maintained in a
dynamic equilibrium. However, a greater
amount of organic material would have to be
added to soil under annual crop production
because SOM losses are greater compared
to the soil under forest cover. About 10 t ha-1
yr-1 organic material is added to the soil under
rubber and oil palm and this explains why SOM
is maintained or even increased under these
perennial crop production systems.
Management must aim to restore or maintain
SOM (Table 2-6).

2-4 Causes of soil fertility

problems in the uplands
Impact of clearing rainforests on soil
fertility
The natural land cover in much of Southeast
Asia is rainforest. However, over the past 50
years the population of the region has grown
from about 180 million to over 500 million
inhabitants. Large areas of land have been
cleared to meet the increased demand for food
(e.g., rice, sweet potato, maize) and traded
agricultural commodities (e.g., coffee, cocoa,
sugar, palm oil).

Nutrient cycling in forest systems

The paradox of luxuriant vegetation growing
on infertile soils is very striking and has

43
Table 2-4

Relationships of some soil physical characteristics to the cropping environment.

Characteristic

Relationships to the cropping environment

Soil structure
The arrangement of
soil particles in larger
units or aggregates

The moderate to strong structure grade of acid, upland soils

means that the larger units or aggregates do not fall apart
easily.
This characteristic allows good drainage of rainwater, prevents
soil water-logging, and allows for sufficient crop root growth.

Texture
The relative proportion
of clay, silt, and sandsized particles

A greater clay content results in a larger soil water holding

capacity and greater water availability to the crop.
P-fixation, which reduces the amount of P in the soil that is
available to plants is often more pronounced in clay soils.

Tilth
A measure of how
easy a soil is to
cultivate with a hoe or
plow

Tilth is closely related to the soil structure grade.

Soil that forms small aggregates is usually easier to cultivate.
SOM increases soil aggregation.
Al and Fe oxides (these are usually present in large amounts in
acid upland soils) also help soil to aggregate.

Water-holding
capacity
A measure of how
much water a soil can
retain

This varies widely between soils and is mainly dependent on

soil texture.
Clayey soils have a larger water holding capacity than sandy
soils. Soils with clayey subsoil may hold sufficient water for
plant growth during dry periods, but plant roots may not be able
to use the water if subsoil Al-toxicity is high and restricts crop
root development (Part2-1).

Drainage
The ease by which a
soil is able to drain off
excess water that has
entered the topsoil
layer

Most acid upland soils are free-draining because of their strong

structure, which provides large, continuous pores and cracks for
rapid drainage. Free-draining soils are also less prone to soil
erosion because the amount of water run-off is small.
However, drainage may become severely impaired when the
clayey subsoil is exposed after the topsoil has been lost. The
fine pores in exposed clayey subsoil are easily sealed, reducing
water infiltration and increasing surface runoff and erosion.

Colour

The subsoil may be reddish (indicating good drainage) or

yellowish, greyish, bluish (indicating poor drainage).
The presence of red spots in the subsoil (mottling) indicates
poor drainage and suggests that the subsoil is periodically
saturated with water.

Soil depth
Depth to rock layers or
solid mat, below which
roots can usually not
grow

Most tropical, upland soils consist of a thin top soil layer (0 20

cm depth) overlying a very deep layer of weathered parent
material. Layers vary in depth from a few centimeters to several
meters.
Deep root development is necessary for vigorous growth of
some tree crops.

44
Table 2-5

Effect of soil biological characteristics on crop growth.

Organism

Function

Impact on crop growth

Soil
invertebrates
(e.g.,
earthworms,
termites)

Decomposes
and breaks
down organic
residues to
be further
decomposed
by microbes

Positive impact on crop growth by making nutrients

available for crop uptake.
Nutrients (especially N and P) contained in organic
material become more available to plants.
Covering the soil surface (e.g., by mulching, refer to
Part 2-8) increases invertebrate activity.

Bacteria

Converts
unavailable
nutrients into
available
forms

Nitrification (conversion of N into forms available to

plants) is greatest in moist soils well supplied with fresh
SOM.
There are fewer species and a smaller population of
bacteria in acid soils, in dry areas, and in low SOM
soils.

Mycorrhizal
fungi

Nutrient
uptake

P uptake in low P soils is increased when roots are

infected with mycorrhizal fungi.
Minimum tillage and crop rotations enhances
mycorrhiza associations.
Infection is often greater in low P soils, and less when P
fertilizers are applied.
Cassava and banana are thought to benefit from
mycorrhizal infection.
Mycorrhiza survive in acid soils.

Bacteria
symbiosis

N-fixation

Part 2-9

Fungi,
decomposition
products, root
excretions

Aeration, water infiltration, and nutrient availability are

Increases soil improved in a well-aggregated soil.
aggregation
Fungi are important for breaking down woody organic
residues.

Various microorganisms
present in soil

Diseases and
pests

Disease organisms may remain in the soil years after

infecting plants.
Some organisms may help control insects, pathogens
and weeds.

sometimes led to the misconception that soils

under tropical rainforest are very fertile. In fact,
the rainforest can grow on very nutrient poor
soils because it has a closed nutrient cycle
(Figure 2-3). Natural forests are not affected
by large nutrient losses through processes
such as biomass removal, leaching, or erosion
that occur in agricultural systems (Section 25). When rainforest plants take up nutrients
from the soil (or obtain them from the

atmosphere), they are returned to the soil

through leaf wash, plant death, root death, or
when leaves, twigs and trees fall to the forest
floor and decompose. Only small amounts of
nutrients are lost through erosion because the
soil is protected by the forest canopy and
leaching losses are small because of efficient
nutrient recycling.

45
Table 2-6

Effect of some management practices on SOM.

Practice

Effect
Reduces losses of SOM.

Reduce tillage intensity

Slower rate of SOM decomposition.

Residue quality (C/N

ratio)

Residues with a wide C/N ratio (e.g., rice straw) are less
effective than those with a narrow C/N ratio (e.g., groundnut
leaves) in maintaining SOM.
Much of the carbon in low N residues is oxidized and released
as CO2, and the amount of SOM created is therefore small.

Crop residues returned

to the field

Provides raw material for SOM replenishment.

If residues are required to feed livestock, animal manure
should be returned to the soil.

Soil organic matter (% value at land clearing)

Reduce soil erosion

release of nutrients from dead vegetative

matter. Nutrients are readily reabsorbed by
the large number of tree roots that grow in the
fertile litter layer beneath the forest floor.

100

90

Once the rainforest has been removed, the

delicately balanced cycle of nutrients between
soil and above ground vegetation as well as
the processes that prevent nutrient losses are
disturbed (Figure 2-4). Most acid upland soils
cannot support agricultural cropping systems
without the implementation of soil conservation
practices and the addition of fertilizer nutrient
inputs. Some of the temporary changes that
result from forest clearing are listed below:

80

70

60

50

40
0

2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Year after land clearing

9 10

Figure 2-02 The level of SOM is affected

by the vegatation and land use. Clearing
rainforests for agriculture reduces the SOM
by 3060%. This decrease can be slowed
down or reversed by imitating some of the
aspects of natural systems (e.g., protective
soil cover, no tillage).
The litter layer on the forest floor protects the
soil surface and is itself protected from the sun
and rain by the forest canopy cover. The forest
floor environment favours biological activity,
resulting in the rapid decomposition and

Single, large addition of nutrients to the

soil surface when the forest biomass is
burned (150-250 kg N, 30-120 kg P, 300800 kg K, 250-1000 kg Ca and 30-180 kg
Mg ha-1).

A temporary increase in pH and base
saturation of the top soil.

Very irregular distribution of nutrients
across the soil surface as a result of
clearing and burning practices.

Poor soil tilth following the irreversible
dehydration of soil particles because of
high temperatures during burning.

Short-term decrease followed by a large,
sudden, increase in microbial activity.

Loss of protective forest canopy.

46

Figure 2-3
Forests are able to grow on
nutrient-poor soils in part
because of their efficient
nutrient cycling systems.
Green lines represent internal
cycling in the soil-vegetation system.
Blue lines represent additions to the
system. Red lines indicate losses
from the system. The width of the
lines indicates the amount of
nutrients moved).
In virgin forests, the losses are small
and balanced by also small
additions.

Soil fertility (% of original)

100

Figure 2-4

80

Replacing rainforests with

agricultural systems results
in less efficient nutrient
cycling and large losses of
both above- and belowground nutrients.

60

40

20

0
0

10

20

30

40

Years after first land clearing

14-year fallow

Continuous low input cropping

4-year fallow

Loss of protective mulch layer on the

forest floor.

Reduced organic inputs to replenish
SOM.

Nutrient content is restored if the

land is not disturbed by burning and
allowed to return to forest cover for
50 long periods. With 14-year fallows,
acid, upland soils may return to
initial soil fertility status. Under a 4year fallow or continuous low-input
annual cropping, soil fertility
decreases.

Permanent changes to the soil following land

clearing and burning are shown in Table 2-7.

47
Table 2-7

Factors affected by clearing and burning forest.

Factor

Before clearing

After clearing

Uniform, 24 28 oC

Wide variation, 23 52 oC

Uniformly moist

Extreme variation

Leaching

Minimal

Large

Surface erosion

Minimal

Large

Soil structure

Stable

Variable

Nutrient cycle

Closed

Open

Organic matter cycle

Closed

Open

Constant

Decreasing

High and uniform

Low and irregular

Soil surface temperature

Soil surface moisture

Organic matter content

CO2 production and release

Nutrient cycling in agricultural systems

In many food crop agricultural systems, soil
losses due to erosion, leaching, and
volatilization (losses to the atmosphere) are
large because of the lack of soil cover. In
contrast to the forest floor, the soil surface in
most agricultural systems is periodically
exposed and subjected to extremes of heat
and moisture (Figure A-1). This reduces
biological activity and makes it difficult for plant
roots to grow near the soil surface where most
of the nutrients are located.
Unlike undisturbed forests, agricultural
systems sustain large nutrient losses due to
their removal in crop products, crop residues
and harvested biomass (Figure 2-5, Plate 2-

5). In addition, nutrient inputs added in

agricultural systems can exceed the capacity
of the soil to retain nutrients and may result in
large leaching and/or volatilization losses.

Nutrient gains and losses from an

upland field
We consider the within boundary of an upland
field to be the edges of the farmer s field and
the depth to which the majority of crop roots
penetrate (=1 m) (Figure 2-5). All nutrients
contained within the soil or vegetation of this
field belong to the landowner. Nutrients are
only added to or removed from the field when
they cross the field boundary. When a farmer

Plate 2-5
An uncovered upland soil is
a harsh environment and
limits the important biological
processes that are related to
nutrient cycling in upland
soils.

48

Figure 2-5
The farmer s field is an open
system with much more
potential for losses from crop
removal, animal manure not
returne to the field, erosion
and leaching.
Compare this to a forest in Figure 23. The amount of nutrients moved
through the system depend on the
intensity and quality of management.

Figure 2-6
Examples of changes in field
nitrogen status in a farmer s
field.
Within a field: Removing rice grain
results in loss of 30 kg N. Returning
rice straw to only part of the field
results in an additional loss of 20 kg
N to the field where straw was not
returned. The farmer loses 30 kg of
N, and may be inefficiently using
another 20 kg N.
Within a farming system:
Removing forage to stall feed cattle
without returning cow dung results in
loss of 30 kg N to the field. The
household does not lose because
the manure is applied to home
garden, which is part of their upland
farming system.
Between farming systems: On
sloping land, nutrients lost in erosion
are deposited in a neighbour s field.
The neighbour farmer has gained 20
kg N, but farmers A and B each lost
5 and 15 kg of N respectively.

sells his products, he also sells nutrients from

his farm.

2-5 Plant nutrition and nutrient

cycles

Some examples of nutrient transfers are

shown in Figure 2-6

Essential plant nutrients

Only 16 of the >100 elements that exist in

49
Table 2-8 Functions of essential plant nutrients (other than C, H and O) and their mobility in
plants and soils.

Essential
plant nutrient

Important functions and roles

in the plant

% PDM

Mobility
Plant

Soil

Macronutrients
Nitrogen (N)

Protein formation, photosynthesis.

1.5

Phosphorus (P)

Energy storage/transfer, root growth,

crop maturity, straw strength, disease
resistance.

0.2

Potassium (K)

Plant turgor pressure maintenance,

accumulation and transport of the
products of plant metabolism, crop
disease resistance.

1.0

3 4

Magnesium (Mg)

Photosynthesis.

0.2

Sulfur (S)

Many functions. In compounds that

provide odor in onion.

0.1

Calcium (Ca)

Cell growth and walls, required by Nfixing bacteria and by groundnut for nut
development.

0.5

Chloride (Cl)

Photosynthesis, early crop maturity,

disease control.

0.01

Iron (Fe)

Photosynthesis and respiration.

0.01

Manganese (Mn)

Photosynthesis, enzyme function.

0.005

Boron (B)

Development/growth of new cells.

0.002

Zinc (Zn)

Enzymatic activity.

0.002

Copper (Cu)

Chlorophyll and seed formation, protein

synthesis.

0.0005

0.00001

Micronutrients

Molybdenum (Mo) Legume N-fixation, enzyme reactions.

PDM = plant dry matter; 1 = poor mobility, 5 = very mobile. Compare mobility within a column.

nature are considered essential to most plants

(Table 2-8). Of these, carbon, oxygen, and
hydrogen make up about 96% of plant dry
matter (PDM) and are obtained from the air
and water. Nutrient elements vary in their
mobility in the soil and within plants (Table 29). Relative mobility describes the comparative
mobility of nutrients in plants and helps us to

identify nutrient deficiencies in crops. Similarly,

understanding the mobility of nutrients in soil
helps us to understand various aspects of
fertilizer management (Table 2-10, Part 2-7).

50
Table 2-9 The mobility of nutrients in plants and soil can be used to understand nutrient
deficiency systems in plants, and fertilizer management in soils.

Less mobile

More mobile

Plant

Deficiency symptoms first appear on

younger leaves (S, Ca, Zn, Fe, Cu, B).
When nutrient uptake is limited, less
mobile nutrients are not moved from
older leaves to support new growth in
younger leaves.

Deficiency symptoms first appear on

older leaves (N, K, P, Mg).
When nutrient uptake is limited, more
mobile nutrients are moved from
older leaves to support growth in
younger leaves.

Soil

Less mobile nutrients are more likely to

remain near to where they were applied
(except if the soil particles are physically
mixed by tillage or carried away by wind
or water).

More mobile nutrients are more

easily lost due to leaching and
volatilization.
Care must be taken to reduce losses
of these nutrients.

Table 2-10 There are three main categories of nutrient availability, because not all of the
nutrients in an upland field can be immediately used by plants.

Availability

When available
to plants

Readily
available to
plants.

Immediately or
during the current
annual crop.

Nutrients contained in soluble fertilizers (e.g.,

KCl), readily mineralized SOM, nutrients held on
the edges of soil particles, and in the soil solution.

Slowly
available to
plants.

During the current

annual crop or
within the next few
crops.

Nutrients contained in organic form, such as plant

residues and organic manures (particularly where
the C/N ratio is wide), slowly soluble mineral
fertilizers (e.g., rock phosphate), and the SOM
fraction that is resistant to mineralization.

Not available
to plants.

Probably not during

farmer's lifetime.

Nutrients contained in rocks, or adsorbed on soil

particles.

Examples

Nutrient availability to plants

Not all nutrients contained in the soil are
immediately available for uptake by plants
(Table 2-10). Nutrients are generally divided
into three groups of availability:

Available to plants.

Slowly available to plants.

Unavailable to plants.
Soil microbiological activity may make
nutrients either more or less available. For
example, when residues with a very wide C/N
ratio (e.g., rice straw, woody hedgerow

prunings) are added to the soil, N from the

soil may be temporarily used by the soil
microbial biomass to fuel the decomposition
process.
Ideally, just enough nutrients should be made
available when the plant needs them (i.e.,
nutrient supply and demand are
synchronized). Unfortunately, when nutrients
are readily available to plants they are also
most likely to be lost from the field (for example,
through leaching). By using a suitable
combination of nutrient sources (for example,
mineral fertilizers and organic manures),
nutrients can be made available over a longer

51
Table 2-11

Important factors for managing N, P and S in an upland system.

Nutrient

Reduce leaching losses (Part 2-8).

Increase biological N2 fixation (BNF) (Part 2-9).
Maintain or increase the SOM (Part 2-3, 2-9).
Use N fertilizers efficiently (Part 2-8).
Return crop residues to the field (Part 2-8).
Do not burn crop residues (Part 2-8)

Nitrogen

Phosphorus

Add P to soil as fertilizer (Part 2-7).

Maintain SOM (Part 2-3, 2-9).
Increase P-use efficiency by applying P fertilizers together with readily
decomposable organic residues and animal manures.
Return crop residues (Part 2-8).
Maintain SOM (Part 2-3, 2-9).
Do not burn crop residues (Part 2-8).

Sulfur

Table 2-12

Important management factors

Important factors for managing K, Ca and Mg in an upland system.

Nutrient

Important management factors (Part 2-8)

Potassium

Reduce leaching losses.

Return crop residues and animal manure from livestock fed with fodder
taken from the field.
Use K fertilizer more efficiently.

Calcium

Return crop residues and animal manure from livestock fed with fodder
taken from the field.
Add Ca fertilizers or lime to the soil.

Magnesium

Return crop residues and animal manure from livestock fed with fodder
taken from the field .
Add Mg fertilizer or dolomite to the soil.

period of time, while reducing the potential for

costly losses.
Nutrient availability is controlled by both the
type of nutrient and the form in which it is
contained. Important management factors for
each nutrient are listed in Table 2-11 and 212.

52
2-6 Nutrient requirements of
integrated upland systems
Food crops
Four factors that determine the nutrient
requirements of a crop are as follows:
1 Soil fertility status
In very fertile soils, plants may take up more
nutrients than are needed to increase yield.
Extra nutrient uptake that does not increase
crop yield is called luxury consumption ,
and sometimes occurs for K.
2

Crop variety
Improved or modern varieties tend to have
a larger concentration of each nutrient in
their tissue, have higher yield potential, and
the ratio of grain (or harvested portion) to
total biomass (such as leaves) is greater
(this is referred to as the harvest index
(Table 2-13). For these reasons, nutrient
offtake in modern crop varieties is usually
greater than for traditional varieties.

3 Total yield of the crop

Crops need more nutrients to produce
larger yields. This also means that more
nutrients will be removed in the harvested
portion and more nutrients will be recycled
through crop residues as yields increase
(Plate 2-6).
4 Purpose of the crop
Nutrient requirements depend on whether
the crop is grown for its tubers, legume or
cereal grain, leaves, or fruit (Plate 2-10).
Different plant parts have different nutrient
contents. For example, cassava root with
4.5 times greater total yield than maize,
may contain only half the amount of N
contained in maize grain (Table 2-14).
Nutrient uptake and removal data for the main
food crops grown on acid, upland soils are
provided in Table 3-11.

Tree crops
Tree crop nutrient requirements are based on
the same principles that apply to food crops.
However, a major difference is that like the
rainforest, tree crops store nutrients in biomass
for a much longer period as the above- and
below-ground parts continue to grow. The
nutrients contained in the biomass are not lost
from the field unless the biomass is later
harvested and removed or burned (e.g., tree
crops grown for pulp such as Acacia mangium;
rubber trees sold for pulp wood).
We will now look at the nutrient requirements
of crops grown for their sap, fruit, and biomass.
Rubber
A large part of the total nutrient uptake is
contained in the tree trunk biomass, and only
small amounts of mineral nutrients are
removed in the harvested product (Table 215). This is because the total amount of latex
removed is small (< 1.5 t dry rubber yr-1) and
the latex mainly consists of organic
compounds composed of C, H, O and N.
Most of the nutrients taken up are immobilized
in the rubber tree during the first 5 years of
growth. This is why fertilizer nutrients must be
applied during the immature period so that the
tree grows rapidly and reaches a tappable size
in 5-6 years. After 5-6 years a large amount of
nutrients is recycled through leaf fall, and after
six years nutrient removal in latex begins. If
rubber trees are properly fertilized during the
immature growth phase, only small amounts
of N, P and K are required to sustain production
and replenish nutrients removed in latex during
the mature crop growth phase.
Oil Palm
In comparison to rubber, oil palm has a large
annual requirement for nutrients. About 30%
of the N, P, and K taken up by the crop is
removed in the harvested fruit bunches (Table
2-15). On most acid upland soils, large
amounts of fertilizer nutrients are required to
produce and sustain economic yields. The oil
palm has a particularly large demand for K.
However, the requirement for fertilizer nutrient

53
Table 2-13
varieties.

Example of how improved varieties have greater nutrient uptake than local

Yield
Crop

Grain

t ha-1

Straw
kg ha-1

Grain Straw

Improved rice variety

48

10

24

24

160

Local rice variety

18

12

50

Table 2-14 The total yield for cassava roots may be 45 times greater than for maize, but
contain only half the amount of N. Nutrient uptake in a crop partly depends on whether it is
grown for grain, tubers, fruit, or biomass.

Crop

Product

Yield

Marketed part
removed from
field

t ha-1

Above-ground
portion remaining
on field

kg ha-1 yr-1
N

Cassava

Fresh tubers

18

32

13

50

64

16

42

Maize

Grain (cereal)

63

12

30

37

38

Soybean

Grain (legume)

66

12

20

13

16

Grass

Biomass

90

23

120

Banana

Fruit

25

43

11

150

95

20

450

Photo 2-6
Over 100 kg of K is required
to replace the amount
removed in oil palm bunches,
whereas only 13 kg of K is
required to replace the
amount removed as rubber
latex per year.

54
Table 2-15 Comparison of the amount of nutrients taken up and/or removed from a field by
corps grown for sap, fruit, or biomass products.

Plant part

kg ha-1

Rubber (sap)
In total biomass after 30 years (400 500 trees ha-1).
Removed in 1 t dry rubber yr-1.

1500

500

1500

12

13

191

62

318

73

27

111

Annual crop uptake for 5-year old trees. 1,500 trees ha-1. Yield
1,100 kg ha-1 green bean.

85

18

82

Removed in 1 t ha-1 green beans as whole fruit.

34

49

Removed in stems after 5 years of growth (1,333 trees ha-1).

35

17

Total taken up by tree after 8 years of growth.

85

18

82

Total nutrients removed in trunk.

34

49

Oil palm (fruit bunches)

Annual uptake in biomass (148 palms ha-1).
Removed in annual bunch production (24 t fruit bunches ha-1).

Coffee (fruit)

Acacia mangium (biomass)

inputs can be reduced by applying empty fruit

bunches (factory residue) or bunch ash
(burned empty fruit bunches) in the field.

Nutrient uptake and removal information for

the main tree crops grown on acid, upland soils
are provided in Table 3-11.

Coffee

Livestock

The amount of nutrients removed from the field

is reduced if the pulp is returned to the field
and only green beans or parchment coffee are
removed. Of course, nutrient removal is
greater if pruned stems are used for firewood.

Ruminants are often the most important

livestock component of acid, upland farming
systems. Feed supplements are not used
much by upland farmers. Forages and crop
residues are and will continue to be the major
source of energy, protein, and mineral nutrients
for ruminants. Therefore, understanding the
relationship between the nutrient status of acid,
upland soils and ruminant nutrition is
important.

Acacia mangium
Acacia mangium is a tree grown for wood or
pulp (Table 2-15). A. mangium is reported to
fix about 50% of its N requirement (Table 325).

The major effect of livestock on soil fertility is

through the provision of animal manure and
its effect on chemical, physical, and biological

55
Table 2-16

Dry matter intake and manure production for cattle, goats and chickens.

Species

Dry matter intake

required

Manure
produced

kg head-1 yr-1
Cattle moderate working (350 kg)
Goat medium activity (40 kg)
Water buffalo moderate working (400 kg)

soil properties. A potential indirect effect is

that nutrient losses from erosion and surface
runoff will be reduced where forage strips have
been planted along contours to provide animal
feed.
Over-grazing of livestock, however, may result
in soil compaction, which reduces water
infiltration and increases surface water runoff.
Major nutrients required by livestock
The macronutrients required by ruminants are
the same as those required by plants (Table
2-8), except that animals also require chlorine
(Cl) as a macronutrient, whereas it is a
micronutrient for crops. Chlorine is usually
supplied as common table salt (NaCl).
Livestock also require iodine (I) and selenium
(Se), and some other micronutrients not
considered essential to plants.
In farming systems on acid, upland soils, poor
soil fertility is one of the main factors limiting
mineral uptake by ruminants. Since animals
derive most of their forage from upland fields
poor in nutrients, the livestock are often also
affected by mineral deficiencies. If there is no
P in the forage eaten by livestock, there is no
P for the animal (Plate 2-7)!
Livestock nutrient uptake
Livestock nutrient uptake is the product of the
nutrient concentration in the forage, the total
amount of forage consumed, and the
availability of the nutrients in the forage
consumed (digestibility).
The concentration of nutrients in plants
depends on:

2,700

11,000

440

N/A

3,300

N/A

Soil nutrient status (most acid, upland

soils are deficient in minerals needed by
livestock).

Plant species (some plants have a
greater nutrient contents than others).

Stage of maturity (forage digestibility, and
hence nutrient availability, decreases with
increasing age of the forage).
The total amount of forage consumed depends
on the age of the forage and the size of animal.
Larger animals will consume more forage than
smaller ones. As a forage ages, animals will
eat less of it.

Major mineral deficiencies in livestock in

Indonesia
Major mineral deficiencies in livestock in
Indonesia include P and N (i.e., crude protein)
because most acid, upland soils contain very
little plant available P and farmers do not
provide sufficient amounts of N-rich forage
(i.e., legume species) to their livestock.
Symptoms of poor nutrition
Signs of mineral deficiency include loss of body
weight, loss of hair, de-pigmented hair, skin
disorders, noninfectious abortion, diarrhoea,
anaemia, loss of appetite, grass tetany (due
to low blood Mg content), low reproductive
fertility, bone abnormalities and depraved
appetite (they eat the stall!).
Remedial measures
The recommended remedial measures are as
follows:

56

Photo 2-7
Livestock feeding mainly on
grasses grown on low fertilty
soils will likely suffer from
poor nutrition. The grass has
a low P content, thus the
animals eating the grass will
also suffer from low P. This
is why P is a major nutrient
deficiency for both plants and
animals in upland systems.

Improve soil fertility by adding P fertilizer
to increase legume and grass biomass
production in mixed grass legume
pastures.

Incorporate more legume species in the
farming system to supplement ruminant
crude protein (N) supply.

2-7 Integrated nutrient

management: making practical
decisions
Integrated nutrient management is the efficient
use all types and forms of nutrients, both those
originating from the field or farm as well as
those from outside the field or farm. The
objective is to manage a productive,
sustainable, and stable system, at the smallest
cost to the farmer. Many practices can form
part of an integrated nutrient management
strategy. What may seem as a reasonable
practice to recommend on paper, however,
may not be realistic to carry out in practice.
Four aspects that are usually considered by a
household in deciding on soil fertility
management practices include the technical
feasibility, economic returns, practical
feasibility, and social acceptability (Table 2-17).
The extension worker should try to understand
these considerations when working with farm
households.

Different approaches to soil fertility and

crop management
The soil and vegetation in a field are a nutrient
bank and should be protected against losses
(Figure 2-5). The farmer should harvest an
economic benefit for each kg of nutrient
removed from the field. For example, the
farmer does not benefit from nutrients lost to
erosion whereas a crop that takes up nutrients
and is sold by the farmer earns income. Each
kilo of nutrients conserved reduces the
farmer s costs for purchased mineral fertilizer
nutrients.
There are three main approaches to soil fertility
management on acid, upland soils:
1 Plant crops adapted to indigenous soil
nutrient supply.
2 Improve the soil fertility to meet the
crop s requirements (this includes crops
not well-adapted to acid, upland soils like
soybean).
3 Select improved, adapted crop varieties
and improve soil conditions according to
crop requirements.
We will now consider these three approaches
in turn.
1 Plant crops adapted to the indigenous
soil nutrient supply.
This is often considered the low external
input approach. It is argued that it may be

57
more feasible for the farmer to change the
crop being grown, than to apply large
amounts of nutrients.

more susceptible to erosion and a chain

reaction of soil and environmental
degradation begins (Figure A-1).

In this approach minimal nutrient inputs are

provided and only crop plants able to grow
under the indigenous soil nutrient supply
are planted. Cassava extracts nutrients
very efficiently from degraded soils and is
therefore often wrongly blamed for soil
nutrient depletion. In fact, cassava may be
the only crop that will grow on acid, low P
status soils. However, after several
seasons without fertilization, the soil K
supply is depleted and yields are limited
by low soil K status.

2 Improve soil fertility to meet the crop s

requirements.
In this example, crops with the greatest
market potential are selected and soil
properties are modified so that the crop can
grow well. For example, for soybean to
grow well in acid, upland soils, Al toxicity
must be decreased and soil P status
improved. Under proper management, soil
fertility is gradually increased and the
farmer is able to cultivate a wider range of
crop species. Crop establishment is rapid,
resulting in a reduction in soil losses from
erosion. This approach usually requires
larger amounts of inputs.

Planting crops adapted to indigenous soil

fertility is viable only in the short term. In
the long run, such practices lead to soil
impoverishment and a progressive
reduction in the range of crops that can be
cultivated at a particular site. In addition,
as productivity decreases, the soil becomes
Table 2-17

3 Select improved but adapted crop

varieties and improve soil conditions
according to crop requirements.

Aspects to considered when choosing nutrient management strategies.

Aspect

Example

What to do

Technical
applicability

Will planting a few trees on a contour

hedgerow decrease soil erosion?
Can all the nutrient needs be met by
using only animal manure?

For strategies not covered in this

handbook, consider results from
simple field trials (Part 1, Step 4)
and other farmers' experiences.

Economic
returns

Although a green manure planted

during a short-term fallow may provide
50 kg N ha-1 due to biological N2
fixation, is it less costly to purchase 50
kg of fertilizer N?
The farmer may plant a high value
crop instead of the green manure, and
buy the fertilizer N.

Carry out a partial budget

analysis (Part 1, Step 4).

Practical
feasibility

Does the farmer want to carry 10 t ha-1

manure to the field?
Are the livestock providing sufficient
manure for the fields?

Discuss with the farmer.

Socially
acceptability

Will the village allow trees to be grown

on certain fields?
Will the practice have a negative
environmental impact?

Discuss with the farmer.

58

Plate 2-8
a) Almost all C, N, and S is
lost when organic materials
are burned. These nutrients
must be replaced with
mineral fertilizers. Smoke
haze also damages health!

b) Animal manure only

adds nutrients to the feld if
animals that produced it
were fed on forage grown on
a different field.
c) Incorporate fertilizer in
the soil to reduce nutrient
losses and improve nutrient
availability to crop plants.
d) Grow improved varieties
that are adapted to acid
soils. They usually require
larger nutrient inputs than
local varieties like this clonal
rubber planted with legume
cover plants.

e) When P deficiency has

been corrected, a full
response to N and K
fertilizers is obtained. In the
foreground, crops receive no
P fertilizer and the response
to N and K fertilizer is very
poor. In the background,
where low soil P fertility
status has been corrected, a
large response to N and K
fertilizers is obtained.

f) Large soybean yields

can be achieved on acid
soils by using sufficient
inputs of lime and fertilizers.
g) Cassava is often grown
on poor soils as a cash crop,
particularly when starch
prices are high. Nutrients
removed in crop products
must be replaced to avoid
soil mining .

59
Table 2-18

Sources of nutrient for soil rehabilitation

Source

Advantage

Disadvantage

Mineral fertilizer and

lime (Part 2-8).

Easy to transport and apply.

Rapid effect.

Costly. May not be available

locally in remote areas.

Animal manure,
compost and crop
residues obtained from
off-farm sources (Part 28).

In addition to nutrients, organic

manures provide material for
soil organic matter
replenishment.

May not be available locally

or in sufficient quantity. May
be very costly. Difficult to
handle and transport.

Biological N2 fixation
(BNF) (Part 2-9).

Atmospheric N is fixed and

brought in to the farm.

P and K fertilizer may be

required to increase BNF on
acid, upland soils.

Rainfall

Nutrients added at no cost

Insufficient amounts.

Nutrients added at no cost

Neighbors farm has become

eroded resulting in reduced
stability in the farming
community.

Nutrients may be added at no

cost

Difficult to find suitable plant

species that produce a
marketable product and
where roots are tolerant of Al
toxicity. The amount of
nutrients in the subsoil is
very small.

Nutrients contained in
surface runoff and
eroded soil carried into
the farm.
Nutrients taken up by
deep rooting crops or
plants and deposited at
the soil surface in leaf
litter and crop residues

An intermediate approach is to select

adapted crop species and crop varieties
and provide some nutrient inputs. For
example, local rubber can be replaced with
improved clonal rubber. Rubber is adapted
to acid upland soils, but some nutrient
inputs are still required to exploit the greater
yield potential of the more nutrientdemanding clonal rubber.

Soil fertility recapitalization

Because of the effects of nutrient mining,
erosion and other improper land management
practices, acid upland soils usually require
rehabilitation before sustainable and
economically rewarding agriculture can be
practised. During the rehabilitation process,
soil nutrient stocks must be replenished by
adding mineral fertilizers and by increasing the

amount of crop residues and other organic

materials returned to the soil. Nutrient stocks
may be enriched with a range of different
nutrient sources (Table 3-12, 3-14). Usually
mineral fertilizers are required because of the
cost, and difficulty of handling large amounts
of bought-in organic manures and crop
residues. In any case, organic manures and
crop residues are usually not available locally
in sufficient quantity.
Nutrient deficiencies should be eliminated
starting with the most limiting nutrient (Part 28). The major soil nutrient problems in acid,
upland soils are low N, P and K status, and Altoxicity. K and Mg are particularly deficient
under the following conditions:

soils that have been cropped for several
seasons,

60

crop residues have been removed, and

little or no fertilizer K and Mg has been
applied.
Nutrients are only added to the field s nutrient
bank (the soil and vegetation) by bringing
nutrients in from sources outside the field or
farm (Part 2-4). It is very important to identify
where there is a need to import additional
external nutrient inputs. Even where organic
nutrient sources are available at economic
prices, there may not be sufficient material
available in a particular locality. For these
reasons it is usually necessary to import
nutrients in the form of mineral fertilizers.
Less fertilizer is usually required to eliminate
N, K, or Mg deficiencies than to overcome P
deficiency or Al-toxicity. Nutrient deficiencies
may be eliminated by applying fertilizer nutrient
inputs using either an all-at-once , or a stepby-step approach (Figure 2-7).
1

All-at-once approach to build up soil

nutrients
With this approach, the major limiting
nutrient or toxicity problem is immediately
overcome by a large one-time fertilizer
application (Plate 2-8). This approach can
be used for all nutrients, but is particularly
suitable for overcoming P deficiency, low
pH and Al toxicity. This is because P is not
lost due to leaching (except in very sandy
soils) and is retained in the soil on fine soil
particle surfaces (e.g., clay).
The approach is particularly suited where
a large amount of P must be applied before
a crop response is detected (Figure 2-7).
After the blanket application (e.g., 1-1.5 t
rock phosphate ha-1, 300-600 kg P2O5 ha1
) has been applied, smaller maintenance
doses are applied to prevent soil nutrient
depletion.

Step-by-step approach to build up soil

nutrients
The incremental approach can be used if
the farmer cannot afford to purchase all of
the required fertilizer at once and where a
response to small amounts of fertilizer is

Figure 2-7 Response to P fertilizer and two

contrasting approaches to P recapitalization.
expected. However, this approach is only
recommended for nutrients that can
accumulate in the soil such as P, Ca, and
to some extent K and Mg, and for materials
that have a long-term residual effect (P
fertilizers and lime).
Two approaches for increasing soil nutrient
status in a field are now described.
1 Only fertilize part of the field each time
with the recommended dose
For example, instead of applying 1 t ha-1
rock phosphate to the entire 1 ha field, the
farmer applies 500 kg of rock phosphate
to 0.5 ha each year. After two years, the
entire field has been fertilized.
A variation of the above approach, is to
place the fertilizer near the crop. For
example, if maize is planted in rows 60 cm
apart, rock phosphate could be applied to
a 20 cm band, along the planting strip
(equivalent to 30% of the field). However,
this technique is more labor intensive and
requires careful planting so that
subsequent crops are planted into the
fertilized soil.
2 Apply a smaller dose to the entire field
For example, 250 kg of rock phosphate
could be applied to the entire 1 ha field, so
that after four applications the entire field

61
Table 2-19

Some potential negative effects of unbalanced fertilization.

Factor

Potential negative effects

Excessive N

Increases susceptibility to disease (e.g., rice blast)

Insufficient K

Increases possibility of disease (e.g., brown spot in rice)

Excessive Ca added in lime

Mg deficiency induced by excessive Ca concentration

has been fertilized with the equivalent of a

one-time blanket application of 1 t ha-1 rock
phosphate.
With the first approach, at least a portion of
the field receives the required dose of fertilizer
to overcome nutrient deficiencies. If applying
fertilizer at the recommended rate produces
good results the farmer will be more likely to
apply the full amount to another portion of the
farm in the following season, or even purchase
enough material to fertilize the entire field.
With the second approach the amount of
fertilizer applied may not be sufficient to
produce a visible improvement in crop growth
(blue line in Figure 2-7). One way to determine
the response is to test the application rate in a
small plot as described in Step 4 in Part 1. If
the amount of fertilizer applied does not result
in a satisfactory yield increases, the farmer
may not want to apply fertilizer again!
N limited crop growth

N
Figure 2-8

Whichever approach is used, soil fertility

improvement should be combined with soil
erosion measures (e.g., contour strips) and the
introduction of crop species and varieties that
can exploit the more fertile soil.

Balanced fertilization
Balanced fertilization is achieved when the
cropping system is supplied with the correct
proportions of N, P, K, Mg and other nutrients.
N and K fertilizer supplied in excess of the
crop s requirements may be lost due to
leaching and, for N, volatilization. Excess
nutrient supply can increase the amount of
nutrients taken up in the grain and straw
without increasing yield. In such situations of
excess uptake, or luxury consumption , the
amount of nutrients removed from the field is
large, particularly when the straw is not
retained in the field. Excessive application

K limited crop growth

P
K
Plant
N
P
K
Plant
N and K limited crop growth, according to Liebig s Law of the Minimum.

62
Table 2-20

Main categories of nutrient-containing materials.

Nutrient
concentration

Nutrient
availability

Concentrated

Readily available

Nutrient source
Mineral fertilizers requiring large-scale
processing plant and equipment (e.g., urea,
NH4NO3, NH4SO4, KCl, TSP, SP-36, MgSO4.
Mineral fertilizers requiring minimal processing
(e.g., calcite, dolomite, rock phosphate.

Less concentrated
Table 2-21

Slowly available

Organic nutrient sources (e.g., crop residues,

weeds, animal manures, bat guano).

Characteristics of mineral fertilizers and organic nutrient sources.

Organic nutrient sources

Mineral fertilizer

Nutrient composition more

balanced.

Nutrient composition is only balanced when

compound fertilizers are used or when several
single-nutrient fertilizers are combined.

React more slowly with soil.

React rapidly with soil.

Increase soil water and nutrient

holding capacity, provide fuel for
the multiplication of soil flora and
fauna, provide organic acids to
dissolve soil nutrients.

Nutrients are more readily available and the supply

can be easily regulated by the rate and frequency
of application.

Contain a larger range of nutrients,

including trace elements.

Contain a smaller range of nutrients. Nutrients are

contained in a concentrated form (less costly to
transport and store).

Exact nutrient content of organic

manures is usually not known.

The composition of mineral fertilizer is known.

Quality mineral fertilizer is free of impurities.

Lower nutrient content and

therefore requires more of the
material to supply 1 kg of nutrient.

Larger nutrient content. Small amounts supply

comparatively large amounts of nutrient. Careful
management is required to reduce nutrient losses
due to leaching and volatilization. Improper
application can injure or kill plants.

rates may also lead to negative effects such

as increased soil salt content and
environmental pollution.
When fertilizer nutrients are applied in the
correct proportions, fertilizer use is said to be
balanced. Unbalanced fertilization can result
in a waste of fertilizer and can also have some
negative effects on plant growth (Table 2-19).
Balanced fertilizer use also reduces fertilizer
costs.

In Figure 2-8 each column represents a

different nutrient. At first, crop yield is limited
by the supply of N, and K and P are supplied
in excess of requirements (N-limited crop
growth). After the supply of N has been
increased, crop yield is increased but limited
by the supply of K while the availability of P
and N exceeds requirements.
Most farmers tend to add N and P fertilizers,
and neglect to apply K fertilizer. Under such

63
unbalanced fertilizer use, yields decrease and
farmers usually respond by increasing the
amount of N or P fertilizer applied. Yields,
however, are not increased until K has been
added.

How to determine the most limiting

nutrient?
The best way to determine which are the most
limiting nutrient(s) is by plant and soil testing.
Many farmers do not have access to plant and
soil analysis, however, and the extension
worker has to rely on other methods. Various
proxy methods and tools can help the
extension worker and farmer diagnose the
nutrients that may be limiting crop growth.
Simple farmer test plots can also be used to
test out different recommendations.

2-7 Nutrient Sources

General
Plants take up nutrients both directly from the
soil and from nutrients applied to the soil in
the form of organic nutrient sources (e.g., crop
residues and animal manures) and mineral
fertilizers. Mineral fertilizers are either mined
or manufactured to provide plant nutrients in
concentrated forms that meet a crop s nutrient
needs. Products range from standard single
nutrient fertilizers (e.g., urea, TSP, KCl) to
compound fertilizers (e.g., 15-15-6, 12-1217+4) and slow release fertilizers (e.g., urea
briquettes). All mineral fertilizers originate from
natural sources (urea from atmospheric N2, P
from rock phosphate, K from underground
potash deposits).
Nutrient availability for plants may depend on
reactions between the fertilizer material and
the soil. For example:

Soil pH is increased rapidly after an
application of calcite but only in the
presence of sufficient soil moisture.

The soil must be sufficiently acid (pH
<5.5) to react with rock phosphate and
release P for plant uptake.

Nutrient availability may also be affected by

the composition of animal manures and crop
residues. For example:

Animals fed with a nutrient-poor diet
produce nutrient-poor manure.

Organic residues with a narrow C/N ratio
are a readily-available source of N (e.g.,
legume crop residues) while those with a
wide C/N ratio are only slowly available
(e.g., rice straw).
Three major categories of nutrient sources are
shown in Table 2-20. The properties of organic
and mineral fertilizer nutrients are compared
in Table 2-21.
Effect of nutrient imbalances
Mineral fertilizers are concentrated nutrient
sources and when incorrectly used in
unbalanced proportions, losses may occur and
crop response is reduced. For example:

Losses may be large when one nutrient
is supplied in a readily-available form, in
large quantities and in excess of the
crop s requirement.

A single nutrient is applied, but response
is poor due to deficiency of another
nutrient.
Micronutrient deficiencies usually only appear
after many cropping seasons, but the soil s
reserves of micronutrients are more rapidly
depleted if only macronutrient nutrient sources
that do not contain micronutrients are applied.
Animal manures and vegetative biomass
contain some micronutrients (depending on
what the animal has been fed), whereas the
most commonly used mineral fertilizers such
as urea, TSP, ammonium sulphate, and KCl
do not contain micronutrients.
Effect of organic manures and mineral
fertilizer on soil properties
Organic manures and crop residues are an
important source of soil organic matter
replenishment and therefore contribute to the
maintenance of soil structure.

Strategies to reduce losses when nutrients are applied to soil as mineral fertilizers.

Nutrient

Loss
pathway

Volatilization

Leaching

N
(Urea)
Denitrification

Conditions resulting in losses

Strategies for reducing losses

Application to sandy soils.

Always mix urea with the soil.

Fertilizer left on soil surface.

Apply in dibble holes or narrow strips.

Application in hot, dry periods.

Hoe or lightly irrigate, after broadcasting fertilizer.

Apply fertilizer in split applications.

Burning vegetation.

Do not burn vegetation!

Application to sandy soils.

Add organic materials and animal manures.

Application of large amounts in high

rainfall areas.

Split apply or increase the number of split applications

where large application rates of N are required.

Poor N use efficiency from unbalanced

fertilizer application.

Balance the application of all nutrients required by the

crop (Part 2-7).

Movement of nitrate to deeper and

compacted pockets within the soil.

Improve drainage and soil aeration.

High organic matter status soils.

Use non-nitrate sources (e.g., ammonium sulfate).

Waterlogged soils.

Install drains

Sloping lands

Incorporate fertilizer into soil, provide controlled and

light irrigation and install soil conservation measures.

Runoff/erosion Poorly-leveled fields

Inadequate soil moisture

Level the land

Adopt moisture conservation measures (plough before
rains, install bunds, apply mulch).

64

Table 2-22

Table 2-22 ....continued

Nutrient

Loss
pathway
Leaching

P
(TSP
or
SP-36)

P-fixation
(Part 2-1)

Conditions resulting in losses

Sandy soils in high rainfall areas

Apply crop residues and animal manures

Soils of recent volcanic origin

Apply P in bands to each crop (reduce fertilizer contact

with soil)

P-fixation in some clay soils

Apply large initial dose of P fertilizer (1 t ha-1 rock

phosphate), apply lime to pH 5.5 to reduce P-fixation,
add calcium silicate or basic slag to reduce P-fixation.

Runoff/erosion (as for urea)

K
(KCl)
S
(AS,
kieserite,
gypsum)
Ca
(calcite,
dolomite)
Mg
(dolomite,
kieserite)

Leaching

Strategies for reducing losses

Losses due to high rainfall combined with

large application rates (>100 kg ha-1 KCl).

Runoff/erosion (as for urea)

(as for urea)

Apply KCl in split applications and smaller doses (<100
kg KCl ha-1).
(as for urea)

Volatilization

(as for urea)

(as for urea)

Leaching

High rainfall

(as for urea)

Runoff/erosion (as for urea)

(as for urea)

Leaching

High rainfall

Runoff/erosion (as for urea)

Leaching

High rainfall

Runoff/erosion (as for urea)

Apply Ca as calcite or Single Super Phosphate (these

forms are less easily leached than gypsum).
(as for urea)
Apply Mg as dolomite as it is not leached in this form
as much as in kieserite
(as for urea)

65

66
Ammonia-based N fertilizers cause soil
acidification. Where ammonium sulphate has
been used in large quantities (i.e., >400 kg
fertilizer ha-1 yr-1) it may be necessary to correct
the soil pH with an application of agricultural
lime.

efficiency is greatest. Nutrient-use

efficiency is determined partly by the size
and effectiveness of the crop s root system,
crop growth rate, crop nutrient
requirements during the growing season,
and the duration of crop growth.

Some mineral fertilizers, especially lime, have

been identified as the cause of soil hardening,
making cultivation more difficult. The salt
contained in some mineral fertilizers (referred
to as the salt index) can adversely affect some
important soil microbes, but this is usually not
a problem with organic nutrient sources.

Correct timing is more important for

fertilizers with a short residual life and great
mobility in the soil (e.g., N fertilizers) and
less important for fertilizers with a long
residual life and poor mobility in the soil
(e.g., P fertilizers) (Table 2-23).

Mineral Fertilizer
This section discusses the fate of nutrients
when various materials are added to the soil.
Nutrients are either absorbed by the crop,
stored in the soil or made unavailable to the
plant by various soil processes (Table 2-22).
1 Management for efficient fertilizer use
The goal of proper fertilizer and lime
management is to make optimal use of
nutrients already in the system, while
minimizing external nutrient input
requirements to produce the maximum
economic yield. The amount of external
inputs required depends on the soil supply
and the crop demand. The most important
aspects of fertilizer application are timing,
placement, and the amount applied.
Strategies to reduce losses are described
in Table 2-22
2 Timing
Fertilizer application should be carried out
after weeding so that weeds do not benefit
from the fertilizer. N fertilizer should only
be applied when there is sufficient moisture
to allow efficient uptake. Large applications
of N fertilizer can injure and sometimes
even kill the plant.
Timing of fertilization depends on the
characteristics of the fertilizer material and
the crop requirements. For example, it is
particularly important to apply N fertilizer
at the correct crop growth stage when use

3 Placement
The appropriate placement strategy
depends on the fertilizer material, crop, and
crop spacing. If possible, all mineral
fertilizers should be incorporated in the soil.
Fertilizer application methods are
compared in Table 2-24. In particular, N
fertilizers should be incorporated in the soil
to reduce volatilization losses. However,
urea placed too close to a young seedling
plant may scorch the roots and shoot base.
Losses of applied P and K fertilizer due to
surface runoff and erosion of the top soil
layer are smaller where fertilizer materials
are incorporated in the soil.
4 Mixing of fertilizers with seed
Some fertilizers may be mixed with seeds
before planting. For example, calcium and
phosphate fertilizers are sometimes mixed
with groundnut seed before planting. In
most cases, fertilizer should not be applied
directly to the seed hole. It is often better
to first place the fertilizer in the planting hole
and then cover the fertilizer with a 35 cm
layer of soil before planting the seeds. For
example, fertilizers with a high salt content
tend to draw water out of seeds.
5 Mixing of mineral fertilizer with organic
materials
Mixing N and P fertilizers with crop residues
and/or animal manure provides nutrients
for micro-organisms and therefore speeds
up the rate of decomposition of the organic
materials. Similarly, the organic acids

67
Table 2-23 Loss pathways, relative mobility, residual effect, and recommendations for
proper timing and application of mineral fertilizers.

Fertilizer Main loss

Residual
Mobility*
material pathway
effect

Recommended timing of
application

Leaching,
volatilization

High

About 1
crop

Use split-applications for large

application rates of N-fertilizer (>50 kg
ha-1 fertilizer) to reduce losses by
increasing the synchrony between
crop demand and nutrient supply (e.g.,
apply N to rice at tillering and panicle
initiation).

Ammonium Leaching,
sulfate
volatilization

High

About 1
crop

(as for urea)

Urea

TSP/SP-36

Erosion,
crop
removal

Low

Several
years

Apply all prior to planting.

Rock
phosphate

Erosion,
crop
removal

Low

Several
years

Apply only if soil pH <5.5.

Apply all prior to planting.

KCl

Crop
removal,
leaching

Medium to
High

Several
crops

<100 kg ha-1 KCl, apply once prior to

planting.
>100 kg ha-1 KCl, apply in 2 3 splitapplications

Dolomite/
calcite

Erosion,
leaching

Low to
Medium

Several
years

Apply all prior to planting.

Mobility of nutrients in soil

produced during the decomposition of

organic materials can help dissolve less
soluble mineral fertilizers (e.g., rock
phosphate).
6 Distance from crop
Fertilizers should be placed near the root
zone of crops. For tree crops, this usually
means applying fertilizers in a circle within
an area described by the outer edge of the
crop plant s leaves (the so-called drip
circle ). In general, fertilizers should be
applied 5-15 cm from the stem of annual
crops, depending on the crop age.
7 Reduction of N volatilization losses
Organic materials should not be burned as
this results in the loss of C, N and S.
Incorporate N-containing fertilizers and

manures in the soil and do not apply Ncontaining fertilizers to slightly wet soils
when volatalization losses will be greater.

Animal manure
Organic manures are comparatively easy to
use because their nutrient content is generally
well balanced. There are, however, several
ways to increase fertilizer use efficiency and
effectiveness.
1 Timing
Timing of applications is less important than
with mineral fertilizer. Animal manures
should be applied at crop planting, because
of their slower rate of nutrient release.
2 Placement

Mulching has several benefits for the topsoil

environment. Mulched material usually
decomposes and releases nutrients slower
as compared with residue incorporated into
the soil. The delay in nutrient release can
be desirable under situations where
nutrients are not severely limiting to plant
growth. A drawback of mulching, however,
is that the potential for N losses due to
volatilization is greater than where the
material is incorporated in the soil.

Dibble

Nutrients are applied close to the

crop plant's roots.

Nutrients are placed close to the

crop plant's root system.

Labour intensive.

To speed up residue decomposition and

nutrient release, some organic by-products
(e.g., oil palm empty bunches) should be
mixed with soil and incorporated in the
bottom of tree crop planting holes.

Banding

Less complete incorporation. Some

protection from erosion and runoff.
Broadcast and slight hoeing
to 2 cm

Costly for the farmer who may not have sufficient available
labour to do this.
If done correctly, this is the best
method to reduce losses from
surface runoff and topsoil erosion.
Broadcast and plow or hoe
to 10 15 cm.

N may be lost to volatilization, other fertilizer nutrients may be

lost through soil erosion. Roots may not be able to absorb
nutrients during dry periods.
Smaller labor cost. Rapid
application.
Broadcast and not
incorporated

Disadvantages
Advantages
Incorporation method

Table 2-24

Advantages and disadvantages of different methods of mineral fertilizer application.

68

3 Applying manure to crops

Only about 25% of the organic material,
40% of N, 50% of P, and 45% of K ingested
by animals is returned to the soil, because
nutrients are removed in animal body
tissues and losses occur during urine
events and manure handling. About 30
50% of N, 20% P, and 50% K in applied
manure may be taken up by the first crop
after application.
For farm yard manure (FYM) (comprising
faeces, urine, crop residues and soil mixed
with straw) applied to the soil, about 30%
of N, 60-70% of P and 75% of K will be
available to the crop.
Nutrients contained in urine are more
readily available to plants because they are
already in solution. Because of its large N
content, urine stimulates soil microbial
activity and increases the rate of crop
residue decomposition. However, much of
the N contained in urine may be lost due to
volatilization and leaching.
Because the concentration of P in manure
is small, animal manures should be
supplemented with mineral P fertilizers. In
addition, ammonia N losses from manure
are reduced when mineral P fertilizer is
added. Crops with a large N requirement
usually respond well to animal manure
(e.g., maize, rice, grasses, and vegetables).

69
4 Amount
Recommended rates for animal manure
application are shown in Table 3-21.
5 Manure quality
Manure quality depends on:

the animal species,

age,
condition,
diet,
the nature and amount of litter
provided to stall fed animals, and

the handling and storage of manure
before it is spread on the land.

Manure nutrient content is smaller and

manure quality poorer when ruminants
graze on native forages growing on low
fertility status soils compared with manures
produced by animals fed on well-fertilized,
improved forage supplemented with grain
and mineral concentrates.
The methods for reducing N losses in
manure collected in animal shelters are as
follows:

Use materials such as dried rice
straw, grass clippings, coffee hulls,
and sawdust to prepare FYM from
livestock faeces and urine. Chop or
shred the materials (except coffee
hulls and sawdust) to make them
easier to spread and increase the rate
of decomposition. Spread a 15-cm
layer of litter bedding over the floor
space. Allow manure and urine to
accumulate. Three to four days after
bedding is fully soaked with urine, mix
to incorporate the manure. Remove
the bedding and store in a pit that is
protected from rainfall to conserve
nutrient content. Banana leaves make
a suitable cover.

Use the FYM after about 1-2 months.

Spread loose, dry soil on the floor of a
cattle shed. When thoroughly soaked
with urine, transfer to a FYM pile. By
regularly repeating this process, more

than 25 kg N yr-1 excreted by each

cow can be conserved. Soil should
be spread in thin layers over the FYM
pile to prevent N volatilization. Apply
1050 kg rock phosphate per tonne of
FYM to improve the nutrient balance
and conserve N in the FYM.
Manure quantity
Cattle and water buffalo provide fresh manure
equal to about 7.5% of their body weight.
Therefore, feedlot cattle of about 150 kg
excrete about 2 t fresh manure over a fattening
period of 180 days, or about 4 t fresh manure
yr-1.
Do livestock add or remove nutrients
from a field?
The inclusion of animals in the farming system
affects the nutrient cycle. If a stall-fed animal
is provided with fodder from one field but the
animal s manure is returned to a different field
that is used for vegetable cropping, the nutrient
budget for the whole farm is not affected but
nutrient resources will be depleted in the
fodder production field and increased in the
vegetable field.

Crop residues
Crop residues are usually either used as
livestock fodder, applied as a mulch on the
soil surface, incorporated into the soil, burned
or sold for manufacturing. Returning all crop
residues to the soil helps to replenish SOM.
Effect of burning on crop residues
Burning crop residues is not recommended
as a soil management practice (Plate 2-10b).
Burning results in the loss to the atmosphere
of almost all the C, N, and S that was
contained in the vegetation. Nitrogen and S
are important nutrients, and carbon is
essential for SOM replenishment.
If many land users burn crop residues during
the same season, this can result in
atmospheric haze, with associated
environmental health and economic costs. The
drier the vegetation the smaller the amount of

70
Material

C/N

Material

C/N

Urine

2:1 Bracken fern

48:1

Pig manure

5:1 Straw

80:1

Poultry manure

10:1

Woody stems

FYM (manure + straw)

14:1 Newspaper

200:1

Weeds

30:1 Cardboard

500:1

FYM = farm yard manure

smoke produced by burning. Many land users

continue to burn residues to reduce labor costs
and the time needed for land preparation.
Most alternatives to burning crop residues are
labor or time consuming (e.g., composting,
surface application).

In any event, farmers without access

to mineral fertilizers will, as a last
resort, continue to burn fallow
vegetation to convert available
biomass into plant available
nutrients.
Mulching
Without a protective mulch cover, microbial
activity in the surface horizon of upland soils
decreases because the temperature is too high
and there is insufficient soil moisture (Figure
A-1). Mulch reduces the surface soil
temperature and the loss of water due to
evaporation so that soil microbial activity is
increased. An application of about 2 t ha-1
residue can reduce the temperature in the
surface soil layer by up to 10-15 oC. Mulching
also reduces soil erosion and increases the
water infiltration rate. The rate of
decomposition is reduced when organic
residues are applied as a surface mulch
instead of incorporated in the soil.
Effect of crop residue quality on N
availability
Legumes and other organic material with a
narrow C/N ratio (C/N ratio <15:1) decompose
rapidly in humid tropical conditions where soil
pH is >5.5 (Table 2-25). However, where the

100:1

Table 2-25
Materials with low carbon to
nitrogen ratios (C/N), like
farmyard manure,
decompose faster than
materials with high C/N, such
as woody stems.

supply of N in the soil and decomposing plant

material is limited, bacteria compete with
plants for readily available N (termed N
immobilization). This results in temporary Ndeficiency in soils following the application of
organic materials with a wide C/N ratio (e.g.,
rice straw). In the long-term, the N contained
in the microbial biomass is released but the
short-term deficiency may affect crop plant
growth. To increase the rate of decomposition
and avoid N immobilization, N fertilizer is
applied together with crop residues that
contain a small concentration of N (e.g. rice
straw, <1.5% N).
Much of the N in good quality green manure is
released in 24 weeks after application, and
leafy legume residues may breakdown so
rapidly that crop plants are not able to use all
the N released and N is lost by leaching.
Returning crop residue nutrients to the
proper place
Sometimes crop residues or ash are returned
to only a small part of the field (Plate 2-10a).
This may result in large soil fertility differences
across small distances of a few meters. Parts
of the field may be severely depleted of
nutrients even though the nutrient budget for
the whole field is zero (Part 2-4).
Farmers sometimes deliberately apply most
of the crop residues to the least fertile part of
the field, but when large amounts of crop
residues are burned in one place, large
amounts of nutrients may be lost by leaching
(Part 2-8). Leaching losses are more likely to
occur on sandy-textured soils.

71
2-9 Biological soil fertility
management

farmers are also removing much of the N fixed

by the crop, and the residual benefit to
succeeding crops is therefore reduced.

Use of fallows

Other species have the capacity to accumulate

large amounts of P in their above ground
biomass (e.g., Chromolaena odorata) that is
returned to the soil when vegetation is cleared
and burned. However, as with all non-legume
fallow species, they do not add N, P, K, Mg
and Ca to the field, they only recycle nutrients
that are already in the soil and make them
more available to crops.

Prior to the widespread use of mineral

fertilizers, upland farmers relied on the use of
fallows to regenerate soil fertility. After 12
cropping seasons, acid upland soils require a
7-14 year fallow period to restore soil fertility.
During the fallow period, the bush/forest
vegetation scavenges for nutrients in the soil
and a large pool of nutrients accumulates in
the biomass. The greater the vegetation
regrowth, the larger the amount of nutrients
accumulated in the above ground biomass.
Following land clearing, fire is used to
transform the above ground biomass into plant
available nutrients. The more complete the
burn, the greater the amount of readily
available nutrients in the ash. However,
burning results in the loss of most of the N
and S contained in the biomass and other
nutrients (P, K, Mg, Ca) may be lost due to
soil erosion and surface runoff unless soil
conservation structures are put in place
immediately after burning. Other benefits from
fallows include breaking pest and disease
cycles and the replenishment of SOM.
However, because of population pressure,
fallow periods are now seldom long enough
to completely restore soil fertility and this is
the main reason for the decline in soil fertility
in slash and burn agriculture (Figure A-2).
Various legume covers such as Mucuna
coochinchinensis, and Pueraria phaseoloides
have been used successfully as improved
fallow plants to restore fertility in degraded
soils. A large application of phosphate fertilizer
is usually required to maximize biomass
production and biological N2 fixation. Clearly,
even improved fallow vegetation does not
provide a direct benefit to the farmer in terms
of marketable produce and this is the main
reason why farmers have not adopted this
technique for soil improvement more widely.
Mucuna seed pods are a useful source of
protein to farmers accustomed to eating this
legume. By removing the pods, however,

Biological nitrogen fixation (BNF)

Legumes can reduce the requirement for N
fertilizers by fixing atmospheric N2 (Plate 210d). This means the legume plants demand
for soil N is reduced and soil N is spared for
use by non-legume plants, which cannot fix
N. Legumes can fix 50250 kg N ha-1 yr-1.
Biological N2 fixation involves a symbiotic
relationship between bacteria (rhizobium or
bradyrhyzobium) and a legume plant. Nodules
form on the legume host plant s roots and the
bacteria fix N2 from the atmosphere, using
energy supplied by the host plant. In return,
the plant benefits from N produced in the
nodule. Legumes vary in the proportion of their
total N requirement produced by biological N2
fixation and in some legume crop plants (e.g.,
soybean) N removal in the crop product is
greater than the total amount fixed by BNF.
Nodules vary in shape, size, colour, texture
and location on the plant. Shape and location
are largely determined by the host plant. The
inside of active nodules is a deep reddish
colour (on cowpea they are sometimes black
in colour). Active nodules turn green as they
age and die. Non-active nodules are white to
pale green on the inside and do not change
colour.
Native vs. introduced rhizobia
Although plants can nodulate with many types
of rhizobia, only particular strains will increase
plant growth (Table 2-26). Inoculation may be
necessary when new legume crops are
introduced, the soil contains very small

72

Group Crops
1

Soybean

Vigna spp.

Phaseolus vulgaris, P. multifloris

Cowpea, pigeon pea, mungbean, Acacia

mangium, Albizia spp.

Leucaena spp., calliandra, sesbania, gliricidia,

acacia spp.

Pisum, vicia, lathyrus, lens.

amounts of rhizobia or the indigenous rhizobia

species is not compatible with the legume
plant.
Inoculation methods
A low-cost method for crop inoculation is to
take soil from a field where the crop was
recently grown and found to nodulate
successfully and mix this with the seed. This
method does not provide a large amount of
rhizobia (compared to a commercial inoculant
product). It may therefore take several seasons
for a field planted to the same legume species
to build a sufficiently large population of
rhizobia in the soil.
Alternatively, commercial inoculants can be
used. Legume inoculants are living organisms
and should be stored away from direct sunlight.
Check that the inoculant product has not
passed the expiration date. Improperly
handled inoculants can be totally ineffective.
Inoculate using the slurry method (mix water
and inoculant and add sugar to improve
adhesion between rhizobia and the plant
seed). For acid, low P status soils, apply finely
ground rock phosphate or lime to the
inoculated seed (Table 2-27).
Incorporating N-fixing crops in the
system
Legume crops contain a large amount of
protein and can improve the diet of livestock.
Legumes deplete the soil of N less rapidly than
grasses, but they do not necessarily increase

Table 2-26
This table shows
innoculation groups for
different crops. For example,
rhizobia in Group 1 will not
nodulate groundnut, whereas
the same type of rhizobia will
nodulate cowpea and
mungbean.

the concentration of soil N (a common

misconception). For example soybeans fix 3060 kg N ha-1 per crop but about >100 kg N ha1
may be removed when the seed is harvested!
Legume shrubs can be planted as soil fertility
traps in contour strips on sloping land (e.g.,
Flemingia macrophylla) and other species
(e.g., Calliandra) may be planted as fodder
banks.
Fast-growing, N-fixing trees, such as Gliricidia
sepium, Flemingia macrophylla, Acacia
mangium, Paraserianthes falcataria, and
Calliandra calothyrsus add N to the system.
However, except for N-fixing species that add
N from the atmosphere, trees do not add
nutrients to the system on acid, upland soils!
Deep tree roots can access nutrients from the
subsoil that are inaccessible to food crops.
However, subsoil fertility of acid, upland soils
is usually very poor, and trees take up only
small amounts of nutrients from deep in the
soil. Other examples of how N-fixing crops can
be integrated into upland systems are shown
in Table 3-25.
In the end, biological soil fertility management
is a misleading term since all soil fertility
management techniques involve a
combination of chemical, biological and
physical processes. To some readers,
biological soil fertility management may imply
that sustainable agricultural systems are
possible without the use of external nutrient
inputs. In reality, agricultural systems leak, and

73
Table 2-27
fixation.

Ways to overcome soil fertility factors that inhibit rhizobial activity and, thus, N-

Factors inhibiting rhizobia activity

Recommendation

Large amount of N in soil (nodules small and

effective, increase in size as N decreases)

Apply only small amounts of N ( 25 kg

ha-1 urea) to legume crop plants at
planting.

Low soil P

Apply P fertilizer to crop rooting zone.

Low pH soil (<pH 5.0 5.5), except for cowpea

Apply lime to crop rooting zone.

Low Mo (nodules large and green on inside,

but inactive)

Apply Mo-containing fertilizer

Table 2-28

Some myths and facts about biological soil fertility management.

Myth
Fallow vegetation adds
nutrients to the soil.
Nutrients are added to the soil
in prunings from alley and
contour strip hedgerow
prunings.
Legumes grown in mixed
cropping systems provide N to
the companion crop.
Soil organic matter is increased
by returning crop residues to
the soil.

Fact
Fallow vegetation returns nutrients to the soil that may
have been absorbed from beneath the crop rooting
zone.
When properly nodulated, N-fixing legume fallow
species add N to the soil through root decay and
above ground litter inputs.
By fixing part of their N requirements. legumes spare
soil N for uptake by non N-fixing crop plants.
The carbon returned to the soil in crop residues may
not be sufficient to replace the depletion of soil organic
matter in agricultural soils due to decomposition.
Returning crop residues to the soil may reduce the rate
of decrease in soil organic matter in cultivated soils.

nutrients are lost due to erosion, surface runoff

and leaching and are removed in crop
products. Unless removed and lost nutrients
are replaced, nutrient stocks in the system will
decrease and the system will become
impoverished and unsustainable. Some of the
more common myths relating to biological soil
fertility management are discussed in Table
2-28.

2-10 Indirect Management Effects

on Soil Fertility
Soil conservation and soil fertility
Soil conservation reduces nutrient losses.
Without erosion control about 1 cm of topsoil
containing large amounts of nutrients may be
lost each year, which means that the entire
topsoil of 15 cm can be lost within one
generation. It takes several thousand years for
the lost topsoil to form again!
Farmers are usually reluctant to invest in soil
conservation if the soil itself is not very fertile,

74

Plate 2-11
a) Mulch the soil surface to
reduce the amount of soil
and nutrients removed in
surface runoff.

b) Plant grass strips to

reduce nutrient and soil
losses from transport in rapid
soil surface water runoff.
c) Leaf rolling in maize
indicates drought stress, due
to poor soil water retention
and possibly K-deficiency.

d) Surface crusting
prevents groundnut plant
emergence and will result in
reduced water infiltration
(and greater water runoff)
during the growing season.
e) Landslips are common
on sloping land where the
surface vegetation has been
removed.
f) Columns of soil stand
due to the protection
provided by single leaves.

or if they do not have any other incentives for

doing so (e.g., forage supply from planting
grass conservation strips). Fertilizer nutrients
applied to the soil are easily lost if proper soil
conservation measures are not in place. The
implementation of effective soil conservation
measures may occur only slowly over several
seasons. It is especially important to make
sure that all fertilizer applied during this period
is not susceptible to erosion or runoff losses.

Major goals of soil erosion control

Soil is lost when soil particles become
detached from the soil surface and transported
from the field by water. The greatest
detachment force is from the direct impact of
rain on soil particles (Plate 2-11f). Detached
particles and nutrients are then moved by
water to a new location down the slope.
Therefore, the major goals of soil erosion
control are to reduce the processes of
detachment and transport of soil particles and
nutrients.

75
Tillage and soil fertility

No-tillage

Tillage describes the physical preparation of

the soil before planting and during crop growth.
Tillage methods include operations such as
ploughing and harrowing.

Under a no tillage management system,

nutrients (especially P and some K applied as
fertilizers), soil microbes, and organic materials
accumulate near the surface as in a rainforest
resulting in greater moisture availability. Notillage soils generally require larger amounts
of N fertilizer, because:

The effects of tillage on soil fertility vary greatly

depending on the soil, crop, and weather
conditions. The major direct effect of tillage is
on the position of soil nutrients, microbes, and
organic materials. Major indirect effects of soil
tillage on soil fertility include soil moisture
availability, rate of SOM decomposition, and
soil erosion control.

Fertilizer-N is immobilized in the soil by

microbes that accumulate in the organic
layer of the soil.

There is more water movement through
soil, with greater loss of nitrates.

Table 2-29 Principles ad methods to reduce soil erosion.

Principles

Methods

Reduce the detachment of soil particles

Protect the soil surface from
direct raindrop impact.

Apply a mulch and use crop residues, tree leaf clippings).

Reduce the force of the

raindrop.

Leaves help to break the force of a raindrop's impact at

the soil surface. For this reason, maintaining a continuous
plant cover over the soil can help to reduce erosion.

Reduce soil transport

Reduce the speed of water*.

Shorten the length of the slope (the longer the slope, the
faster water can move. In one example, doubling the
length of a 9% slope increased soil loss by 2 times).
Use physical barriers such as grass strips, crop residues,
treetree stumps, logs, ridge terraces.
Reduce the steepness of the slope with natural terraces
formed from stone retention walls, grass barriers, contour
bunds.

Increase water infiltration.

Mix crop residues with the soil and apply animal manure
to improve soil structure. This can increase the amount of
water infiltration and reduce the amount of water that runs
down the slope.
Provide a rough surface by carrying out light tillage. Apply
crop residues.

By halving the speed of water flowing down a slope:

(a)

the maximum size of particle that it carries is reduced by 64 times,

(b)

the erosive power of the water is reduced by 4 times, and

(c)

the amount of material that can move in the water is reduced by 32 times.

76
Table 2-30 Effects of different tillage practices on soil fertility.

Tillage method

Advantages

Disadvantages

Zero tillage (no-till)

only the immediate
seed zone is
prepared.

Reduces soil erosion, evaporative

water losses, SOM loss, and nutrient
loss.
Maintains larger pools of nutrients for
plant availability (especially N near
the surface) than maximum tillage.

Residue accumulates on
surface, possibly
increasing pest problems.
Requires the use of
herbicides and pesticides.
More N fertilizer needed.

Minimum tillage (the

entire field surface
worked to a limited
depth).

Some tillage helps to maintain soil

aeration, stimulates microbial activity
and organic material decomposition,
and keeps the soil surface open for
water infiltration.

More soil erosion than in

zero tillage.

More rapid decomposition of crop

Maximum tillage
residues.
(100% of the topsoil
M
ore rapid decrease in soil organic
is mixed or inverted).
matter content.

Denitrification/volatilization may reduce N
efficiency.
Availability, uptake of N and ultimately crop
yield may be increased by placing N fertilizer
below the surface in non-tillage soils.
Conventional tillage
Conventional tillage results in a more even
distribution of nutrients, the soil microbial
population, and organic materials in the
surface soil than under zero tillage.
Conventional tillage results in the release of
nutrients for crop uptake by increasing the
microbial decomposition of SOM. This is
because tillage disrupts the physical
arrangement of the soil, and increases
microbial activity because more air penetrates
the soil and a greater surface area of soil
organic residues is exposed to microbial
action.

Water management and soil fertility

For fertilizers to be effective, sufficient water
must be present in the soil for the fertilizer
nutrients to reach the plant s roots (or vice

More soil susceptible to

erosion loss.
If crop residues are
incorporated, they can not
be used as mulch.

versa), nutrient uptake and plant growth (Table

2-22). However, water passing through the soil
may remove nutrients by leaching, and water
that passes over the soil may remove nutrients
by soil erosion and surface runoff.
In most sloping upland farmer s fields, water
infiltration is insufficient, and surface water
runoff is too great, and soil conservation
measures are required not only to reduce soil
erosion but also to improve water infiltration.
Moisture conservation methods include the
construction of individual terraces for tree
crops (e.g., rubber), ridge and valley tillage
systems where moisture is conserved in
valleys, and mulching.
Reduce nutrient content in surface
runoff
Nutrient losses can be reduced if the flow of
surface runoff water is slowed down by contour
strips. The contour strips should be planted
with grasses or shrub vegetation so that they
function as nutrient traps by reducing soil
losses and increasing the amount of water
infiltration. Fertilizer nutrient losses are also

77
reduced when fertilizer is incorporated in the
soil.
Reduce nutrient content in water moving
through the soil profile
The rapid water infiltration rate in properly
managed upland soils reduces the risk of
erosion. However, the surface of upland soils
is often affected by surface crusting which
reduces the water infiltration rate (Plate 2-11d).
Nutrient losses due to leaching may be large
in sandy textured soils with poor nutrient
retention capacity. On such soils, fertilizer
nutrient losses may be reduced by applying
fertilizer in a larger number of split applications.

75

Part 3
Essential information for upland
extension workers

In this section
Soil and Plant Sampling and Analysis
Soil Chemical Properties for 45 crops
Critical Leaf Nutrient Concentrations for 45 Crops
Nutrient Uptake and Removal for 45 Crops
Properties of Nutrient Sources (Residues and Fertilizers)
General Fertilizer Recommendations and Examples of Field Tests
Management of Micronutrients
Balanced Nutrient Recommendations for 45 Crops
Timing of Fertilizer Applications
Fertilizer Storage
List of Important Legume Species for Acid Upland Soils
English, Indonesian and Latin Names for Important Crop Species
List of Conversion Factors
Glossary of Terms

76
3-1 Classification of acid, upland
soils
The soil classification systems do not use pH
values explicitly for the definition of soil classes
or units. Most FAO soil units, however, and
many taxa of Soil Taxonomy indicate implicitly
a narrow range of pH values. The following
soils are likely to have a soil pH of <5.5:
1. Dystric soil units (e.g., Dystric Gleysols)
2. Soils with an umbric epipedon.
3. Soil groups characterized by low base
saturation (i.e., < 50%) e.g. Acrisols.
4. Thionic soil units.

3,000 t soil ha-1

10 kg soil
collected

Thus the following 14 FAO soil units occurring

in the tropics are considered acid:

Thionic, and Dystric Fluvisols

Dystric, and Humic Gleysols
Orthic, Ferric, and Gleyic Acrisols
Dystric Nitosols
Orthic, Xanthic, Humic, Acric, and Plinthic
Ferralsols, and

Dystric Histosols.

Some of the Humic and Vitric andosols, Humic

and Plinthic Acrisols, Humic Nitosols and
Rhodic Ferralsols are also acid.
In the Soil Taxonomy, many acid soils can
be found in the following suborders:

Aquents (Sulfaquents, Hydraquents,
Fluvaquents),

Fluvents (Tropofluvents, Udifluvents),

Aquepts (Sulfaquepts),

and in the order of Ultisols (Aquults,
Paleudults, kandiudults, kanhapludults),
Oxisols, Histosols and Andisols.
In Indonesia, Ultisols occupy almost 70% of
soils in the Outer Islands (Table A-1 and A-2)

3-2 Soil sampling and testing

The purpose of soil sampling is to open a
window to the soil black box by providing
material for soil testing. A representative soil

0.5 kg soil to
laboratory

0.001 kg soil
used in test
Figure 3-1 Soil tests are based on the
analysis of a tiny fraction of the field soil!
sample is a prerequisite for successful soil
testing. A layer of soil 20 cm deep contains
20003,000 t ha-1. A composite sample of
about 0.5 kg is taken from a field, which may
represent <1 ha or 30 ha. In the laboratory,
about 1 teaspoon of soil (a few grams) is taken
from the 0.5 kg sample for use in the analytical
procedure (Figure 3-1). Soils are normally
heterogenous and wide variability can occur
even in fields that are apparently uniform.
Unless the field sampling procedure is
implemented properly, there is a very big
chance that the soil analytical data will not be
representative of the field. The procedure
involved in collecting a representative sample
can be summarised as follows:
1 Check the area to be sampled for notable
features (e.g., slope, soil types,
vegetation, drainage).
2 Draw a sketch map, and identify and
mark the location of sampling points.

77
8 Avoid any contamination of samples by
other soils, sampling tools, sampling
bags, fertilizers, etc.
A field should be tested once every three years
and samples should be taken just prior to
seeding or planting but before fertilizer
application. In perennial cropping systems
samples should be taken at the same time of
year. The main objectives of soil testing are:

to help identify the reasons for poor plant
perfomance (diagnostic tool),

to provide an index of nutrient availability
or supply in a given soil,

to predict the response to soil
amendments (e.g. lime) and fertilizer,

to provide a basis for recommendations
on the amount of plant nutrients to apply,

to assist in preparing nutrient budgets on
a per field or per farm basis, and

to evaluate the fertility status of a larger
soilscape.
Plate 3-1
Proper sampling, using the
approriate tools and equipment is an
essential part of soil analysis.
3 Avoid sampling across different soil types
and land uses and in distinctive spots
(e.g., ash and manure piles, threshing
places, wet spots).
4 Take a composite sample (2530
individual sub-sample cores) from a
circular area, of about 1020 m diameter
before moving to another area to be
sampled.
5 Each sub-sample must be taken to the
full sampling depth.
6 Each composite sample should be clearly
identified and matched with the sketch
map or field location (use a GPS to
speed up this process and improve
accuracy).
7 Mix composite samples thoroughly and if
necessary, reduce sample weight by
subdividing (e.g., quartering).

A soil test is a chemical method for estimating

the nutrient-supplying power of a soil. Although
plant analyses are extremely valuable in
diagnosing nutrient stress, analysis of the soil
is essential for determining the supplemental
nutrient requirements of a particular crop.
Compared to plant analysis, the primary
advantage of soil testing is its ability to
determine the nutrient status of the soil before
the crop is planted. However, soil tests are not
able to predict the quantity of a nutrient taken
up by a crop. To predict the nutrient needs of
crops, soil test results must be calibrated
against nutrient uptake and yield in field and
glasshouse experiments.
Within given sampling units (i.e., soil areas
which have been identified as more or less
homogeneous), random or systematic
sampling can be applied. Sampling is
completely left to the luck of the draw. In some
situations (e.g., tree plantations), systematic
sampling (e.g., the soil under every other or
every 5th tree within one sampling unit) could
be the preferred method.

78
Table 3-1

Equipment required for working with soils in the field.

Task

Positioning

Sampling
Pedon

Top soil

Edelman auger

Edelman auger extension and

tubes

Tape measure

Clinometer

GPS KIT

Map and ariel photo

Profile

Shovel/spade

Hoe

Bush knife

Writing board, pencil and rubber

Topsoil sampler

X
X

2-meter tape (red/yellow)

Soil colour (Munsell) charts

Hand lens

Wash bottle (H2O)

pH indicator (Hellige Kit)

HCl

Bucket, sample bags and pens

Sample pots

Knife

Field bag

Manuals

79
Table 3-2

Units and methods used for basic soil analysis.

Soil parameter

Units

Method used

pH (water)

pH units

1:1 (soil:H2O)

pH (KCl)

pH units

1:1 (soil:1 M KCl)

Organic carbon

Wet oxidation (Walkley and Black)

Total Nitrogen

Kjeldahl method

Available P

mg kg-1

Bray II (molybdate blue) method,

spectrophotometer

Exchangeable K

cmol kg-1

1 M NH4OAc, pH 7, flame photometer

Exchangeable Na

cmol kg-1

1 M NH4OAc, pH 7, flame photometer

Exchangeable Ca

cmol kg-1

1 M NH4OAc, pH 7, atomic absorption

spectrophotometer

Exchangeable Mg

cmol kg-1

1 M NH4OAc, pH 7, atomic absorption

spectrophotometer

Exchangeable Al

cmol kg-1

1 M KCl titration method

Exchangeable H

cmol kg-1

1 M KCl titration method

Effective cation exchange

capacity (ECEC)

cmol kg-1

Exchangeable K+Na+Ca+Mg+Al+H

Al saturation

(Exchangeable Al EXEC) x 100

Sand

Pipette method

Silt

Pipette method

Clay

Pipette method

80
Table 3-3 Some chemical characteristics of Indonesian upland soils
Province

No.
samples

pH

Al
saturation

Ca

Available
P, Bray I

cmol kg-1

mg kg-1

Aceh

98

5.2

28

4.3

1.6

11

North Sumatra

64

5.2

21

1.9

1.6

11

West Sumatra

24

4.7

45

2.8

4.1

124

4.7

50

3.0

2.1

Jambi

84

4.5

60

1.2

1.8

Bengkulu

12

4.7

47

1.1

2.6

South Sumatra

74

4.7

51

1.4

1.6

Lampung

119

4.7

42

1.0

1.5

West Java

148

5.3

13

6.9

1.3

West Kalimantan

21

4.3

75

0.7

2.3

17

Central Kalimantan

39

4.6

62

0.8

2.1

East Kalimantan

31

4.4

59

2.5

1.5

30

South Kalimantan

41

4.8

58

1.5

1.4

Central Sulawesi

21

5.2

46

2.7

2.4

37

South Sulawesi

29

5.2

28

4.7

2.1

34

103

5.3

27

3.5

1.2

11

4.8

45

2.5

2.0

13

Riau

Southeast Sulawesi
Average
Source: Santoso, 1991

81
Crop

Tolerance to low P

Cassava

******************************

Upland rice

*************************

Cowpea

********************

Maize

***************

Groundnut

*********

Soybean

*****

Table 3-5

Table 3-4 Tolerance to low

soil P status in various crops.

Tolerance to Al saturation in various crops.

Low
(0 40%)

Moderate
(40 70%)

High
(>70%)

Crop

Latin name

Maize

Zea mays

Mungbean

Vigna radiata

Groundnut

Arachis hypogea

Cowpea

Vigna unguiculata

Soybean

Glycine max

Upland rice

Oryza sativa

Cassava

Manihot esculenta

Brachiaria

Brachiaria spp.

Setaria

Setaria spp.

Crotolaria

Crotalaria

Mucuna

Mucuna cochinchinensis

Gliricidia

Gliricidia sepium

Flemingia

X
X

X
X
X

Flemingia congesta

Calliandra

Calliandracalothyrsus

Cocoa

Theobroma cacao

Rubber

Hevea brasiliensis

Oil palm

Eleais guineensis

82

Table 3-6

Critical soil chemical properties for 45 crops.

Avail. P

Exch. K

Exch. Ca

mg kg-1

Crops

Exch. Mg

Al sat.

cmol kg-1

ML

MH

Maize hybrid

15

25

30

0.2

0.4

0.4

0.5

0.2

0.5

Maize local

15

25

30

0.2

0.4

0.4

0.5

0.2

Rice improved

15

25

30

0.2

0.4

0.4

0.5

Rice local

15

25

30

0.2

0.4

0.4

0.5

15

15

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.3

0.5

Potato

15

35

30

0.2

0.4

0.4

0.5

Sweet potato

15

20

20

0.2

0.3

0.4

ML

MH

30

30

50

60

0.5

30

30

50

60

0.2

0.5

30

30

50

60

0.2

0.4

0.8

30

30

40

50

0.2

0.3

0.4

30

30

80

80

0.2

0.4

0.5

30

30

50

50

0.3

0.2

0.4

0.4

30

30

70

70

Cereals

Root crops
Cassava
Taro

Yam

Food legume crops

Beans

15

25

30

0.2

0.4

0.4

0.8

0.2

0.5

20

25

30

40

Cowpea

10

20

25

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.4

0.2

0.4

0.5

20

25

25

50

Groundnut

15

25

30

0.2

0.3

0.3

0.8

0.2

0.4

0.8

20

25

30

40

Mungbean

15

20

25

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.8

0.2

0.4

0.6

20

25

30

40

Soybean

15

25

30

0.2

0.4

0.4

0.8

0.2

0.4

0.8

20

25

30

30

Table 3-6

...continued.

Avail. P
Crops

mg kg

Exch. K

Exch. Ca

-1

cmol kg

Exch. Mg

Al sat.

-1

ML

MH

ML

MH

Carrot

15

25

30

0.2

0.4

0.4

0.5

0.2

0.5

0.8

20

25

30

40

Cucumber

15

25

30

0.2

0.3

0.3

0.4

0.2

0.4

0.5

20

25

30

40

Eggplant

15

25

30

0.2

0.4

0.4

0.5

0.2

0.5

0.8

20

25

30

40

Long bean

15

25

30

0.2

0.4

0.5

0.5

0.2

0.4

0.8

20

25

30

40

Okra

15

25

30

0.2

0.3

0.3

0.4

0.2

0.4

0.5

20

25

30

50

Onion

15

25

30

0.2

0.4

0.5

0.5

0.2

0.5

0.6

20

25

30

50

Sweet pepper

15

25

30

0.2

0.4

0.4

0.5

0.2

0.5

20

25

40

50

Sweet corn

15

25

30

0.2

0.4

0.4

0.5

0.2

0.5

0.8

20

25

40

50

Tomato

15

25

30

0.2

0.4

0.4

0.5

0.2

0.5

0.6

20

25

30

50

Banana

15

20

30

0.2

0.4

0.4

0.8

0.2

0.4

20

25

40

50

Durian

15

20

25

0.2

0.4

0.4

0.5

0.2

0.4

0.8

30

35

50

60

Mango

15

20

25

0.2

0.4

0.5

0.5

0.2

0.4

0.8

20

25

30

40

Orange

15

20

25

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.2

0.4

0.8

30

35

50

60

Papaya

15

20

25

0.2

0.3

0.3

0.5

0.2

0.4

0.6

30

35

50

60

Pineapple

15

20

25

0.2

0.3

0.3

0.5

0.2

0.4

0.6

30

35

50

70

Rambutan

15

20

20

0.2

0.3

0.3

0.5

0.2

0.4

0.6

30

35

50

70

Watermelon

15

20

25

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.2

0.4

0.8

20

30

40

50

Vegetables

Fruit crops
Avocado

83

84

Table 3-6

...continued (last).

Avail. P

Exch. K

Exch. Ca

mg kg-1

Crops

Exch. Mg

Al sat.

cmol kg-1

ML

MH

Cocoa

15

25

30

0.2

0.4

0.5

0.8

0.2

0.5

Cloves

15

20

25

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.2

Coconut

15

20

20

0.2

0.3

0.3

0.5

Coffee

15

20

30

0.2

0.4

0.5

0.8

Oil palm

15

20

25

0.2

0.3

0.3

0.4

Rubber

10

20

25

0.2

0.3

0.3

Tea

10

15

20

0.2

0.3

0.3

Sugar cane

15

20

25

0.2

0.3

Tobacco

15

20

30

0.2

Chillies

15

20

25

Pepper

15

20

Grass

15

Legumes

15

ML

MH

20

25

30

50

0.4

0.8

20

30

40

60

0.2

0.4

0.4

20

30

50

60

0.2

0.4

0.8

20

25

40

40

0.2

0.3

0.3

30

35

50

70

0.4

0.2

0.3

0.3

30

35

50

70

0.4

0.2

0.4

0.6

40

45

60

70

0.4

0.5

0.2

0.4

0.6

30

35

50

50

0.4

0.5

0.8

0.2

0.4

0.6

20

25

40

60

0.2

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.2

0.4

0.8

20

25

40

40

25

0.2

0.3

0.3

0.4

0.2

0.4

0.6

30

35

50

50

20

25

0.2

0.4

0.5

0.8

0.2

0.4

0.8

30

35

50

50

20

30

0.2

0.4

0.5

0.8

0.2

0.5

20

25

40

40

Tree crops

Cash crops

Spices

Fodder crops

85
3-3 Plant sampling and analysis
Plant analysis ( sometimes referred to as leaf
analysis) is the determination (usually
chemical analysis) of the amount of each
essential element (or nutrient) in an oven dry
sample of plant material taken from a
nominated part of the crop plant at a specified
time in the crop cycle. The concentration of
nutrients in plant tissue depends on:
1. the plant part samples,
2. the time of sampling (i.e. the time of day),
3. the time in the cropping cycle (e.g. at
flowering, at fruiting), and
4. the plant sampled (each plant may
contain different amounts of particular
nutrients).

Various quick tests are used to determine the

amount of plant nutrients moving in the sap of
plants. When calibrated, these on-the -spot
tests can be used to define current nutrient
supply. Similarly as quick soil tests, these field
tests may be very helpful in the hands of an
expert but can be misleading in inexperienced
hands. These tests should be calibrated for
the crop and conditions where they are used.

3-4 Identification of deficiency

symptoms
The appearance of deficiency symptoms are
slightly different for each crop plant and
nutrient. There are, however, some generic
characteristics of deficiency symptoms for
each nutrient (see diagrams below). The
colours, position on the plant, presence of
chlorosis, and incidence of leaf margin
necrosis are different for each nutrient
deficiency (Table 3-7). All field agronomists
should attempt to familiarize themselves with
nutrient deficiency symptoms for major crops!

The main objectives of plant analysis are:

to confirm a diagnosis made from visual
symptoms,

to identify hidden hunger where there
are no visual symptoms,

to locate areas where deficiencies of one
or more nutrients may occur,

to determine whether applied nutrients
have been taken up by the plant,

to learn about interactions between
various nutrients, and

Table 3-7

to assess the quality of plant produce

and provide a guide to animal and human
health.

Characteristics of leaf nutrient deficiencies.

Nutrient

Position
on plant

Chlorosis?

Leaf margin
necrosis?

Colours and
leaf shape

All leaves

Yes

No

Yellowing of leaves
and leaf veins

Older leaves

No

No

Purplish patches

Older leaves

Yes

Yes

Yellow patches

Mg

Older leaves

Yes

No

Yellow patches

Ca

Young leaves

Yes

No

Deformed leaves

Young leaves

Yes

No

Yellow leaves

Mn, Fe

Young leaves

Yes

No

Interveinal chlorosis

Deformed leaves

B, Zn, Cu, Ca, Mo Young leaves

86

Location of nutrient deficiency symptoms

87

Location of macronutrient deficiency symptoms

Nitrogen deficiency

Phosphorus deficiency

Potassium deficiency

88

Location of micronutrient deficiency symptoms

S deficiency

Mn, Fe
deficiencies

B, Zn, Cu,
Ca, Mo
deficiencies

Mg deficiency

89
Table 3-8

Plant part to be analysed and timing of analysis.

Crop

Plant part

Timing

Maize hybrid

Blade opposite and below the cob

At silking

Maize local

Blade opposite and below the cob

At silking

Rice improved

Upper leaves

Before flowering

Rice local

Upper leaves

Before flowering

Cassava

4th and 5th lyoungest eaves

4 months after planting

Taro

2nd youngest leaf blade

At harvest

Potato

Fully developed leaves

At flowering

Sweet potato

Mid growth

Youngest mature leaf

Yam

Leaf with petiole

3rd month after planting

Cereals

Root crops

Food legumes
Bean

Fully developed leaves

At flowering

Cowpea

Whole shoot

At early flowering

Groundnut

Fully developed leaves.

At flowering

Mungbean

Whole shoot

At flowering

Soybean

Upper fully developed leaves.

At flowering

Carrot

Whole shoot

At midcrop period

Cucumber

Fully developed leaves.

At flowering

Eggplant

5th youngest leaf

60 days after planting

Long bean

Young mature leaf

At early flowering

Onion

Youngest mature blade

At midcropping

Sweet pepper

Fully developed leaves

At midcropping

Sweet corn

5th leaf from tips

At midcropping

Tomato

Fully developed leaves

At fruit set

Vegetables

Okra

90
Table 3-8 ...continued.

Crop

Plant part

Timing

Avocado

Fully developed leaves

At crop flush

Banana

Strips of young, fully developed leaf blades

During active growth

Durian

Young, fully developed leaves

Productive trees

Mango

5th leaf from base of current flush

After harvest

Orange

Fully developed leaves of young branches

Productive trees

Papaya

Petiole of youngest mature leaf

At flowering

Pineapple

Youngest mature leaf

At 6, 3 and 1 month prior

to flower induction

Rambutan

Young fully developed leaves

Productive trees

Watermelon

Young fully developed leaves

At midcrop period

Cocoa

Young fully developed leaves

Productive trees

Cloves

Young, mature trees

Productive trees

Coconut

14th leaf (counting from the first fully

opened leaf)

Productive trees

Coffee

Fully developed leaves on branches

carrying cherries

Before application of
fertilizers

Oil palm

17th leaf (counting from the first fully

opened leaf)

Productive trees

Rubber

Shaded leaves, 90 150 days old

Productive trees

Tea

2 leaves plus buds

At planting

Sugarcane

Leaf (TVD)

3 6 months after
planting

Tobacco

Fully developed leaves

Mid crop period

Chillies

Young mature leaves

Early fruiting

Pepper

Young, fully developed leaves

Productive plants

Grass

Whole shoot above 5 cm

At first flowering

Legumes

Whole shoot

At flowering

Fruit crops

Tree crops

Cash crops

Spices

Fodder crops

Table 3-9

Critical leaf nutrient concentrations for N, P and K in 45 crops.

Crop

N (% DM)

P (% DM)

K (% DM)

Maize hybrid

<2.9

3 5

>5

<0.25

0.3 0.6

>0.6

<1.5

1.8 2.6

>3

Maize local

<2.5

3 4

>4

<0.25

0.3 0.5

>0.5

<1.3

1.7 3.0

>3

Rice improved

<2.5

3 4

>4.5

<0.2

0.2 0.4

>0.4

<2

3 4.5

>4.5

Rice local

<2.5

3 4

>4.5

<0.2

0.2 0.5

>0.5

<2

3 4.5

>4.5

Cassava

<4.5

4.5 5.5

>5.5

<0.3

0.3 0.5

>0.5

<1

1.5 2.0

>2.0

Taro

<3.7

3.9 5.0

>5.5

<0.33

0.5 0.9

>1

<4.5

5 6

>6

Potato

<1.5

3 5

>6.5

<0.2

0.4 0.6

>0.6

<2

3 5

>7

Sweet potato

<2.5

3 4

>5

<0.12

0.2

>0.3

<0.8

1.0 1.5

>2

Yam

<1.5

1.5 2.0

>2.5

<0.15

0.2

>0.3

<1.5

1.5 2.5

>2.5

Beans

<2

3-5

>5

<0.2

0.2 0.5

>0.5

<2

2 3

>3

Cowpea

<2

3-4

>5

<0.2

0.2 0.5

>0.5

<2

2 3

>3

Groundnut

<2

3-4

>5

<0.2

0.2 0.5

>0.5

<2

2 3

>3.5

Mungbean

<2

3-4

>5

<0.2

0.2 0.5

>0.5

<2

2 3

>3.5

Soybean

<2

3-5

>5

<0.2

0.3 0.5

>0.6

<2

2 3

>3.5

Cereals

Root crops

Food legumes

91

92

Table 3-9

...continued.

Crop

N (% DM)

P (% DM)

K (% DM)

Carrot

<2

2-3

>3.5

<0.2

0.3 0.4

>0.5

<2

2 3

>4

Cucumber

<2

2.5-4.0

>5

<0.2

0.3 0.5

>0.6

<2

2.5 4.5

>5.5

Eggplant

<2

2.5 3.0

>4

<0.2

0.3 0.5

>0.6

<2

2 4

>4

Long bean

<2.5

3.0 3.5

>4

<0.2

0.5 0.5

>0.6

<2

2 3

>4

Okra

<2.5

3.0 3.5

>4

<0.2

0.5 0.5

>0.6

<2

2 3

>4

Onion

<2

2 3

>3

0.2

0.2 0.4

>0.4

<2

2 3

>3

Sweet pepper

<3

3 4

>4.5

<0.2

0.3 0.5

>0.6

<3

4 5

>5

Sweet corn

<2.5

2.5 3.5

>3.5

<0.2

0.3 0.6

>0.6

<2

2.5 3.5

>4

Tomato

<3.0

3.5 4.5

>5.0

<0.3

0.3 0.8

>0.9

<2

2.5 4.5

>5

Avocado

<1.5

1.6 2.0

>2.5

<0.1

0.1 0.3

>0.3

<0.3

0.5 2.0

>3

Banana

<3.0

3.0 3.5

>3.5

<0.1

0.1 0.2

>0.3

<3

4 5

>5

Durian

<2.0

2 3

>3

<0.2

0.2 0.3

<0.3

<2

2 3

>4

Mango

<1.5

2-3

>3

<0.2

0.2 0.3

>0.4

<3

3 4

>5

Orange

<2.0

2 3

>3.5

0.15

0.2 0.3

>0.3

<1

1 2

>2

Papaya

<1.5

1.5 2.0

>2.5

<0.1

0.1 0.3

>0.3

<0.8

1 2

>2

Pineapple

<1.5

1.5 2.0

>2

<0.15

0.2

>0.25

<1.8

2 3

>3.5

Rambutan

<1.5

2 3

>3

<0.2

0.2 0.3

>0.4

<2.0

2 3

>4

Watermelon

<1.8

2 3

>3

<0.2

0.2 0.4

>0.5

<2

2 3

>3.5

Vegetables

Fruit crops

Table 3-9

...continued.

Crop

N (% DM)

P (% DM)

K (% DM)

Cocoa

<2

2.0-2.5

>2.5

<0.1

0.1 0.2

>0.2

<1

1 3

>3

Cloves

<

Tree crops

Coconut

<1.8

2.0 2.5

>2.5

<0.1

0.12 0.15

>0.17

<0.8

1.0 1.5

1.5

Coffee

<2.5

2.5 3.5

>3.5

<0.1

0.1 0.2

>0.2

<1.5

2.0 2.5

>2.5

Oil palm

<2.5

2.5 3.0

>3.0

<0.15

0.17 0.18

>0.2

<1

1.0 1.3

>1.3

Rubber

<3.0

3.0 3.5

>3.5

<0.2

0.22 0.25

>0.25

<1.3

1.3 1.6

>1.7

Tea

<3.5

4 5

>5

<0.3

0.3 0.5

>0.6

<1.5

1.5 2.5

>2.5

Sugar cane

<2

2 3

>3

<0.2

0.2 0.3

>0.3

<1

1 2

>2

Tobacco

<2

2.0 2.5

>3

<0.2

0.2 0.4

>0.5

<2

2 4

>4

Chillies

<2.5

3 4

>4.5

<0.2

0.3 0.4

>0.5

<2.5

3 4

>4.5

Pepper

<2.5

3.0 3.5

>3.5

<0.15

0.2

>0.2

<2.5

3 4

>4.5

<1.5

2 3

>3

<0.2

0.2 0.4

>0.4

<2

2.0 3.5

>3.5

<3

3 5

>5

<0.2

0.3 0.5

>0.6

<2.0

2.5 4.0

>4

Cash crops

Spices

Fodder crops
Grass
Legumes

93

94

Table 3-10

Critical leaf nutrient concentrations for Ca, Mg and S in 45 crops

Crop

Ca (% DM)

Mg (% DM)

S (% DM)

Maize hybrid

<0.3

0.3 1.0

>1.0

<0.15

0.2 0.6

>0.6

<0.15

0.2 0.3

>0.3

Maize local

<0.2

0.2 1.0

>1.0

<0.15

0.2 0.5

>0.6

<0.15

0.2 0.3

>0.3

Rice improved

<0.2

0.2 0.6

>0.6

<0.2

0.2 0.4

>0.5

<0.15

0.2 0.25

>0.3

Rice local

<0.15

0.2 0.6

>0.6

<0.15

0.15 0.3

>0.3

<0.1

0.2

>0.25

Cassava

<0.6

0.6 0.8

>1.0

<0.25

0.3 0.4

>0.5

<0.25

0.25 0.3

>0.3

Taro

<2.0

2.6 4.0

>4.5

<0.15

0.17 0.25

>0.3

<0.26

0.27 0.33

>0.35

Potato

<0.5

0.5 1.5

>2.0

<0.1

0.2 0.5

>0.6

<0.25

0.25 0.4

>0.4

Sweet potato

<0.2

0.2 0.4

>0.8

<0.15

0.2 0.3

>0.4

<0.1

0.2 0.3

>0.3

Yam

<0.5

0.5 1.5

>2.5

<0.15

0.2 0.3

>0 4

<0.1

0.15 0.2

>0.3

Beans

<0.5

0.5 2.0

>2.0

<0.3

0.5 0.7

>0.8

<0.15

0.25

>0.4

Cowpea

<0.5

0.5 1.5

>2.0

<0.2

0.3 0.6

>0.8

<0.13

0.18 0.25

>0.3

Groundnut

<1.0

1.5-2.0

>2.5

<0.2

0.3 0.6

>0.8

<0.22

0.5 0.7

>0.7

Mungbean

<1.0

1.0 2.0

>2.5

<0.2

0.3 0.7

>0.8

<0.2

0.25 0.35

>0.4

Soybean

<0.5

0.6 1.5

>2.0

<0.2

0.3 0.7

>0.8

<0.15

0.35

>0.4

Cereals

Root crops

Food legumes

Table 3-10

...continued.

Crop

Ca (% DM)

Mg (% DM)

S (% DM)

Carrot

<0.8

1.0 2.0

>2.0

<0.3

0.4 0.6

>0.8

<0.25

0.3

>0.8

Cucumber

<3.0

4.0 6.0

>8.0

<0.3

0.5 1.0

>1.0

<0.25

0.4 0.7

>1.0

Eggplant

<0.5

1.0 2.0

>2.0

<0.3

0.3 0.8

>0.8

<0.2

0.4 0.5

>0.8

Long bean

<0.5

0.5 0.2.0

>2.0

<0.3

0.4 0.6

>0.7

<0.2

0.2 0.3

>0.5

Okra

<2.5

2.0 4.0

>5.0

<0.3

0.5 0.7

>0.7

<0.2

0.3 0.4

>0.5

Onion

<0.5

0.6 1.5

>1.5

<0.25

0.3 0.5

>0.5

<0.3

0.5 1.0

>1.0

Sweet pepper

<0.4

0.4 0.8

>1.0

<0.3

0.3 0.6

>0.8

<0.2

0.3

>0.4

Sweet corn

<0.4

0.4 0.6

>0.8

0.1

0.1 0.2

>0.5

<0.2

0.2 0.3

>0.3

Tomato

<2.0

3.0 4.0

>4.0

<0.3

0.3 0.6

>0.8

<0.4

0.5

>1.0

<1

1 3

>3

<0.2

0.3 0.5

>0.8

<0.2

0.2 0.6

>0.8

Banana

<0.5

0.8 1.3

>1.3

<0.3

0.3 0.4

>0.4

<0.2

0.2 0.25

>0.3

Durian

<2

2 4

>5

<0.2

0.2 0.4

>0.4

<0.2

0.3 0.4

>0.5

Mango

<2

2 4

>5

<0.2

0.2 0.4

>0.4

<0.2

0.25 0.3

>0.35

Orange

<2

3 6

>8

<0.2

0.3 0.6

>0.7

<0.15

0.15 0.2

>0.4

Papaya

<1

1 3

>4

<0.1

0.3 0.4

>0.5

<0.2

0.2 0.3

>0.4

Pineapple

<0.3

0.3 0.6

>0.8

<0.2

0.2 0.3

>0.4

<0.13

0.22 0.45

>0.6

Rambutan

<2

2 4

>5

<0.2

0.2 0.4

>0.4

<0.2

0.2 0.3

>0.5

<1.2

1.5 3.0

>3.5

<0.3

0.4 0.8

>0.8

<0.2

0.25 0.3

>0.3

Vegetables

Fruit crops
Avocado

95

Watermelon

96

Table 3-10

...continued (last).

Crop

Ca (% DM)

Mg (% DM)

S (% DM)

Cocoa

<0.3

0.3 0.8

>0.8

<0.3

0.4 0.6

>0.8

Cloves

<0.3

0.4 0.8

>1.0

<0.2

0.2 0.3

Coconut

<0.3

0.3 0.5

>0.6

<0.2

Coffee

<0.8

1.0 1.5

>1.5

Oil palm

<0.3

0.3 0.7

Rubber

<0.3

Tea

>0.3

<0.15

0.2 0.25

>0.3

0.2 0.3

>0.4

<0.15

0.2 0.25

>0.3

<0.3

0.3 0.5

>0.5

<0.1

0.1 0.2

>0.2

>1.0

<0.2

0.2 0.4

>0.7

<0.2

0.2 0.4

>0.6

0.4 0.6

>1.0

<0.2

0.22

>0.25

<0.15

0.2 0.3

>0.3

<0.3

0.4 0.6

>0.8

<0.2

0.2 0.4

>0.4

<0.15

0.2 0.3

>0.4

Sugarcane

<0.2

0.2 0.4

>0.4

<0.15

0.2 0.3

>0.3

<0.13

0.2 0.3

>0.4

Tobacco

<0.8

1.0 2.0

>2.5

<0.3

0.4 0.6

>0.8

<0.15

0.25 0.3

>0.5

Chillies

<0.8

1.0 1.5

>2

<0.3

0.4 0.5

>0.5

<0.15

0.2 0.3

>0.4

Pepper

<0.8

1.0 2.0

>2.5

<0.3

0.4 0.5

>0.5

<0.2

0.3

>0.4

<0.2

0.2 0.5

>0.6

<0.2

0.2 0.5

>0.5

<0.1

0.1 0.4

>0.4

<0.14

0.25

>0.35

Tree crops

Cash crops

Spices

Fodder crops
Grass
Legumes

Table 3-11

Nutrient uptake and removal in 45 crops.

Crop

Product

Yield
L

Total uptake (above ground

biomass)
N

Ca

Mg

t ha-1

Removal (crop yield)

Ca

Mg

kg ha-1

Cereals
Maize hybrid

Grain

4.5

4.5

115

20

75

16

12

70

13

17

Maize local

Grain

2.5

2.5

65

11

42

40

10

Rice improved

Grain

90

13

108

11

10

60

11

11

Rice local

Grain

45

54

30

Cassava

Roots

12

20

95

15

91

50

15

10

35

50

Taro

Tubers

10

20

130

20

133

32

17

12

60

11

58

Potato

Tubers

10

15

80

13

100

14

10

40

54

Sweet potato

Tubers

60

71

30

42

Yam

Tubers

15

25

80

13

91

19

30

50

Beans

Beans

180

20

116

36

36

20

85

42

Cowpea

Grain

80

42

21

12

10

55

21

Groundnut

Grain

150

13

71

64

21

20

80

12

Mungbean

Grain

0.5

90

71

21

12

10

55

17

Soybean

Grain

90

12

15

10

75

23

Root crops

Food legumes

97

98

Table 3-11

...continued.

Crop

Product

Yield
L

Total uptake (above ground

biomass)
N

Ca

Mg

t ha-1

Removal (crop yield)

Ca

Mg

kg ha-1

Vegetables
Carrot

Roots

10

20

90

13

125

43

12

10

60

75

Cucumber

Fruit

10

20

45

58

15

25

25

Eggplant

Fruit

10

20

100

11

125

29

18

10

30

37

Beans

15

120

11

58

29

10

55

25

Okra

Fruit

15

150

22

91

21

21

10

60

10

50

13

Onion

Bulbs

20

30

100

17

91

21

12

20

40

42

Sweet pepper

Fruit

10

20

70

75

43

12

20

40

25

42

Sweet corn

Cobs

10

20

140

22

149

25

12

10

70

75

Tomato

Fruit

10

20

90

116

29

12

10

40

50

Avocado

Fruit

10

10

60

11

66

36

18

10

20

37

Banana

Fruit

20

30

220

35

790

179

42

20

60

141

Durian

Fruit

12

80

15

116

43

24

20

30

50

Mango

Fruit

15

80

83

57

36

10

30

33

Orange

Fruit

10

20

130

13

150

43

12

15

30

42

11

Papaya

Fruit

10

20

60

75

21

10

25

22

Long bean

Fruit crops

Table 3-11

...continued.

Crop

Product

Yield
L

Total uptake (above ground

biomass)
N

Ca

Mg

t ha-1

Removal (crop yield)

Ca

Mg

kg ha-1

Fruit crops
Pineapple

Fruit

30

60

180

22

280

72

24

20

40

91

11

Rambutan

Fruit

15

80

13

75

43

24

10

30

25

11

Watermelon

Fruit

10

20

80

17

100

32

21

10

30

37

Cocoa

Beans

140

15

158

114

48

10

30

17

Cloves

Cloves

0.3

70

13

91

43

24

10

10

12

Tree crops

Coconut

Nuts

10

160

13

24

86

42

25

70

17

91

14

18

12

Coffee

Beans

120

17

149

57

30

20

40

42

Oil palm

Bunch

20

30

190

26

257

43

60

30

75

13

100

14

21

15

Rubber

Latex

0.5

1.5

50

41

11

10

20

25

Tea

0.5

1.5

120

15

66

29

10

40

21

Tea

Cash crops
Sugarcane
Tobacco

Cane

60

100

110

26

141

57

36

30

90

15

91

21

24

20

Leaves

90

13

149

57

24

20

50

75

14

12

99

100

Table 3-11

...continued (last).

Crop

Product

Yield
L

Total uptake (above ground

biomass)
N

Ca

Mg

t ha-1

Removal (crop yield)

Ca

Mg

kg ha-1

Spices
Chillies

Pods

160

15

183

36

18

10

60

66

Pepper

P/corns

180

13

133

29

12

15

60

42

Grass

DM

180

22

166

43

30

25

120

13

125

14

15

12

Legumes

DM

10

300

35

266

107

42

40

240

28

216

79

30

20

Fodder crops

101
Table 3-12 Nutrient content of manures and residues commonly available in Indonesia.

Water
(%)

Human faeces

1.0

0.2

0.3

Cattle faeces

0.3

0.1

0.1

Pig faeces

0.5

0.2

0.4

Fresh cattle manure

60

8 10

0.4 0.6

0.1 0.2

0.4 0.6

0.2 0.4

Composted cattle manure

35

30 35

1.5

1.2

2.1

Farmyard manure

50

1.0

0.8

1.2

0.8

Goat manure

50

0.8

0.7

1.5

0.8

Sheep manure

50

1.0

0.7

1.5

1.7

Pig manure

80

5 10

0.7 1.0

0.2 0.3

0.5 0.7

1.2

Poultry manure

55

15

1.4 1.6

0.25 0.8

0.7 0.8

2.3

Garbage compost

40

16

0.6

0.2

2.3

1.1

Sewerage sludge

50

17

1.6

0.8

0.2

1.6

75 80

0.3

0.2

0.06

0.5

10

45

4.5

0.7

1.1

1.8

Material

Sugarcane filtercake
Castorbean cake

Ca

% fresh material

kg nutrient t fresh manure = % nutrient content x 10

-1

102

Table 3-13

Basic characteristics of fertilizers commonly available in Indonesia.

Name

Formula

Raw material

Source of raw
materials

Process

Urea

CO(NH2)2

NH3 and CO2

Atmosphere

'Once Through', 'Partial' and 'Total Recycle'

processes, based on Haber-Bosch reaction

Sulphate of
ammonia

SA

(NH4)2SO4

Chemical byproducts

NH3, CaSO4, CO2

Calcium ammonium
nitrate

Saturation of H2SO4 with NH3, Leuna

process

Calcium
ammonium nitrate

CAN

NH4NO3 +
CaCO3

Chemical byproduct

HNO3, NH3,
CaCO3/Ca(NO3)2

Combustion of NH3 + CaCO3, ODDA

process

Triple super
phosphate

TSP Ca(H2PO4)2

Terrestrial

P rock, H3PO4

Treatment of pulverized P rocks with

phosphoric acid

Diammonium
phosphate

DAP (NH4)2HPO4

Chemical byproducts

NH3, H3PO4

Wet-process reaction (acid slurry +NH3 at

115OOC)

Terrestrial

Phosphate ore

Purification and grinding

Marine-lacustrine

KCl, MgCl2, NaCl, etc.

Thermal dissolution, flotation, crystallization

Phosphate rock

PR

Ca10(PO4)6F2

SP36
Muriate of potash

MOP KCl

Langbeinite

K2SO4 . MgSO4

Marine-lacustrine

Rock salt

Segregation, granulation

Kieserite

MgSO4 . H2O

Marine-lacustrine

Rock salt K2Mg(SO4)2

Segregation, electrostatic benefications,

granulation

Dolomite

CaMg(CO3)2

Marine sediments Calcite/dolomite

Borate (sodium
borate)

Na2BsO13 . 4H2O Lacustrine

Ulexite, borax

Copper sulphate

CuSO4 . 5H2O

CuFeS2, FeS2, CuFeS4 Reaction of Cu melt products + H2O

Marine-lacustrine

Segregation, grinding
Segregation of precipitated lacustrine salts

Table 3-14

Nutrient content of fertilizers commonly available in Indonesia.

Fertilizer

Abbreviation

46

Ammonium chloride

AC

25

Ammonium nitrate

AN

34

Calcium nitrate

CN

15

Ammonium sulphate

AS

21

Mono ammonium phosphate

MAP

11

48 55

Diammonium phosphate

DAP

18 21

46 53

Urea

Rock phosphate

P2O5

2.5

FMP

12 15

Single super phosphate

SSP

16 22

Double super phosphate

SP36

32 36

Triple super phosphate

TSP

44 53

Potassium chloride

MOP/KCl

60 62

Potassium sulphate

SOP
Kies

Langbeinite

SKMg

Dolomite

GML
Aglime

Acidifying
soil?
Moderately

0.5

10 15

Moderately
2

24

Strongly

1 3

Slight

1 1.5

Slight

25 50

No

12 16

No
11 14

No
No

0.5

12 19

1 1.5

No
47 Cl

44
22

No

17 18

No

0.2

No

27

22

No

18

22

No

0.5

10 22

0.5

35 45

No

47

No

103

Agrilime (calcite)

Others

26

50 53
13

Moderately

Fused magnesium phosphate

Kieserite

CaO

66 Cl

25 41

KN

MgO

Moderately

RP

Potassium nitrate

K2 O

104

Table 3-14

...continued.

Fertilizer

Abbreviation

P2O5

K2O

MgO

Gypsum

NPK 15-15-15

15

15

15

NPK 16-16-8

16

16

NPK 13-13-21

13

13

21

NPK 12-12-17 + [2(Mg) +

Trace elements (TE)]

12

12

17

NPK 15-15-6 + 4(Mg)

15

15

CaO

22 30

13 16

Others

Acidifying
soil?
No
No

No
No
Micronutrients

No
No

105
Table 3-15 Characteristics of major rock phosphate sources available in Indonesia.

Country

Place

Total

2% CA
soluble

2% FA
soluble

% P 2O 5

CaO
%

Australia

Christmas Island

34

12

12

36

China

Yunnan

35

14

44

Indonesia

Gresik

28

n.a.

43

Jordan

El Hassa

33

11

15

50

Morocco

Khourigba

33

11

17

51

Tunisia

Gafsa

30

22

47

USA

Florida

31

46

USA

North Carolina

35

13

25

49

CA = citric acid, FA = formic acid

106
3-5 General fertilizer
recommendations for Indonesian
acid, uplands

Low P soils - most acid, upland soils that
have not previously been fertilized with at
least 25-50 kg P ha-1 yr-1. If pH < 5.5,
apply either 1 t rock phosphate ha-1, or if
pH 5.5, apply 400-500 kg SP-36 ha-1
(one-time application).

Low K soils - most acid, upland soils that
have been cropped for several years, but
where K removal in crop products has
not been replenished with crop residue or
fertilizer K. Apply about 25 kg K ha-1 (in 3
t air-dried cow manure ha-1 or 50 kg KCl
ha-1).

Low Ca soils - a limiting factor on some
acid, upland soils, depending on the crop
grown.

Low Mg soils - deficient on many acid,
upland soils that have been cropped for
several years, but where Mg removal in
crop products has not been replenished
with crop residue or fertilizer Mg. Apply
about 20 kg Mg ha-1 (or a one-time
application of 3 t air-dried cow manure
ha-1 or 125 kg kieserite ha-1)

Low S soils - some acid, upland soils are
deficient, especially where much of the
crop residue has been removed and
crops with a large S requirement (oil
seed crops like soybean) are planted.

3-6 Examples of simple field

tests
1.
Compare two different timings of
fertilizer (e.g., all at planting compared
with split application).
This experiment can be useful if it can show
farmers that they may save time by reducing
the amount of times that they apply fertilizer
or they may even be applying fertilizer too late.
For example, some farmers may apply P
fertilizer at 2-3 weeks after planting. This may
be in addition to a P application at planting or
it may be the only application. P fertilizer is

usually best applied at planting, especially for

annual crops.
Recommended treatment: apply all P fertilizer
at planting.
Farmer practice : current practice. Some
farmers may wait until they are sure that the
crop germinates before they fertilize to reduce
risk, but they may increase risk by not fertilizing
on time.

2.
Compare the method used to
apply fertilizer (e.g., comparing shallow
incorporation with surface application).
In situations where there is a large potential
for loss of surface-applied fertilizer, test the
effect of incorporating fertilizer on fertilizer
efficiency. This could result in larger yields for
the incorporated versus surface-applied
treatment. Alternatively, reduce the fertilizer
dose slightly for the incorporated treatment to
allow for greater fertilizer efficiency.

3.
Compare two different
combinations of nutrients (e.g.,
comparing 100-50-25 with 75-50-50.
Both use total of 175 kg of fertilizer)
The farmer may be using too much of one
nutrient and not enough of others (e.g., too
much N and P but not enough K). Test the
effect of decreasing the N dose and increasing
the amount of k applied. Try to end up with the
same cost, but at different nutrient
combinations.

4.
Compare the effect of organic
material management (e.g., compare
removing all rice straw with returning all
of the rice straw and/or 100 urea, 50
SP-36, 25 KCL vs. 100 urea, 50 SP-36,
1 T cow dung ha-1).
This can demonstrate how by returning all of
the residue to the field, fertilizer costs can be
reduced.

107
5.
Compare fertilizer application
rates (e.g., compare 100-50-50 with 5075-75)
If the farmer is already fertilizing efficiently,
consider increasing the fertilizer application
rate in order to increase production.

3-7 Understanding Fertilizer

Nutrient Recommendations
Removal
Crop production can only be sustained when
nutrients removed in the harvested parts of
the crop are replaced. The amount of nutrients
required to replace removal in crop products
is shown in Table 3-11. Fertilizer nutrient
recommendations are shown in Table 3-20 nd
3-21. The amount of external nutrient inputs
required by a crop depends on a number of
factors:

the total nutrient uptake required to
achieve the target yield (related to
biomass production and the nutrient
concentration in the biomass),

the amount of nutrients supplied by the
soil, and

the efficiency with which the crop plant
recovers nutrients from external nutrient
inputs (e.g., manure, mineral fertilizer).
Clearly, larger yields require larger amounts
of nutrients to grow them and to replenish the
nutrients exported in crop products.
For example, small yields (1 t paddy ha-1) of a
traditional local rice variety can possibly be
sustained with very small applications of
around 5-10 kg K20 ha-1, provided the rice
straw is returned to the field. By contrast, a
modern high yielding variety (5 t paddy ha-1)

removes about 160 kg K20 from the soil if the

straw and grain are removed from the field.,
It is therefore very important that fertilizer
recommendations take account of the amount
of nutrients removed or returned in different
parts (e.g., grain, straw) of the crop concerned.
About 3 kg K20 t-1 is removed in rice grain but
nearly 30 kg K20 ha-1 is removed (or returned
to the field) with each tonne of harvested straw.
Clearly, if chaff is returned to the field after
threshing and hulling and rice bran after
polishing rice, a very small amount of K is
required to replenish the amount of K exported
in the final grain product.
The amount of nutrients removed in crop
products can vary greatly between crop
varieties and species due to differences in:

yield potential,

the nature of the crop products, and

the nutrient content of harvested parts.
For example, about 140 kg K20 ha-1 may be
removed with a yield of 20 t banana bunches
compared to only 40 kg K20 ha-1 with similar
yields of papaya or water melon fruits.

Uptake
In addition to nutrient removal in crop yield,
fertilizer nutrient recommendations must be
supplied in sufficient quantity to satisfy the total
nutrient uptake required to achieve the target
yield.
At similar yield levels of banana, oil palm and
papaya, the amount of nutrients contained in
the harvested biomass is much larger in
banana than oil palm or papaya (Table 3-16).

Crop

Yield
(t ha-1)

Parts

Amount
(kg K ha-1)

Banana

20

Above ground parts

600

Oil palm

20

Bunches + 2 leaves

200

Papaya

20

Fruits

90

Table 3-16 Amount of K

removed in three different
crops

108
Fertilizer nutrient recommendations are listed
for N, P, K, Mg, S and organic materials in
Tables 3-20 and 3-21 as guidelines to achieve
commonly occuring low yields and larger target
yields in tropical upland situations. Whenever
organic materials are recommended these are
seen as necessary soil amendments and
additional sources of nutrients. Application of
these materials in most tropical uplands is a
precondition to ensure efficient utilization of
mineral fertilizer nutrients and good soil
physical fertility.
The nutrient content of mineral fertilizers is
always reported on the outside of bags of all
quality fertilizers in terms of the amount of N,
P205, K20 and MgO and this is why the fertilizer
recommendations stated here use the oxide
forms for P, K and Mg (Table 3-14).

Calculating fertilizer application rates.

1 kg S is contained in 100 24 = 4.16 kg AS

10 kg S is contained in 4.16 x 10 = 41.6 kg AS
42 kg of AS is required to apply 10 kg S ha-1
(42 kg of AS also contain 8.8 kg of N! This
amount must be deducted from the
recommended rate of 80 kg N ha-1).

Question 2: Is there a source of Mg?

Answer: Yes, GML (20% MgO)
How much GML is needed to provide 20 kg
MgO ha-1?
20 kg MgO is contained in 100 kg GML.
As GML is a slow release Mg source and only
small amounts (e.g. 10%) of the Mg contained
usually become plant available, it is suggested
to apply 10 x 100 = 1,000 kg GML ha-1 to meet
requirements.

The following example is provided to

demonstrate how to calculate amounts of
fertilizer materials required to deliver the
nutrient recommendations provided in Table320 and 3-21.

Question 3: Is there a source of K?

Answer: Yes, MOP/KCl (60% K20)

Example

100 kg MOP/KCl are required to apply 60 kg

K20 ha-1.

Crop: Hybrid maize

Grain yield target: 4.5 t ha-1 (low)
Fertilizer nutrient recommendation (kg ha ):
80 N 50 P205 60 K20 20 MgO 10 S
-1

How much MOP/KCl is needed to provide 60

kg K20 ha-1?
60 kg K20 is contained in 100 kg MOP/KCl

Question 4: Is there a source of P?

Answer: Yes, SP36 (34% P205)

Fertilizer materials available (Table 3-14):

How much SP36 is needed to provide 50 kg

P205 ha-1?

Urea (46% N),

34 kg P205 is contained in 100 kg SP36

Ammonium sulphate (AS) (21% N, 24% S),

1 kg P205 is contained in 100: 34 = 2.94 kg

SP36

SP36 (34% P205 )

MOP/KCl (60% K20 ), and
GML (20% MgO).

Question 1: Is there a source of S?

Answer: Yes, AS (24% S)
How much AS is needed to provide 10 kg S
ha-1?
24 kg S is contained in 100 kg AS

50 kg P205 is contained in 2.94 x 50 = 147 kg

SP36
147 kg of SP36 is required to apply 50 kg P205
ha-1.

109
Question 5: Is there a source of N?
Answer: There are two sources of N:
Urea (46% N) and AS (21% N); 42 kg
AS (as a source of S) supply already 8.8
kg N ha-1.
How much urea is needed to supply the
remaining (80 - 8.8) 71.2 kg N ha-1?
46 kg N is contained in 100 kg urea
1 kg N is contained in 100: 46 = 2.17 kg urea
71.2 kg N is contained in 2.17 x 71.2 = 154.8
kg urea
155 kg of urea and 42 kg AS are required to
apply 80 kg N ha-1
To make this recommendation practical for
extension purposes the recommendation for
1 ha is:
3 bags of urea (150 kg urea)
1 bag of SA (50 kg SA)
3 bags of SP36 (150 kg SP36)
2 bags of MOP/KCl (100 kg MOP/KCl)
20 bags of GML (1000 kg GML)
This will supply the recommended 80 kg N,
50 kg P205, 60 kg K20, 20 kg MgO and 10 kg
S.

Additional remarks
As ground magnesium limestone (GML)
usually contains 4050 % CaO the application
of 100kg GML ha-1 will also supply calcium (Ca)
and may increase soil pH slightly ( usually a
beneficial effect on acid soils).
In addition, a minimum of 5 t FYM ha-1 is
recommended to improve physical soil
conditions, nutrient availability and supply soil
organic matter and micronutrients to the crop.
FYM and GML are best applied before land
preparation and incorporated with the soil P
and K fertilizers.
One part (e.g., 2 bags of urea = 46 kg N ha-1)
of N fertilizers is usually applied before or at
planting (as a basal dressing).

The remaining part of N-fertilizers (e. g. 1 bag

of urea and 1 bag of AS providing together
around 33 kg N ha-1) is then applied to the crop
(top dressing) at a later growth stage (e.g., 6
8 leaf stage).

110
3-8 Micronutrients
Eight of the 16 essential plant nutrients are
known as micro-nutrients, and are sometimes
called trace elements (TE) or minor elements.
They include boron (B), cobalt (Co), copper
(Cu), chlorine (Cl), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn),
molybdenum (Mo) and Zinc (Zn). Their
availability in soils is affected to a large degree
by soil pH (Figure 2-1).
The most abundant micro-nutrient in soils is
iron (Fe) followed by Mn, Zn, Cu, Cl, B, and
Mo. Micronutrients, particularly the metal
cations (Cu, Fe, Mn, Zn) are present as
minerals, metal-organic complexes and as
exchangeable cations in soils. Organic forms
are of lesser importance in the case of Mo and
Cl. Deficiency levels of micronutrients in soils
and plants depend on the extractants and
methods of analysis used. General indicators
are given in table 3-17 and 3-19.
Although the micronutrients presented here
are required only in very small amounts they
are essential for plant growth (some especially
for animals e.g., Co). Their deficiency can lead
to significant yield reduction and even to total
crop failure.
Special analytical processes of soil and plant
are required to determine micro-nutrient
concentrations. Sometimes the assistance of
an expert is required or it may be necessary

to carry out some pot experiments to define

deficiencies and/or toxicities of these elements
in soils and plants.
A farmer or planter should look for specialist
advice wherever and whenever symptoms
similar to those listed in Table 3-17 and 3-19
occur in otherwise healthy crops that were
supplied with sufficient N, P, K, Ca, Mg, and
S. The most common fertilizer micro-nutrient
sources are listed in table 3-19. There are
numerous other sources commercially
available, particularly for foliar application (e.g.,
as chelated products). Also, a number of
common NPK compounds are carriers of
micro-nutrients (e.g., B, Zn, Cu). If applied
repeatedly or in large amounts, some
commercially available organic nutrient
sources such as slurries, urban wastes and
composts carry large enough amounts of
micro-nutrients to cause toxicity in plants. It is
always advisable to analyse such residues and
waste products for trace elements and toxic
elements (e.g., heavy metals) before
application.
There are other trace elements which have
been found essential or useful for plants such
as chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni), iodine (I),
selenium (Se) and silicon (Si) but which are
commonly not related to deficiency and only
seldom to toxicity (e.g., large concentrations
of Cr and Ni in ultramafic soils) in plants.

Table 3-17 Micronutrients concentration in soils, and pH ranges for maximum availability.

Symbol

Total content mg kg-1

Optimum pH range

Boron

10 630

5.0 7.0

Cobalt

Co

1 40

5.0 5.5

Copper

Cu

1 960

5.0 6 .5

Chlorine

Cl

5 800

not affected

Iron

Fe

3,000 100,000

4.0 6.0

Manganese

Mn

30 5,000

5.0 6.5

Molybdenum

Mo

0.1 18

6.0 8.5

Zinc

Zn

2 1,600

5.0 6.5

Micronutrient

111
Table 3-18 Factors contributing to micronutrient toxicities, toxicity symptoms and toxicity
levels in plants

Toxicity factors

Toxicity symptoms

Toxicity levels
mg kg-1

Large applications of
urban compost

Chlorosis and necrosis of leaf

tips and leaf margins

Co

Soils (sandy, highly

calcareous, peaty)
Fe/Al/Mn oxides
Liming, drainage

Not known (still unclear

whether Co has a direct
function in plants)

Cu

Contamination of soils
due to large applications
of slurries and urban
compost

Chlorosis and necrosis of older

leaves
Inhibition of root elongation

Cl

Poorly drained coastal

soils and salt-affected
areas, salt tolerance of
species

Leaf scorching and growth

inhibition (especially in saltsensitive cultivars)

> 3500

Fe

Submerged soils,
waterlogged areas

Bronzing in rice, and purple

discoloration of leaves in other
crops

> 500

Mn

Submerged soils,
waterlogged areas

Brown spots on leaf veins

necrosis starting at leaf tips and
margins, leaf crinkling

> 500

Mo

Liming in addition to Mo
application

Golden to orange-yellow
(sometimes purple)
discoloration
Short internodes

> 1000

Zn

Under glass and screen

house roofs

Rarely occurs
Symptoms similar to those of
Fe and Mn deficiency

> 400

> 200
>1000 (some
species >4000)

> 20

Deficiency factors

Deficiency symptoms

Deficiency
level mg kg-1

Common micronutrient
sources

Soils (alluvial, sandy ,

organic);high pH; dry weather,
high light intensity

Distortion of youngest leaves and

buds

< 15

Sodium tetra borate (15% B)

Co

Soils (sandy, highly calcareous,

peaty); Fe/Al/Mn oxides;
Liming, drainage

Rhizobium infection is reduced and

N2 fixation delayed in legumes

< 0.1

Co-sulphate

Cu

Soils (sandy, organic); high soil

P, Zn;

Young leaves wilting, inter-veinal

yellowing

Cl

Soils (sandy); Sites away from

the sea; Sensitive crops
(coconut, oil palm)

Chlorosis of younger leaves,

overall wilting

< 500

MOP/KCl (48%Cl)

Fe

Acid soils (low organic matter,

poor aeration); Free CaCO3

Chlorosis (yellow-white) of
youngest leaves in areas between
veines

< 50

Fe-sulphate (19%Fe)

Mn

Alkaline and poorly drained

soils, high in soil Fe, Cu, Zn;
dry weather, low light intensity,
low soil temperature

Strip and spot chlorosis (often with

grey-brown lesions which spread
with time) starting on younger
leaves

< 20

Mn-sulphate (30%Mn)

Mo

Acid conditions; free Fe

Necrotic leaf tips and margins,

rolling, crinkling sometimes
perforation of mostly younger
leaves

< 0.1

Ammonium- molybdate
(54%Mo)

Zn

Calcareous soils; high soil P;

compacted soils

Chlorotic (often white) fast growing

spots between veines, small young
leaves ('white bud' of maize)

< 20

Zn-sulphate (21%Zn)

<4

Cu- sulphate (25%Cu)

112

Table 3-19 Factors contributing to micronutrient deficiencies, deficiency symptoms and deficiency levels in plants

113
Table 3-20 Balanced N, P, K, and Mg-fertilizer nutrient recommendations for 45 crops.

Crop

Product

Yield

P2O5

K2 O

MgO

Low High Low High Low High Low High Low High

t ha-1

kg ha-1

Cereals
Maize hybrid

Grain

4.5

4.5

80

150

50 160

60

150

20

40

Maize local

Grain

2.5

2.5

50

100

20

80

20

60

10

Rice improved Grain

80

160

20

80

30

90

10

20

Rice local

Grain

80

115

20

40

20

30

10

Cassava

Roots

12

20

40

200

20

80

20

100

20

Taro

Tubers

10

20

50

20

60

60

10

20

Potato

Tubers

10

15

40

100

20

80

20

100

10

40

Sweet Potato

Tubers

15

100

20

80

30

60

10

50

Yam

Tubers

15

25

80

20

80

20

80

20

Root crops

Food legumes
Beans

Beans

20

40

20

60

30

60

15

30

Cow pea

Grain

10

20

30

40

20

30

10

30

Ground nut

Grain

10

50

20

80

60

10

30

Mung beans

Grain

0.5

10

20

30

40

20

30

15

30

Soybean

Grain

60

30

60

60

10

30

Carrot

Roots

10

20

20

60

20

60

30

100

20

Cucumber

Fruit

10

20

80

150

20

80

90

200

10

20

Eggplant

Fruit

10

20

50

200

60 150

80

200

10

20

Long bean

Beans

15

20

40

20

60

30

60

10

20

Okra

Fruit

15

60

120

60 100

60

120

20

Onion

Bulbs

20

30

60

150

80 120

90

150

20

Sweet pepper

Fruit

10

20

90

150

80 150

90

250

10

30

Sweet corn

Cobs

10

20

90

120

80 120

80

120

10

Tomato

Fruit

10

20

80

120

80 150

90

200

10

20

Vegetables

114
Table 3-20 ...continued (last).

Crop

Product

Yield

P2O5

K2 O

MgO

Low High Low High Low High Low High Low High

t ha-1

kg ha-1

Fruit crops
Avocado

Fruit

10

10

100

200

200

300

200

300

10

Banana

Fruit

20

30

100

300

100

300

200

400

60

150

Durian

Fruit

12

100

150

50

150

100

200

20

40

Mango

Fruit

15

80

150

50

150

50

150

20

40

Orange

Fruit

10

20

100

150

50

150

100

200

20

40

Papaya

Fruit

10

20

80

200

100

200

100

300

10

Pineapple

Fruit

30

60

200

300

50

150

200

300

30

50

Rambutan

Fruit

15

50

150

50

150

50

150

20

Watermelon

Fruit

10

20

50

100

60

120

80

200

20

40

Tree crops
Cocoa

Beans

40

60

50

70

50

70

40

60

Cloves

Cloves

0.3

50

100

30

90

100

200

10

20

Coconut

Nuts

10

50

100

30

60

80

100

10

30

Coffee

Beans

100

200

50

200

150

300

10

30

Oil palm

Bunch

20

30

80

150

50

150

100

300

20

60

Rubber

Latex

0.5

1.5

10

30

20

30

50

100

10

Tea

Tea

0.5

1.5

100

150

30

80

30

80

10

30

60

100

80

120

60

120

100

200

10

30

Cash crops
Sugarcane

Cane

Tobacco

Leaves

20

50

40

100

50

150

10

20

Chillies

Pods

80

120

60

120

80

150

40

80

Pepper

P/corns

100

400

100

200

100

500

40

80

Spices

Fodder crops
Grass

DM

50

200

30

90

40

80

20

30

Legumes

DM

10

50

200

30

90

40

80

20

30

Table 3-21

List of Latin, English and Indonesian names for crop plants.

Yield
Crop

Product

Low

High

t ha-1

Low

Organic material
High

kg ha-1

Material

Low

Comments

High

t ha-1

Cereals
Maize hybrid

Grain

4.5

4.5

10

20

FYM

10

Add boron

Maize local

Grain

2.5

2.5

10

FYM

10

Rice improved

Grain

10

20

Straw

Add zinc

Rice local

Grain

10

Straw

Cassava

Tuber

12

20

20

FYM

Taro

Tuber

10

20

10

20

FYM

10

10

Potato

Tuber

10

15

20

FYM

10

10

Sweet potato

Tuber

15

20

FYM

Yam

Tuber

15

25

20

FYM

10

20

Use mulch

Root crops

Food legumes
Beans

15

20

FYM

Needs lime

Cowpea

Grain

10

20

FYM

Tolerant of Al saturation

Groundnut

Grain

10

20

FYM

Add 300 kg lime ha-1 to row

for peanut formation

Mungbean

Grain

0.5

10

20

FYM

Needs lime

Soybean

Grain

10

20

FYM

Needs lime

115

Beans

116

Table 3-21

...continued.

Yield
Crop

Product

Low

High

t ha-1

S
Low

Organic material
High

kg ha-1

Material

Low

Comments

High

t ha-1

Vegetables
Carrot

Roots

10

20

20

FYM

10

20

Incorporate fertilizer

Cucumber

Fruit

10

20

20

FYM

10

20

Eggplant

Fruit

10

20

10

FYM

10

10

Long bean

Beans

15

10

FYM

10

10

Okra

Fruit

15

10

FYM

10

10

Onion

Bulbs

20

30

20

FYM

10

10

Needs lime

Sweet pepper

Fruit

10

20

10

20

FYM

10

10

Apply dolomite

Sweet corn

Cobs

10

20

10

20

FYM

10

10

Tomato

Fruit

10

20

10

20

FYM

10

10

Avocado

Fruit

10

10

10

20

FYM

Banana

Fruit

20

30

20

60

FYM

10

30

Durian

Fruit

12

20

30

FYM

Mango

Fruit

15

10

FYM

Orange

Fruit

10

20

10

20

FYM

Papaya

Fruit

10

20

10

FYM

10

Use boron

Pineapple

Fruit

30

60

10

20

FYM

10

50% fertilizer to ratoon

Rambutan

Fruit

15

10

FYM

10

Watermelon

Fruit

10

20

10

FYM

10

10

Use mulch

Fruit crops
Lime to pH 5.5

Table 3-21

...continued (last).

Yield
Crop

Product

Low

High

t ha-1

Low

Organic material
High

kg ha-1

Material

Low

Comments

High

t ha-1

Tree crops
Cocoa

Beans

20

30

None

Cloves

Cloves

0.3

10

FYM

Coconut

Nuts

10

10

None

Coffee

Beans

10

20

FYM

Oil palm

Bunch

20

30

10

None

Use boron

Rubber

Latex

0.5

1.5

None

Tea

Tea

0.5

1.5

10

None

Use mulch

Use boron
5

10

Use mulch

10

Cash crops
Sugarcane

Cane

Tobacco

60

100

10

F/cake

10

10

50% fertilizer to ratoon

Leaves

10

20

FYM

10

10

Needs lime

Chillies

Pods

10

20

FYM

10

10

Pepper

P/corns

20

40

FYM

10

10

Needs lime

Spices

Fodder crops
DM

10

None

Legumes

DM

10

10

None

Use Al-tolerant species, e.g.,

Zornia spp., Desmodium spp.

117

Grass

118
systems, distribute the required annual amount
according to weather conditions and the crop
development stage.

3-9 Timing of Fertilizer

Application
Nitrogen
N uptake by plants is favored under low pH
conditions and the udic moisture regime in
most of the acid soils in Southeast Asia but
leaching losses of freely moving nitrate (NO3N) can be severe if crops are not growing
vigorously enough or if the land is not protected
by a plant cover. Ammonia nitrogen application
(e.g., as urea) before planting is even more
likely to be lost by leaching following
nitrification or to the atmosphere by
volatilization. In addition N losses by
denitrification may be enhanced during the
rainy season due to periodic water-logging.
To avoid such losses, time N application as
close as possible to the peak requirement of a
seasonal crop or, in perennial cropping

Phosphorus
Soluble P forms (e.g., TSP) are transformed
into less available forms when applied to acid
soils. Therefore, P fertilizer should not be
applied in advance of seeding (for tree-crops
place P fertilizer in the planting hole). Place P
fertilizer in bands near the seed or transplanted
seedlings (sometimes also place P fertilizer in
deep bands before planting) in low P status
soils and P fixing soils. Large initial rates of
less soluble P sources (e.g., 1 t RP ha-1) on
acid soils poor in P should be broadcast and
incorporated in the top soil (e.g., together with
FYM) during land preparation.

Table 3-22 Timing of fertilizer appliucation in relation to soil properties, climate and crop
requirements

Soil

Climate

Crops

Nitrate (NO3-)
leaching in low pH
light textured welldrained soils.
Ammonia (NH3)
volatilization larger
with increasing pH.

Increased leaching
during periods of
high rainfall.
Increased
nitrification during
periods of high
temperature.

Annual crops: Increased supply

needed at young stage, flowering
and during peak stages.
Perennial crops: Supply in line
with weather and crop cycle.

Strong sorption
(fixation) in fine
textured Fe/Mn/Aloxide-containing
acid soils.

Increased losses of
surface applied P
by runoff and
erosion during high
rainfall events and
periods.

Annual crops: Before or at

planting incorporated with surface
near soil.
Perennial crops: During land
preparation incorporated with
surface near soil or/and to the
planting hole.

Light textured and

well drained soils
poor in SOM may
be prone leaching.
(Illitic minerals in
some tropical soils
may cause fixation
of K)

Increased potential
leaching, run-off
and erosion during
high rainfall periods.
Well supplied crops
can withstand dry
periods better.

Annual crops: Before or at

planting incorporated with surface
near soil. Large application rates (e.
g. >120 kg K2O ha-1) should be split
(e.g., 50% basal + 1 or 2 top
dressings).
Perennial crops: Regular supply in
line with weather and crop cycles.

119
Potassium
Potassium is commonly applied before or at
planting for annual crops. Perennial crops
should be supplied with K regularly before the
onset of the wet season and in line with crop
growth.
K is a cation and its interaction with other
cations (e.g., Ca and Mg) in relation to the soils
cation exchange capacity will reduce its
movement. However, K from soluble sources
(e.g., MOP/KCl) may be leached in light
textured, well drained soils containing a small
amount of soil organic matter, particularly if the
K fertilizer is applied in large amounts at one
time. Split application (e.g., one half of the
recommended rate at planting and the other
half in 12 splits at later growth stages) can
reduce leaching losses if rates of >120 kg K2O
ha-1 are recommended.
Calcium, Magnesium, and Sulfur
As these nutrients are usually required in
smaller amounts and are often contained in
organic nutrient sources (e.g., FYM) and soil
amendments (e.g., Ca in lime, Ca and Mg in
GML) and fertilizer NPK nutrient sources (e.g.,
S in AS, Ca and S in SSP, Ca in TSP) they
may be sufficiently supplied if these sources
are used. If additional amounts are required,
Mg and S should be applied at or before
planting (e.g., as kieserite or langbeinite) to
annual crops and annually to perennials.

Micronutrients
As micronutrients are only required in small
amounts supply from organic sources (e.g.,
FYM) can be sufficient for average yields.
Specific crop requirements should be
addressed before or at planting (e.g., Zn) and
for some crops at times when demand is great
(e.g., B before periods of vigorous growth)
using special nutrient sources (e.g., compound
fertilizers containing crop specific micronutrient
additions) and special applications (e. g. as
foliar sprays).The problem of time of fertilizer
application becomes generally less important,
as higher rates of fertilizer are used and soil
fertility increases.

In rotations, soybeans and other secondary

crops (palawija crops) are traditionally seen
as nutrient scavengers. If high yielding
varieties are grown, however, (e. g. hybrid
maize), the larger amounts of nutrients
removed in grain yield must be allowed for and
succeeding crops in the rotation should be
supplied separately. Also, where irrigation is
used the supply of fertilizer nutrients should
be increased in order to make more efficient
nd economic use of added water.

120
3-10 Fertilizer storage and
compatibility

Table 3-23 Critical relative humidity vlues

for selected fertilizers.

Improperly stored or mixed fertilizer storage

can result in large losses of nutrients. Here
are some important aspects to consider in
fertilizer mixing and storage:

Fertilizer

CRH

Ammonium nitrate

58

Urea

70

Urea should not be mixed with AN.

Urea can be mixed with most fertilizer but
just before application. Do not store such
mixtures.

Ammonium phosphates and super
phosphates should not be mixed with
lime, slag, or rock phosphate.

MOP and SOP can be mixed with most
fertilizers but their mixtures with urea and
CAN cannot be stored.

CAN should not be mixed with basic slag
but can be mixed with urea, SSP, and
ammonium phosphates just before
application.

Keep fertilizer bags away from damp and
dirty places and stored where roofs are
not leaking and wall and floors don t
catch dampness.

Potassium chloride

76

Ammonium sulphate

79

Triple super phosphate

95

Sulphate of Potash

96

Critical relative humidity (CRH) values at

a standard temperature of 30C are
shown in table 3-23. Above the CRH

CRH = critical relative humidity

value the fertilizer will start to absorb

water. Fertilizers tend to absorb water
from the atmosphere (they are
hygroscopic). When fertilizers absorb too
much water from the atmosphere, they
become caked and almost cement-like,
rendering them practically unusable.
Fertilizers that have a low CRH will
absorb atmospheric moisture first (e.g.,
urea with a CRH of 70 will begin to clump
together sooner than ZA, which has a
CRH of 79).

121
Table 3-24 Acidification and salt index values for commonly used fertilizers

Acidity kg
CaCO3 100 g-1
material

Material

Salt index
(kg kg-1
material)

Urea

-84

75.4

Ammonium nitrate

-63

104.7

-112

69

Ammonium sulphate
Monoammonium phosphate
Diammonium phosphate
Super phosphate

-65

29.9

54% P2O5

-74

34.2

46 P2O5

-64

48% P2O5

10.1

45% P2O5

10.1

20% P2O5
Monocalcined phosphate?

7.8

Dicalcined phosphate?

+37

Tricalcined phosphate?

+64
-85

Sodium nitrate

+29

Potassium nitrate

+26

Calcium nitrate

+20
11.9% N

Rock phosphate

100
73.6
61.1

+56

Potassium chloride

116.3

Potassium sulphate

54% K2O

46.1

Magnesium sulphate (calcined)

33.4% MgO

38.7

8.1

+80 95

4.7

+90 100

0.8

Gypsum
Calcite
Dolomite

122

Table 3-25

Legume crops, shrubs and trees in upland agriculture.

Use

Crops

% of N
fixed

Comments

Grain
legumes

Arachis hypogaea
Cajanus cajan
Glycine max
Phaseolus spp.
Vigna spp.

47 92
88
70 87
15 72
32 98

Crop is grown for its grain as a single crop.

Phaseolus sp. are often poor fixers.
A large amount of N is removed in the grain.
Soybean usually responds to inoculation.
Cowpea rarely responds to inoculation.

Pasture
improvement

Centrosema spp.
Calapogonium spp.
Desmodium spp.
Pueraria phaseoloides
Stylosanthes spp.
Zornia spp.

82 83

70
88
71 92
88

Plant the legume into an existing pasture.

Replace the existing vegetation with a mixture of improved grass and a
legume.
Establish a legume monoculture (or a protein bank).
Provide protein-rich fodder for livestock ruminants.
Can increase amount of N taken up by pasture grasses.
Most of the fixed N is returned to the soil in plant litter or animal manure.

Understory
legumes in
plantation
crops

Calopogonium
mucunoides
Centrosema pubescens
Pueraria phaseoloides
Desmodium heterocarpon
(ovalifolium)

60 80

Cover plants often used in rubber and oil palm.

Grow fast in infertile soils because they can fix atmospheric N2.
Reduce soil erosion, weed and fungal root problems.
Can be integrated with grazing cattle in coconut, sheep in rubber.

Shade trees in Calliandra calothyrsus

plantation
Gliricidia sepium
crops
Erythrina peoppigiana

Difficult to
measure

Shade tress used for cocoa, coffee, tea, and quinine.

Tree good for small holdings that use small amounts of fertilizer. Nfixation is a side benefit.
Trees are a source of timber.

Table 3-25

... continued (last).

Use

Crops

Multiple
Arachis hypogaea
cropping (crop Glycine max
rotations)
Cajanus cajan
Vigna radiata
Multiple
cropping
(green
manures and
cover plants)

Cajanus cajan
Crotalaria juncea
Lablab spp.
Mucuna spp.
Sesbania spp.
Vigna radiata

Multiple
Phaseolus spp.
cropping
Arachis hypogaea
(intercropping)

% of N
fixed
?

Comments
Crops may remove more soil N than they provide in fixed N!

Accumulate Grown only for organic materialand N2 fixation for the next crop. N is not
23 250 kg N removed in crop products.
ha-1
Ploughed into soil fresh results in more rapid mineralization of N than
from grain legume residues.
Usually used for soil fertility improvement, but also for weed, pest and
erosion control.
?

Phaseolus can be intercropped with a cereal crop, such as maize that

provides physical support.
Soil N spared for the non legume because the legume provides most of
its N requirements from N2 fixation.

Agroforestry
(fuelwood and
timber)

Acacia mangium
Paraserianthes falcataria

52 66
55

When grown for pulpwood, trees can be intercropped with annual crops
for 2 3 years.

Agroforestry
(food and
forage)

Gliricidia sepium
Calliandra calothyrsus
Sesbania grandiflora

26 75
0 14
78 86

Important sources of protein to supplement livestock grass diet.

Can be incorporated as trees for direct browsing in pastures, or as
hedgerows, fence lines, along contour strips, and as fodder banks for
cut and carry systems.

123

124
Table 3-26 List of Latin, English and Indonesian names for crop plants.

Latin

English

Indonesian

Acacia mangium

Mangium

Mangium

Acacia spp.

Acacia

Akasia

Allium cepa

Onion

Bawang

Annonas conosus

Pineapple

Nenas

Arachis hypogaea

Groundnut

Kacang tanah

Bracharia decumbens

Signal grass

Rumput signal

Cajanus cajan

Pigeon pea

Kacang gude

Calapagonium mucunoides

Calapo

Kalopogonium

Calliandra calothyrsus

Calliandra

Kaliander

Camellia sinensis

Tea

Teh

Capsicum spp.

Chili pepper

Cabe

Capsicum spp.

Sweet pepper

Paprika

Carica papaya

Papaya

Pepaya

Centrosema pubescens

Centro

Sentro

Chromolaena odorata

Siam weed

Kerinyu

Citrullus lanatas

Watermelon

Semangka

Citrus spp.

Orange

Jeruk

Citrus spp.

Citrus

Jeruk

Cocos nucifera

Coconut

Kelapa

Coffea spp.

Coffee

Kopi

Colocasia esculenta

Coco yam

Taro/talas

Crotolaria juncea

Sunn hemp

Orok-orok lembut (Java)

Cucumis sativus

Cucumber

Timun

Daucus carota

Carrot

Wortel

Desmodium spp.

Desmodium

Sisik, betok

Dicranopteris linearis

Tropical bracken fern

Resam

Dioscorea spp.

Yam

Ubi kelapa, gandung

Durio zibethinus

Durian

Durian

Elaeis guineensis

Oil palm

Kelapa sawit

Erythrina peoppigiana

Erythrina

Dadap

125
Table 3-26

...continued.

Latin

English

Indonesian

Eugenia aromatica

Cloves

Cengkeh

Flemingia macrophylla

Flemingia

Flemingia

Gliricidia sepium

Gliricidia

Gamal

Glycine max

Soybean

Kedele

Hevea brasiliensis

Rubber

Karet

Hibiscus esculentus

Okra/Lady's finger

Okra

Imperata cylindrica

Speargrass, Imperata

Alang-alang

Ipomea batatas

Sweet potato

Ubi jalar

Lablab purpureus

Lablab, hyacinth bean

Komak

Leucaena leucocephala

Leucaena

Lamtoro

Lycopersicon esculentum

Tomato

Tomat

Mangifera indica

Mango

Mangga

Manihot esculenta

Cassava

Ubi kayu

Melaleuca sp.

Melaleuca

Gelam, kayu putih

Melastoma malbathricum

Straits rhododendron

Senduduk

Metroxylon sp.

Sago palm

Sago

Mucuna spp.

Mucuna

Kara bengkuk

Musa spp.

Banana

Pisang

Nephelium lappaceum

Rambutan

Rambutan

Nicotiana tabacum

Tobacco

Tembakau

Oryza sativa

Rice

Padi

P. purpureum x P. americanum

King grass

Rumput raja

Paraserianthes falcataria

Paraserianthes

Sengon

Pennisetum purpureum

Elephant grass

Rumput gajah

Persea americana

Avocado

Apokat

Phaseolus spp.

Common bean

Buncis

Piper nigrum

Pepper

Lada

Pueraria phaseoloides

Tropical kudzu

Pueraria, krandang

Saccharum spp.

Sugarcane

Tebu

Sesbania grandiflora

Sesbania

Duri

126
Table 3-26

...continued (last).

Latin

English

Indonesian

Setaria italica

Setaria

many (Jawawut on Java)

Solanum melongena

Eggplant

Terung

Solanum tuberosum

Potato

Kentang

Stylosanthes guianensis

Stylo

Theobroma cacao

Cocoa

Kakao

Vetivera zizanioides

Vetiver grass

Rumput vetiver

Vigna radiata

Mungbean

Kacang hijau

Vigna unguiculata

Long bean

Kacang panjang

Vigna unguiculata

Cowpea

Kacang tunggak

Zea mays

Maize

Jagung

Zingiber officinale

Ginger

Jahe

Table 3-27 Symbols and atomic weights for elements involved in plant nutrition

Name

Symbol

Aluminium

Al

Boron

Atomic wt.

Name

Symbol

Atomic wt.

26.79

Manganese

Mn

54.93

10.82

Molybdenum

Mo

95.95

Calcium

Ca

40.08

Nitrogen

14.01

Chlorine

Cl

35.46

Nickel

Ni

58.69

Cobalt

Co

58.94

Oxygen

16.00

Copper

Cu

63.57

Phosphorus

30.89

Fluorine

19.00

Potassium

39.10

Hydrogen

1.01

Sodium

Na

23.00

Iodine

126.92

Sulphur

32.06

Iron

Fe

55.85

Zinc

Zn

65.38

Magnesium

Mg

54.93

Silicon

Si

28.06

Carbon

12.01

Selenium

Se

78.96

127
Table 3-28

Nutrient convertsion factors

From

multiply
by

to get/from

multiply
by

to get

NO3

0.226

4.427

NO3

NH3

0.820

1.216

NH3

NH4

0.776

1.288

NH4

CO(NH2)2 -urea

0.463

2.160

CO(NH2)2 urea

(NH4)2SO4

0.212

4.716

(NH4)2SO4

NH4NO3

0.350

2.857

NH4NO3

P2O5

0.436

2.291

P2O5

Ca3(PO4)2

0.458

P2O5

2.182

Ca3(PO4)2

K2O

0.830

1.205

K2O

KCl

0.632

K2O

1.580

KCl

KCl

0.525

1.905

KCl

ZnSO4 . H2O

0.360

Zn

2.778

ZnSO4 . H2O

ZnSO4 . 7 H2O

0.230

Zn

4.348

ZnSO4 . 7 H2O

SO2

0.501

1.997

SO2

SO4

0.334

2.996

SO4

MgSO4

0.267

3.750

MgSO4

MgSO4 . H2O

0.230

4.310

MgSO4 . H2O

MgSO4 . 7 H2O

0.130

7.680

MgSO4 . 7 H2O

(NH4)2SO4

0.250

3.995

(NH4)2SO4

SiO2

Si

SiO2

CaSiO3

Si

CaSiO3

MgSiO3

Si

MgSiO3

MgO

0.603

Mg

1.658

MgO

MgO

2.986

MgSO4

0.335

MgO

MgO

3.432

MgSO4 . H2O

0.290

MgO

MgO

6.250

MgSO4 . 7 H2O

0.160

MgO

MgO

2.091

MgCO3

0.478

MgO

128
Table 3-28 ...continued.

From

multiply
by

to get / from

multiply
by

to get

CaO

0.715

Ca

1.399

CaO

CaCO3

0.560

CaO

1.780

CaCO3

CaO

0.715

Ca

1.399

CaO

CaCl2

Ca

CaCl2

CaSO4

Ca

CaSO4

Ca3(PO4)2

Ca

Ca3(PO4)2

FeSO4

0.368

Fe

2.720

FeSO4

MnSO4

0.364

Mn

2.748

MnSO4

MnCl

Mn

MnCl

MnCO3

Mn

MnCO3

MnO2

Mn

MnO2

CuSO4 . H2O

Cu

CuSO4 . H2O

CuSO4 . 5H2O

Cu

CuSO4 . 5H2O

Na2B4O7 . 5H2O

Na2B4O7 . 5H2O

Na2B4O7 . 7H2O

Na2B4O7 . 7H2O

129
Table 3-39 Weights and measures.

Length
Inch = 1/12 or 0.083 foot = 2.54 cm = 25.4 mm
Foot = 12 inches = 0.3048 m = 30.48 cm
Yard = 36 inches = 3 feet = 0.9144 m
Rod = 16.5 feet = 5.5 yards = 5.03 m
Mile = 1,760 yards = 5,280 feet =1.61 km = 8 furlongs = 80 chains

Area
Square inch = 0.007 square foot = 6.45 cm2
Square foot = 144 square inches = 929.03 cm2
Square yard = 9 square feet = 0.836 m2
Acre = 4,840 square yards = 43,560 square feet = 160 square rods
= 63 .61 m2 = 0.405 ha
Hectare = 10,000 m2 = 2.47 acres
Square mile = 640 acres = 2.59 km2 = 1 section

Liquid measures
Teaspoon = 0.1667 fluid ounce = 80 drops = 4.93 ml
Tablespoon = 3 teaspoons = 0.5 fluid ounce =14.8 ml
Fluid ounce = 2 tablespoons = 29.58 ml
Cup = 8 fluid ounces = 16 tablespoons = 275.3 cm3
Pint = 2 cups = 16 fluid ounces = 473.2 ml
Quart = 4 cups =2 pints = 32 fluid ounces = 3.785 L
Litre = 2.113 pints = 1000 ml = 1.057 quarts
Gallon = 4 quarts = 8 pints = 3.785 L
Cubic foot of water = 7.5 gallons =62.4 pounds = 28.3 L
Acre inch of water = 27,154 gallons = 3,630 cubic feet
Hectare centimeter of water = 100 cubic meters = 100,000 L

Dry measures
Teaspoon (level) = 0.35 cubic inch = 5.74 cm3
Tablespoon (level) = 1.05 cubic inch = 3 level teaspoons = 17.21 cm3
Cup = 16 level teaspoons = 16.8 cubic inches = 275.3 cm3
Quart = 2 pints = 64 tablespoons = 67.2 cubic inches = 275.3 cm3
Peck = 8 quarts = 16 pints = 538 cubic inches = 8.8 L
Bushel = 4 pecks = 2.150 cubic inches =32 quarts = 35 L

Volumes
Cubic inch = 0.00058 cubic foot = 16.4 cm3
Cubic foot = 1,728 cubic inches = 0.037 cubic yard = 0.028 m3
Cubic yard = 27 cubic feet = 0.765 m3

Weights
Gram = 15.43 grains = 1,000 mg
Ounce = 28.35 g = 437.5 grains
Pound = 16 ounces = 7,000 grains = 454 g
Kilogram = 1,000 g = 2.205 pounds
Ton (long) = 2,240 pounds = 1.016 metric tonne (t)

130
Table 3-30 Weights, measures , and conversion facrtors used in Indonesia.

Indonesian units
1 liter rice = 0.8 kg
1 gantang rice = 8.58 liters = 0.0069 mt
1 mt rice = 145.69 gantang
1 bahoe-bouw = 0.712 ha
1 pikul = 61.75 kg
1 quintal = 100 kg
1 oun = 100 g

Crop conversions (Indonesia)

1 t dry stalk rough rice (padi) is equivalent to 0.765 t dry rough rice (gabah kering)
1 t gabah kering (dry rough rice) is equivalent to 0.68 t milled rice
1 t dry stalk rough rice (padi) is equivalent to 0.52 t milled rice
1 t groundnut pods is equivalent to 0.7 t groundnut kernels
6775 coconuts is equivalent to 1 t copra
1 t copra is equivalent to 0.6 t coconut oil and 0.4 t cake
1 t crushed soybeans is equivalent to 0.18 t oil and 0.73 t meal and 0.9 t hulls
1 t sugarcane is equivalent to 0.1 t sugar (cane factory)

Table 3-31. Glossary of terms used in this handbook

Term

Definition

Available water
holding capacity

This is a measure of the ability of a soil to retain water that can be used by crops.

Biological N2 fixation

The conversion of atmospheric N2 by bacteria (rhizobia), which usually live in nodules that form on the
roots of many legume plants, into forms that can be used by plants.

C/N ratio

A measure of how easily a plant material decomposes. Materials with a wide carbon to nitrogen ratio (C/N
ratio) such (e.g., rice straw), decompose more slowly than those with a narrow C/N ratio, (e.g., groundnut
leaves).

Cation exchange
capacity (CEC)

The ability of a soil to retain or 'hold onto' cations, such as Ca, Mg, K.

Critical Al saturation

The level of Al saturation which corresponds to levels of Al that are toxic to a particular crop plant.

Denitrification

The biochemical reduction of nitrate (NO3) or nitrite (NO2-) to a gas form (N2), which can be lost to the
atmosphere.

Drainage

The ease by which a soil is able to drain off excess water that has entered the topsoil layer This is the
ability of a soil to dispose of rainwater through the profile.

Infiltration

The entry of water into a soil.

Leaching

The downward movement, by percolating water, of nutrients in a soil.

Mineralization

The conversion of an element from an organic form into an inorganic form as a result of microbial
decomposition

Mycorrhizal fungi

Microscopic soil fungi that infect plant roots and may help increase nutrient uptake, especially phosphorus.

Nitrification

The conversion of nitrites and ammonia in the soil derived from animal excretion and the decay of organic
matter into nitrates.

Organic material

Above- and below-ground litter, crop residues, mulches, green manures, animal manures, and sewage (as
compared to SOM).

131

Term

Definition

P-fixation

The property of some soils to 'lock up' P applied in fertilizers so that very little of the added P is available
for plant uptake. Occurs in 'young' volcanic soils and soils with a large clay fraction.

Percolation

The downward movement of water through a soil.

Residual effect (of

fertilizers)

The effect of fertilizers on soil properties for a period of time after they are applied. Short residual effects
last less than a cropping season (e.g., green manure), long residual effects can last several years (e.g.,
lime or rock phosphate).

Rhizobia

Soil bacteria that fix atmospheric N2 in association with plants.

Runoff

Water that runs off the field surface instead of infiltrating into the soil. This water can carry soil and
nutrients off the field.

Soil organic matter

(SOM)

The organic material of biological origin found beneath the soil surface that has partly or completely
decomposed. SOM is about 58% carbon.

Soil structure

The arrangement of soil particles into larger units or aggregates. The structure of upland soils is often good
(particularly if the surface vegetation is cleared away carefully), which means that water and air can
percolate through the soil to provide both water retetntion and drainage.

Texture

The relative proportion of clay, silt, and sand-sized particles.

Tilth

This is closely related to structure and is a measure of how easy a soil is to cultivate with a hoe or plough.

Volatilization

The loss of nutrients in gaseous form to the atmosphere. An important loss pathway for N and S.

Water-holding capacity

A measure of how much water a soil can retain

Weathering

The process whereby rocks and other materials are broken down by biological and physical process.
Nutrients are released during weathering.

132

Table 3-31 ...continued (last).

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In English:

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In Spanish:

Guia de Bolsillo Sntomas de Deficiencias de Nutrientes y Desrdernes in

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In Bahasa Indonesia:




Buku Petunjuk: Oil Palm Series Volume 7 Gejala Defisiensi Hara dan
Kelainan pada Tanaman Kelapa Sawit (Elaise guineensis Jacq.) (31 p.)
Buku Saku: SebarFos Proyek Pembangunan Pertanian Lahan Kering 19972000

For updates on new material, please request a copy of our color catalogue (available
in PDF format) from the PPI (ESEAP) office (refer to back cover).

A toolkit for acid upland soil fertility

management in Southeast Asia
For further information about this book or other matters relating
to tropical crop production and plant nutrition, contact:
Potash & Phosphate Institute
Potash & Phosphate Institute of Canada

East & Southeast Asia Programs

126 Watten Estate Road
Singapore 287599
Tel
+65 468 1143
Fax
+65 467 0416
E-mail
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