THE

IDEAS

OF

EINSTEIN'S

THEORY

THE

OF

IDEAS

THEORY

EINSTEIN'S
THEORY

THE

RELATIVITY

OF

SIMPLE

IN

LANGUAGE

BY

J.

H.

Ph.D.

THIRRING,

PROFESSOR

OF

THEORETICAL

UNIVERSITY

PHYSICS
OF

VIENNA

TRANSLATED

WITH

A.

B.

AND

AN

SBCOND

RUSSELL

ILLUSTRATIVE

"

ESSEX

CO.

STREET
LONDON

CHART

REVISED

EDITION,

METHUEN
36

BY

RHODA

DIAGRAMS

THE

AT

LTD.
W.G.

First

Published

November
,

Second

Edition

December
....

PRINTED

IN

GREAT

3rd

iQ2i

BRITAIN

jg23

PREFACE

THE

with

us

of

evolution
of

this

of

mathematical

mental

mathematician

truly

of

interest
rendered
of

solely

the

all

the

without
fair

fact,
found
The
account

number
their

of

such
into

of

purpose
mere

the

geometrical
of

way

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mathematics

of

aid
of

amount

traits

essential

the

to

details

contains
be

without

sisting
con-

formulae.
of

Theory

to

capable

be

can

those

and,

expositions

Relativity
made

clear

who

have

in

point

of

have

already

literature.

current

the

which
must

non-

gation.
investi-

mathematical

training,

popular

every

further

to

large,

theory

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mailcoat

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intelligible,
of

maze

by

presents

at

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certainly

This

mankind
clear

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in

know

to

however,

idea,

great
to

it

barrier

apparent

an

being

of

that

formulae,

interested

desire

though

Einstein

the

is
will

progress

surrounded

theory,

Such

Whoever

became

quickly

world

the

over

presented

century

which

theory

Relativity.

of

Theory

all

twentieth

the

scientific

celebrated

matter

of

beginning

present

book

appertaining

is

not
to

to

the

give

an

theory,

THE

but

rather

of

the

give

to

whole,

the

at

imderstand

the

what

bound

to

follow

up

arrive

in its most

primitive form,

based

and

it suffices

lead

us,

fact

with

the

mathematics

on

to

the

help

later

C, and

inducing

and

right succession,

perhaps

enable

operations

the

than

matter,

and

that

say

D, and

like the
reader

links

gain

to

losing count

of what

present book, though written

may

also be useful to those

from

the

convenient

general aspects
One

thing

to

who

point

deductions,

to

each

chain,

more

into

their

shall

view

of

mathematical

is most

versed

other

we

lucid

essential.
for

lajmien,

in the

theory

primarily

are

arguing

By

on.

over,

of view, but

supplement

of the
more

of

and

follow

of

by going deeply

The

it

so

to

up

Einstein.

passed

suppositions

the

to

leading
finiteness

be

must

conclusions

mathematical

and

of mathematical

on

Relativity

layrhan,logical

the

to
intelligible

must

theory,

originallyby

taken

path

of

the

on

was

we

whole

the

and

remain

the

of

simple

to

operations

Hence

Special Principle

In

in

conclusion.

the

along

order

Einstdn

with

the universe,

thus,

suffers

masses

how

see

far-reaching speculations

the

the

such

at

to

that

maintain

we

gravitational
made

able

be

only

not

must

logical connection

the

commencing

to

be

^he must

"

matical
all mathe-

avoiding

when

is meant

surrounding

space

curvature

reader

The

exposition

coherent

time

same

accessories.
to

and

complete

THEORY

EINSTEIN'S

OF

IDEAS

vi

who

may

knowledge

of

find
the

subject.
must

be

considered.

serious

vii

PREFACE

exposition

of the

the

fact

is from

the

on

results

of

the

diverge

so

these

according

to

altered.
of

dispel

the

elucidated
and

part of the

of

wiU

The

theories.
fuU

calculate

to

of science

man

and

The
W.

of

the

complete

entirely changed.

ideas

examples,
of

the

be

This

so

theory

to

as

on

the

reader.
H.

T.

1921

Translator

offers

of

Sheffield

Lawson,

revision.
never

will

little

J.
August

fication
justi-

astronomer,

continue

numerical

fandful

in technical

with

the

it

mena
pheno-

former

foimdations
been

but

phs^sical

those

and

retained

equations,

have

The
to

4aily

theory,

mental

theory

theory,

view.

purposes.

exceptions

by

in

further

Maxwdl's

the

of

those

Newtonian

physics

wrong

be

practical
few

But

be

will

from

using

on

system

slightly
can

do

and

stress

non-revolutionary

appertain

to

aU

with

which

lay

to

Einstein's

principle

very

have

we

last

therefore,

go

how

theory

which

of

practical point

for

will

view

indicate

with

that

of

have

only

revolutionary

very

point

from

appears

life

of how

also

must

will not

theory

have

Without
been

his
issued.

her

sincere

University,
kind

help

this

thanks
for

his

to

Dr.

R.

thorough

translation

would

PREFACE

plan

of

involved

has

Notes

the

at

that

fixed

stars,

I
little

of

volume

to

light

indebted

am

of

has

relative

than

insertion

the

Chapter

which

refuted,

the

end

with

objection

critics

has

in

the
in

to

been

the

several
of

In
I

been

all

of

shown

by

whose

their

but

the

and

Supplementary
in

nection
con-

with

an

fully

never

velocities

of

colleagues

additions

dealt

raised

rotation

to, and

particular,

have

appearance
the

from

attended

form

book.

general

suggestions

been

of

the

in

various

XVII,
often

made

have

and

partially

'improvements,

been
but

book,

the

colleagues
this

have

alterations

No

EDITION

SECOND

TO

greater

firmament

interest

kindly

and

of

in

this

helpful

criticism.

J.
November

1922

viil

H.

T.

CONTENTS
PAGE

Introduction

xi
.

PART

THE

SPECIAL

THEORY

OF

RELATIVITY

CHAP.

I.

Preliminary

Formulation
Relativity

OF

III.

On

Is

for

Optical

,7

Light

of

Principle

the

Validity

Processes

Nature

the

Principle

the

Its

Mechanical

II.

of

Relativity

of

valid

for

Phenomena?
.

.20

.
.

IV.

Law

The

of

Constancy

the

Light

OF

V.

Conflict

The

Velocity

the

of

Two

the

between

-31

mental
Funda-

Principles
.

VI.

Analysis

of

the

Concept

.36

Simultaneity

of

VII,

The

Special
Total
Fundamental

Theory
OF

THE

of

Relativity:

Deductions

from

VIII.

The

Apparent

Principles

Absurdity

of

these

...

SumTwo

the

40

-45

clusions
Con-

55

IDEAS

THE

THEORY

EINSTEIN'S

OF

PACE

CHAP

IX.

The

Union

Space

of

Time

and

; The

Min-

6o

KOWSKI-WORLD
.

X.

XI.

Numerical

Further

Considerations

Conclusions

and

PART

XII.

XIII.

XIV.

On

The

XVI.

The

RELATIVITY

93

Equivalence-Hypothesis

Curvature

The

OF

Gravitation.

and

Rays

of

Light

of

in

Gravi

Field

tational

XV.

II

THEORY

Inertia

-79

GENERAL

.70

mental
Experi-

their

Verification

THE

Relativity

Notion

104
Rotatory

of

of

Motion

Space-Curvature

109

and

of

World-Curvature

116
.

XVII.

The

New

Theory

Gravitation

of

134

XVni.

XIX.

Deductions

The

Hypothesis

from

the

of

General

Finiteness

the

Universe

Remarks

Notes
.

Illustrative

Chart

the

163-

Supplementary

of

148

157

....

Concluding

Theory

i6s
168

INTRODUCTION

Theory

THE

of

theoretical

physics,

in
led

on

and

space

hence

the

circle

of

to

the

but

physicists.

human

chapters
physical

very
are

life

is

is

ball

the

main,

closdy

intended

to
to

such

the
of

moment

extensive
in

plain,

and

maticians
matheof

space

although

erroneous,

reality.
how,

on

The

they

following

the

basis

conclusions

far-reaching

so

space,

conceptions

show

limited

astronomers

physicists

the

nature

"

and
an

has

universe

matter

circling

usual

our

the

exceeds

not

besides

that

experiments,

arrived

of
have

at.

Theory
first

in

it

small

leam

of

it far

as

It

philosophical

character

of

ally
essenti-

origin

experiments.

geographers

to

others

are,

approximate

of
It

German

of

interest

time

The

Just

than

scene

to

The

the

comparatively

will

been

and

branch

its

universal

surrounding

more

that

and

time

is

taking

physical

of

interest

many

it

purely

conclusions

to

Relativity

of
these

was

physicist

Relativity
is

called

formulated
Albert

developed

was

the
in

Special
the

Einstein,

year
after

in

two

stages.

Theory

of

lativity.
Re-

1905

by

the

the

way

had

xii

THE

been

IDEAS

OF

prepared notably by

Lorentz

; two

Hermann

Minkowski
form.

and

magnificently withstood
of

be

can

years

General
time

old

Einstein's

of
as

almost

it leads

identical

theory.
are

found

only

be

the

different

decides

in

opinion
cannot

Theory
should

results, and
favour

of the

claim
of

of

Relativity.

But

found

of

which

so,

in

both

of

even

the

There

are

Einstein's
lead

observation

Theory

of

certainty as

it
deficient,

old

latter

gravitation

cases

if the

and

general,

Nevertheless,

General

in its

the

in which
of

ficienci
de-

and

from

experience.

theory

one.

nature,

in

because

the
the

physics

are,

restdting

with

at

certain

theory,

the

structure

theoretical

realms

be

degree

same

ultimately be

the

Einstein.

author, the
the

and

phenomena

Newtonian

In

renders

contain

not

must

in accord

doubt

any

daring

so

most

approximate

an

those

this

astronomical

and

in

the

Relativity,this being

formidse

to

of

vaUdity.

the

up

from

have

one

entire

matical
mathe-

necessity

hardly

in Newton's

with

course

to

two

theory
to

Of

its

philosophical

practical applications
astronomy

that

does

apparent

were

of

test

only

theory
a

of

final

gravitation, which

theory

new

its

consequences

built

of

of

theory

to

as

Theory

Newtonian

such

the

Einstein

1907-1915

same

its

physical phenomena,

entertained

of the

arises

theory

physical experience,

subtle

it into

A.

mathematician

Gottingen

shaped

The

phjreidstH.

Dutch

the

later the

years

THEORY

EINSTEIN'S

in

the

Relativity
the

Special

general theory
will

ever

remain

xiii

INTRODUCTION

master-stroke
to

serve

only

feelingsof regret, that

us

built

not

was

would
insufficiency

Its

genius.

within

arouse

world

real

of

in

up

conformity

the

with

its

laws.
Let
the

not

in

capriciousproduct

proposing

of

genesis of

The

described

the

the

Within

to

be

all

the

the

these

and

"

Einstein

at

senses

far

as

all ;

as

nor

to

the

connected

two

with

can

we
can

any

concerning

principles.
that
the

up

proof

But

there

absoluteness

decades
facts

two

principle of
of

constancy

one

the

that

led

and

ever

to

apt

was

miraculous.

the

of both
the

fault

be

the

proves
in the

It

when

rescue,

trust

and

the

spite of this,

one

of

are

right

was

In

the truth

logicalthought-process, that

between

Kght

experience

came

doubt

cannot

question, in

followed

the

versa.

little short

as

the

principlesappeared

^if

principles,so

matter

We

vice
and

the

two
"

two

that

then

stated

our

these

to

regard

in

Now

wrong,

simply

relativitycan

to

certainty, viz.:

physical experiments

anon

was

be

must

pleasure

last few

brought

contradictory

mutually

other

the

principle of

velocity of light.

of

special theory

absolute

relativity and

finds

^it is

is

theory

Einstein.

follows.

as

almost

which

physical experience,

progressive physical research

with

mind

Einstein

"

unyielding logicby

with

of

the

paradoxical ideas,

new

result

necessary

be

emphaticallythat

said

it be

he

principles
evidence
found

of
with

antagonism

considerations

certain

tions
supposi-

independence

of

xiv

notions

our

of

that

self-evident,
doubted

their

be

and

of

these

This

sense

from

to

and
the

pursue

treated

proved
the

simultaneous
The

the
in

Special
the

first

disappears."

validity
of

Theory
part

of

of

and

step

thought

in

the

conclusions
of
these

Relativity,

this

modi-"

principles

derive

sum-total

suitable

by

between

of

to

appear
absolute

not

are

decisive

line

consequently

prindples.
called

empirical

only

these

antagonism

the

concepts,

discovery

Einstein

they

that

Furthermore,

afore-mentioned

two

they

that

ever

of

analysis

book.

both

so

us

has

nobody

careful

more

to

appear

present

shows

however,

necessities.

fication

the

self-evident,

conceptual

which

space,

to

up

truth.

suppositions,
to

and

time

THEORY

EINSTEIN'S

OF

roEAS

THE

the

induced

reverse

arising
fundamental

conclusions
and

this

is
will

be

THE

IDEAS

OF

EINSTEIN'S
THEORY

SPECIAL

THEORY

expressly stated.

We

following

the

rectilinear

simplest form.

"

specialprincipleof relativity
is evident that we can
only speak

"

call it the

and

motion,

It

relative motion

of the mutual
any meaning

absolute

to

Given

of bodies,

surroundings)we

unable

are

or

(i.e.without

closed system

fied.
be veri-

it cannot

because

observations

of

attach

cannot

we

"

motion

number

any

within

made

put forward

shall

concerning this particularuniform

statement

in its

RELATIVITY

OF

to ascertain

measurements

referenceto
whether

the

not the

or

system is in motion.^
what

Now
steamer

its

in

is

Let

us

waves

of

out

and

really uniform

position to

look

we

mean

an

suppose

ocean

to suffer no deviation
as
perfectlyconstructed
and no joltingfrom the engines,so that
course,

motion

then

this

so

its

from

does

Our

the

that

assert

rectilinear.
it is in motion,

port-holes and
teaches

experience

Are

watch

unless

passing

negative

to

us

the

we

this

question,for in the ship'sinterior all phenomena would

could
One
take place just as if it lay in harbour.
play
a

of billiards in

game
as

same

land.

on

experiments
would

Even

port -holes, we
of the

caution,

and

the

between
To

passes
all

when
motion

or, to

speak

waves,
we

meaning

Uttle.

it with

phenomena
'

Now

See

One

uniform
take

ship

they

as

perceivethe

our

same

of the
with
is

clearer,

we

As

Supplementary

Note

on

pp.

in

the

ship by

the

exactitude

rdative

shall
and

mentioned

place in exactly the

"

of

out

more

lies at anchor,

velocity.

would

look

we

there

mechanical

observations

pendulum

the

jolt,just the

not

sensitive

most

perceive that
ship and the ocean.

make

example

the

exactly

out

university laboratory.
motion

ship that does

^weighings, and

"

turn

same

165-166.

motion

vary

our

another

above,
way

in

PRINCIPLE

OF

the interior of both

ships ;

of

RELATIVITY
when

stand

we

ship and look at the other,

the two
intervening distance between
one

and

that

We

they

discern

cannot

from

the

other,

nor

other

vice

or

at

than

more
can

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ship

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versa

the

It is surely reasonable

to

is at

one

and

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vice

not

is correct.

surmise
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ship lying

earth.

in the

we

thus

at rest, and

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observations

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relative

to

the

other

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From
the

; but

form

of

call a, ship at

on

land

it

is not

motion.

at

rest,
"

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follows

the
:

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in the

For

this

reason,

expression
anchor,

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we

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radius
point
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actually
results of
detect

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reference

is used

already mentioned.)

sense

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"

km.

at

day,

every

formulate

without

the

absolutely

ships by looking

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ment
state-

cautious

more

decide

using

to
relatively

anchor

at

when

are

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anchor

at

we

150,000,000

well to

cannot

by experiments
surroundings.
(" Move
not

or

axis

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ship

of both
we

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say

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move

carefully as

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motion

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its

of about

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earth

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year.

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the

orbit

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ob-

the

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reader's

at anchor

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ship
it

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rest, because

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abbreviation

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:

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versa.

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ours

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rest

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ships

determine

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on

notice

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respect

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rest.

with

moving

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move

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restricted
our

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ab-

subsequently justified.

solidlyfounded
know

building

perfectly well

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really at rest, but takes part in the earth's

whether
Practicallyspeaking, it is immaterial

SPECIAL

THEORY

the system is
has

absolutelyat

influence

no

the

on

review

us

constitutes

the

of

uniform
the

mentioned,

We

sun.

look

large radius

is not

felt in

daily

rotation
The

processes.
is Foucault'g
which

terrestrial

the

of the

revolution

orbit, but this does

not

hence

the

of the

On

the

experiment

of

with

to

stars).

From

past experience, however,

determination

of the

Supposing
the

seen

light

subterranean
to

that

of

been

of the

and

of the

present day.

earth

of axis
round

as

the

their observations, and

surprised had
later

date

that

of

With

and

they

help

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well

they

come

discovered

to

had

attained

in

equivalent

help

been

never

of modem

able

to

cover
dis-

its

angular velocity
but the yearly revolution

would

sun

and

sun

impossible.

culture

have

of

analogous

an

had

the

kind

determined

who

they

earth's daily rotation, and

direction

is

cave-dwellers

degree

physical apparatus they

the

revolution

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day,

caverns

this

the
surroundings {i.e.

yearly

had

men

physical

the

be

can

earth

contrary,

of

progress

earth

cannot

we

motion

reference
our

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mately
approxi-

owing

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daily

the

laboratory.

of the

before

to

experiment,

daily motion

tivity
rela-

round

movement

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motion

influence

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As

motion,

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existence

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ments
experi-

motion.

latter

the

rectilinear

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a

earth

yearly

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of curvature

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to

rectilinear

upon

uniform

and

phenomena

talking only

are

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and

its motion

it.

we

motion

can
as

apply

of

and

rotatory motion

not, because

criticallythis Eissertion, as it
the problem of rdativity. We

recall that

again

must

or

of

course

more

pith

RELATIVITY

rest

taking place within

Let

OF

have

would
the

that

have

earth's
motion

entirelyescaped
been
surface

by

mightily
at
means

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observations.

astronomical
assertion

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that

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we

of the

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Furthermore,

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all noticeable

at

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proof

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with

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of the

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ship'smotion, provided
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with

message

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at

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receive
reader

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into contact
is used

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with

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in

practice

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general

ship.

doubt
questions imply that we
validity of the principle of relativity.
as

more

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Such

is therefore

no

verify the

can

sensitive

log, which

the

cigar

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rate, without

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as

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to

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telegraphy pervading

upper

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help

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actually uniform

without

waves

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be of the existence

were

the

telegraphist on

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steamer

ocean

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it

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of

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is smoking
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passenger

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course,

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results

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facts

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observation.
the

on

fundamentally

ascertain

in

in

That, of

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ments
laboratory experi-

particular motion.
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personal experience

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to

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motion

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if it is indeed
are

to

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motion.

inquire

We

earth's

laboratory experiments
that

RELATIVITY

OF

PRINCIPLE

Is the

The

problem

principle of relativityin

of nature, having
general principle

strict

validity

SPECIAL

for

all

from
of

THEORY

physical

processes,

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our

the

question

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We

two,

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all

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system

arising from
and
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Hence
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relativity

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system
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rest.

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relativity

fundamental

up

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Thus

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uniformly
no

effect

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during

back

chapter

other

operations

that

not

The

at

it

experiments,

principle

processes

place

all

experiment

the

can

taken

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elasticity, etc.,

is

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to

pendulum

system

motion

have

have

essentially built
for

for

decide

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relativity

processes

thus

"

Secondly,

vaUd

phenomena.

same

and

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of

of

research.
reasons

principle

whether

system,

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can

never

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these

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are

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natural

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theory

mechanics

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question

Both

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the

experimaits,

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form
uni-

reference

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on

generally

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question

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moving

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Does

measurements

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without

phenomena

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weighings,

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part of the

as

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detection

decided

question

phenomena,

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the

gained

rule

within

experimental

mechanical

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and

ask

the

that

us

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with,

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divide

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This

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RELATIVITY

sense-perception

rectilinear

to

or

OF

our

several

with

is vaUd

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for

experience
centuries.
assurance

mechanical

CHAPTER

ON

THE

there

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most

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regard

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Theoretical

phenomena,

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those

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point

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in

however,

processes

doubtful

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mechanical

relativity

different,

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united

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principle

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The

NATURE

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of

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definite

short

very

of

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all
idea

school

know

who

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waves

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electric
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length

wave

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those

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quite

correct

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position
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give
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have

SPECIAL

been

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waves)
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our

eyes,

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surface
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united

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of

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waves

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to

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surface

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whereas,
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train

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air particles above

imagining

of water
order

occupies three

dimensions

it difficult to

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be

to

motion,
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a

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are

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phjreics,we

process

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imagine

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advancing along

us

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participatein

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in space.

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particlesunder
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position.

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apply these ideas

by imagining a

to

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a

waves

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of the

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clearly recognise

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in reality the

of

phenomenon

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motion

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oscillations
we

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peculiar character

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present

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water,

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scene

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waves

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therefore,

say,

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space-periodicity,

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whole

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are

vertical

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and

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equal distances.
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lake,

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of

phenomenon

describe

us

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regular intervals

at

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waves.

portion of the surface

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waves.

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regularly rising and

surface

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luminous

observing

on

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waves

life {i.e.water

everyday

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to

RELATIVITY

OF

THEORY

large

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not

find

number

SPECIAL

10

varies

THEORY

and

about

to

is smaller

Soimd
in

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130

tangible

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as

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denote

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as

pitch of

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were

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milhon

one

last

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with

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colour

of sound

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red, orange,

having

rays

yellow,

excepted
As

we

known

with

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with

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of

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certainty, one

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blue, violet

wave

supposed

introduced,

world-aether.

the

pagation
prothat

light,i.e. about

oscillates in the

said before, it cannot

substance,

by

green,

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xu.hns ^t^spectrum
light corresponds exactly to an octave
soon

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tions.
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the

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It is greatest for red

note.

with

ago,

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of the Ught in a similar

wave

length

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per

light

velocity of

times

km.
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artificially

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connected

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century

oscillations, their

hand,

Tir.ffnr
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in air, i.e. 300,000

the

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ponderable matter)

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note

they consist of the real motion

ponderable substance
(air,water,

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created

for

cm.

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the

viz.

common,

are

RELATIVITY

pitch of

for higher and

waves

This

to the

according

it amounts

OF

item

Hght

ponderable
hypothetical
a

was

known

termed
with

ON
reference

THE

this aether

to

ponderable,

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the

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the

supposed

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invention

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ments
experi-

investigation,

telegraphy.

the

chemically
of

Rays

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ing
Accordextensive

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characteristic
a

that

fact

dectro-magnetic
useful

Fig.

I,

and

their

oscillations

of them.

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have

make

how

the

in

the

scale

far

belong

single wave

lengths

is missing, however,
oscillations
that

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kinds

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pointed
with

our

lengths
clearer,

of

magnetic
electrothe

over

note

two

gaps

out

the

yet detected.

co-ordination

kinds

ideas of

of rays.

electro-magnetic

fuUy explained. What

electricityor magnetism

exactly ; we do not find electridty

find
^we
electro-magnetic wave
an
"

of

What

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yet

is it

in

tions,
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various

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is indicated

varieties of rays not

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kinds

wave

distributed

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falls within

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extensive
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of

X-rays.

the connection

frequently adopted

showing

radiation,

these

length

wave

includes

and

rays,

interval, whereas

wave-radiations
entire

of heat

only distinguished from

above-mentioned

the

ultra-violet

active

light are

by the

forms

telegraphy and

of wireless

waves

date,

well-known

light belong

his

later

further

on

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rajrs

was

light.
by

made

advance

species of electro-magnetic oscillations, which

the

that it

transversal

rapid

very

an

Hertz,

Maxwdl,

to

tangible

friction, but

no

osdUations

definitelyconfirmed

it led to

11

neither

was

important
light by Maxwell,

of

theory

was

LIGHT

light.

electro-magnetic theory
this

it

performing

century ago

OF

it caused

These
of

rays

Half

that

capable

oscillations.
to

NATURE

itself

Not

osdllating in

electric

force

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-1,000,000

cm.

-100,000

Waves

of wireless

cm.

telegrajdiy
-10,000

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Hertzian

produced

waves

Heat-rays

in

laboratory

cm.

cm.

(ultra-red)

-o'oooi

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cm.

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rays

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cm.

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cm.

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Fig.

I.

cm.

ON

magnetic
by
or

THE

force.

Let

this.

Bodies

repel each

of their

stand
explain what we are to underattract
charged with electricity

let

imagine

us

sign

fix this idea

to

sphere charged

metal

in the

placed

hke

or

close

in

with

proximity

pith-baUs, which
particles,for instance
metal
sphere
charged with electricity.Jhe

small

also

are

will

particlescharged with positive electricity,

repel those negatively charged ; an electric force
the surroundings of the sphere, and we
on
say :
the

attract

and
acts

produces
electricity

sphere charged with

the

carrying

unit

force

that

at

parts of the

field intensity

of the

negatively charged
of the

centre

ball is

the

always

magnitude

change, the

particularpoint

one

but

as

of the
with

have

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field.

time, but

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time

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and

charged

said
say

position.
ball

is

the field

an

Let

shortly

with

tude
magnidirection

The

in the

field of

which

charge
of

the

towards

the

produces
suffers

no

electric force

field remain

before, it varies

variable

imagine

ball
if its

of the

that

The

intensityvaries,

directed

direction

and

electric

diminishingwith

If the

ball.

electric field is at rest, and

the

field.

field.

ball, its magnitude

from

distance

intensityor

electric force

or

particle

particular point

electric field

of the

in various

of course,

of the

electric

an

small

on

the electric field

particularpoiat

direction

and

acting

charge, at

of electric

field,is called

of the

force

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it.

fieldaround

at

and

illustrate

To

and
negative electricity,
of

13

other, according to the unlike

charges.

minds,

our

us

LIGHT

OF

NATURE

the

for different

intensityis

same

parts

constant

But

it is not

electric field variable

both with

us

to

position.

suppose
lose

its

that

the

charge

negatively
and

to

be

gradually recharged with positive electricity. Later

is to be again diminished
the charge of positiveelectricity

14

SPECIAL

and

reduced

then

happens

electric

be

course

force

will be

varies

change

to

to

in this

case

act

values, and
time, the

short

the
times

should

on

be

at

the

field

the

charge

time

later.

ball

take

in

intensity at

Now

place

second,

from
to

the

"

ball

time.

with

Another
here

some

when

positive and
at

distinct

the
tive
nega-

moment

distance

great

very

though not until a

changes in the charge of

quickly,
happen

say,

many

that

at

field

miUion
a

certain

sponding
intensity corre-

positive charge will be observed, whilst

ball itself is again

distance, the

field

arising from

the

charged negatively.
intensity will of course
negative

the

ately
immedi-

Hence,

electric

an

tude
magni-

to deal

transmitted

"

^itwiU

be

to zero,

if the
very

its

mentioned

zero

the

now

contrary, it takes

to

also be reduced

of

intensity in

have

distance.

is reduced

field

course

distance

electric

will

position and

charge of the ball oscillates between

will of

the

positivelycharged

we

of charge is not

distance

little time

of

When

direction

the

Thus,

with

of importance

effect of

field ?

attracted

formerly
versa.

What

when

for

"

again

forth.

zero,

and

zero,

reversed,

were

vice

to

positive, the

direction, and

field which

matter

electric

is

part of the field will gradually vary

and
a

ball's

ball is reduced

becomes

distinct

ball

"

the

ball

particles that
repelled,and
a

with

of

will

the

of

zero,

charge of the

force

RELATIVITY

OF

^whereupon the
and so
negative electricity,
to

with

charged
the

THEORY

charge

the

At

the

double

the

be

one

ball

the

possessed

At three
times
the distance, the
period earher.
field intensitywiQ correspond to the last but one
positive
one

charge possessed by the

later, when

the

field intensities

ball has
will

ball, and

so

on.

moment

again changed its charge, the

again

be

reversed.

Thus

we

see

ON
that

the

THE

phenomenon

motion, which
it

as

Exactly

used

electric

field

valid

for

magnetic

for the

analogous

field

intensity,and

word

exactly the

its

will be

at

htmdred-miUionth

exactly
and

the

coincidence

this

leading
other

the

to

light

be

can

too

us

of this

of

of

of

to

and

far to

of

that

all the

enumerate
we

the

purpose

of illustration, we

fictitious apparatus

dimensions,
dectric
two

mechanism

and

tiny

which

permits

magnetic
test

field of

partides,one

at
us

none

ray

to

the

devdoped
It

evidence

shall

of

spatially

time.

of

one

into
would

in favour

by giving a
ray

of

light.

suppose

that

disposal, of minute

our

to

light,

are

that

shall do better

of the

have

of light

of

account

we

of

is

first indications

so

course

threethis

of rays

supposition has

point of view, and

the

the

the

intensity

Now

the

rays

detailed
For

after

m.

temporally and
magnetic fidd similar

This

south-

magnetic

of the field

second.

one

be

can

i.e. when

propagation

was

certainty in

absolute
take

said

above.

described

second

direction

conclxision

electric

variable

in the

electro-magnetic waves,

than

and

for electric and

same

part

velocity c

We

waves.

spectively
negative electricityrepropagation of every such

distance

fidd,

magnetic

only substitutingmagnetic

and

km.

also

are

north-magnetism

charge,the

reversed

of

as

electric field,

waves,

magnetic

velocity of

fields,being 300,000
reverses

notions

words

positive

The

ball

wave

explanations

and

electric

for word,
the

for

is also

of

character

conceptions of

intensity, and

for electric,and

action

15

tb designate
perfectlyjustifiable

the

magnetism

the

definitions

same

here

repeat them

LIGHT

wave.

the

have

we

OF

bears
it

makes

electric

an

NATURE

analyse exactly

ray of

the

light. We require
charged with electridty.

SPECIAL

16

the

other

help

THEORY

with

can

we

particles,within

light,and
of us,

so

place

the

We

set it at

ball

tiny

must

strike

other, and

exerted

on

both

to

each

of
of

Ught

the

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of

with

our

observe

shall

that

of

the

to

forces

of

forces

the

direction

of propagation

supposing
horizontally,then the

for
thousand

billionth

reversed, the

The

next

directions

all is

second.

In

this

the space
be

short
second

then

phenomenon
dependency,

we

besides

only

The
tained
main-

after

the

action

puUed

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for

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is

wards,
down-

left to

right.

forth

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billions of oscillations

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way

ray

electric

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five hundred

the

and

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particle from

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available

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particle is

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particlesto
being placed

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moment

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ascertain

part

electric
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the immense
per

these

inconceivably

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and

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cularly
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light. Thus,
us

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alongside

act

"

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tiny apparatus

particle will be pulled vertically upwards,

magnetic particlehorizontallyfrom right to
action

in front

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us

of

source

metres

particles, ^forces which

ray

these

on

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front

the

billionth

provide

of several

observe

approach

to

acting

horizontally. We
and
charged with electricity,

we

happens.

what

with

less than

next

tiny magnetic pole straightin

of each

force

of time

distance

its rays

that

the

space

second.

contrivance

measure

RELATIVITY

and

magnetism,

of which

part of

OF

describe

the

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must

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imagine
first two,

To

other
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the

source

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of
those

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with

simultaneously upwards,

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electricitywill

all those

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be

charged with

pulled
mag-

SPECIAL

18

consist

Sound-waves

sound-waves.

or

RELATIVITY

OF

THEORY

the

of

ment
move-

body (air,water, rock, etc.)which

In
undergoes spatial and temporal periodic changes.
it is the magnetic and the
of Ught, however,
the case
which
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electric
change periodically. Nothing
of

material

material

something abstract,
and

As

time.

of force in

vacuo

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vessel
of

existence

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of

aether,

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"

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thing, however,
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magnetic

field

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idea

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Hence

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very

essence

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be

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aether

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in the terminology of modern
the

"

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direction

aether, the

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overlooked,

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oscillations

out

the

light.

oscillate.

to

shall find it

it is

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not

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thus

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concrete

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earth
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ray

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quite able to imagine the existence

are

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force

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orbit

oscillates in

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magnetic

field

ON

THE

We

magnitudes.
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brevity
and

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of

light

nature

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It

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made

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some

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theory

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know

thing
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to

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allotted

our

waves

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ought

idea.
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to

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knowledge

relativity

connected

really

desires

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telling

electro-magnetic

of

that

relativity

without

light-rays

anyone

of

theory

the

subsequent

comprehensible.

non-physicist,

that

on

space

the

that

as

enlightenment

not

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with

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relativity.

of
the

making

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on

to

theory

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what

to

that

large

subject

to

idea

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more

however,

important,

the

said.

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already

nothing

has

reader

discussion

the

of

elements

as

has

chapter

purpose

clear

me,

fundamental

so

this

the

anjrthing

appears

what

aether

the

of

sake

terms

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developments

Essentially,
could

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principles

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physical

is

in

that

the

the

of

use

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emphasised

fundamental

merely

in

is meant

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19

for

therefore,
to

oscillations

LIGHT

OF

propose,

simplicity,

aether

will

NATURE

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have

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to

CHAPTER

IS

THE

PRINCIPLE

III

RELATIVITY

OF

OPTICAL

PHENOMENA

with

able

to

approach

Is

it

now

problem

following
annuctl

set

of

revolution

connected
of
On
is to

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that

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'

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and

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by

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the

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follovdng

observers,

involved.

during

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human

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could
of
be

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the

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uniform

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rich
10,000

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not

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English

rolling

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in

us

steamer

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is

ment
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on

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tion
propaga-

should

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once

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time

the

ments
experi-

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to

substance,
must

constructed

gentleman

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velocity.

real

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out

pitching,

old

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detect

to

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laboratory

according

experiment

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carried

so

chapter,

possible
by

nature

solution

phenomena

theory,

regarded

imagine

the

earth,

the

the

on

preceding

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with

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ideas

light

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in

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definite

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light

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EQUIPPED
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like
But

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has

OPTICAL
that

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made

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^but all

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ship's saloons

dry

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the

deck

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are

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with

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the watch
:

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stem.

take

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way

my

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without

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bow,

existence

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man
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because

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in time

watches,

the

difference

of motion,

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as

considering the surroundings, I

wager."

wager

between

at

explains :

two

sound

hence

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difference

no

that

board

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moving,

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towards

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midway

middle

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to travel

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proof

diately
imme-

shows

is present

than

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rate,

watches

transmits

waves

in

two

very

experiment

fired
is

was

stem

pistol,

in the

this

noted

observed

air that

to stem

difference

the

the other

part in the ship's motion,

bow

the

slightlylater
explanation is simple

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the sound

causes

towards

explains

have

the

on

at

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watches

two

stopped

atmospheric

not

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ship.

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it

stop their watches, and

two

bow

of air from

current

ship

at

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does

waves

rate

the

at

than

other

at the

man

on

taken

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the

in

do

second

particularmoment.
stop-watches going

strict

watch

enough

bow,

and

subsequent comparison
than

chosen

injunctions to stop
hearing the report. The

have
on

the

the

at

made

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preciselymidway between
is provided with
the middle

in

one

provided

fires his

"

the third

told to fire at

and

more

are

are

they would
gumption

as

exclaims

passengers

is stationed

one

and

"

roundings."
sur-

attempts

experiments

with

idea, and

an

of

sorts

exactly

out

somebody

has

after all !

"

turn

Then

others

considering the

all

wager,

21

without

moving,
Thereupon

ship

to win

PHENOMENA

and
was

The

adds

whimsical
"

laid.

Not
I

old
so

admit

gentleman
That

you

is not
haven't

considered

visually

RELATIVITY

OF

THEORY

SPECIAL

22

and

ship

would

experiment

the ship been

bow

to

and

I shall

attempting
If

look

we

through

Let

interchange

us

sound

expect that

transmitted

will be

surface

Just

direction.

moving ship

of the

drift be

present

opposed

to

through

the

well to

of such

bow

to stem,

earth's

earth's

an

consider

the

Let

attempt.

the

meaning
us

than

in

the

certainlyconstitute
earth's

annual

opposite
a

new

motion,

and

deck
aether-

direction

sphere gUdes
the

bility
possi-

experiment, it will be
success

the

of the

or

failure

result to

have

slower

rate

of

direction.

proof

discuss

of the

assume

opposite
an

in

the

rate

the

must

so

we

earth's

in the

motion

the

then

slower

air sweeps

when

Before

the
a

surface

motion,

placid aether.

at

positiveone, i.e. that there exists

propagation of light in the direction

been
of

from

actually performing

of
as

the

of

the

fiUing

may

from

than

current

at

to

revolution.

We

forwards

as

about

and

out

of the earth's motion

in the direction

to

ourselves,

waves.

Ught-signal sent

them

replace ship
surface, air by aether,

luminous

by

waves

aU,

at

surrounding

terms

earth's

by

from

medium

air

the

to

had

world-ship travelling

vast

result

think

annual

aether is the

the

by earth, ship's deck

and

as

corresponding

liner.

ocean

then

space,
and

space,

the earth

upon

your

blown

and

earth's

and

leave

us

experiment

the

of

existence

the

prove

mine
deter-

nothing

proves

them,

analogous

an

had

Let

between

dispute

same

wind

money."

my

the two,

the

experiment

Your

keep

their

and

anchor,

at

stem.

furnished

have

between

could

All you

between

the relative motion

was

settle

surroimding air.

the

still your

interaction

the

experiment depends entirely on

the

but

surroundings,

the

the
That

existence

furthermore,

one

earth's
would
of the
accom-

OPTICAL

plishedby

PHENOMENA

of

means

astronomical

23

considerations

of

the

out
with-

and

laboratory experiment,

and

smi

stars.

discussed

it
as
Has, then, the principleof relativity,

was

in the

stated

there

of

motion

"

first

It is

impossible
reference

without
the

had

experiment
the

the

reference

ambiguities, and
one

later

useful

as

To

an

to

the

in

run

on

on

"

of

of

least

clearly

we

itself

prove

such

ments
state-

at

rest

"

the assertion
is referred.

rest

body,

another

are

be

can

In

referred

general

situated

If, lor instance,

we

shall

we

fictitious,distinct

velocities.

ship, and

wiU

body

any

further

no

I that

or

which

avoid

principleof

also

or

motion

measurements.
a

will

universe),which
or

"without

this purpose

in Chapter

required (or at

board

the

experiment

"

that

see

to

which

position or

structure

our

bring

of motion

stating distances

material

In order

motion

at

principle

restriction

complete them, namely,

of lines in the

executing
be

to

the

is always

system

in

body

the

dispute of words,

containing

saw

this state

describe

body

We

addition

what

to

to

For

and

We

form,

other.

tween
be-

between

The

violated."

now

This

motion

more.

notion, which

on.
"

need

the

or

new

as

in

one

way

introduce

we

laying
"

case

up

finally arrived

we

the

shall

fellow

experiment,

amounts
of

take

we

interaction

relative

been

not

another

relativity into
decide

of

the

our

surrormdings."

of words,

confusion

If

old

to

result

meaning

the

to

existence

present

nothing

question

the

concerning

for

the

aether, and

end

only

used

thus

We

whimsical
in the

existence

of relativityhas
in the

the

assert

aether ;

and

surroundings."

reference

merely the

earth

of

apparatus

surrounding
was

the

to

can

we

wager,

violated

perceive the

to

view

of

point

his

chapter, been

state

that

the

it is

whilst
a

race

victor

SPECIAL

24

attained

of

matter

as

to

the

plus

with

the

of
is

refer

would

velocity of

travels

motion

data

earth

the

with

runner

second,

lo

the

ship, according

m.

per

the

which

to

as

direction

the

to

body

reference

of

body

relative

be

The

ship.)

called

the

contrary

or

understand

we

velocity is

this

that

(The velocity of

the

minus

or

second,

per

m.

course

the

to

runner

of

lo

ship's deck.

reference

the

velocityof

RELATIVITY

OF

THEORY

system

or

of reference.
In

itself is

of

body

our

reference

above, the

mentioned
of

reference, and

of

relativityin

the

exactlythe

same

the

light on
direction

following form

violated
earth

if it could

are

in

result would

certainlynot

We

in that

For. if

even

Now

we

say

the
the
the

be

of the

be

that

from

here

stated,

proved that
from

earth's

the

problem of the existence

is

real

place
a

"

just made.

the

in
principleof relativity,

aether

this

earth,

have

question of

one

physical

take

would

we

in

system

hence

of

rays

motion,

occurring on

the statement

would

quickly

more

obtained

furthermore, that the

form, includes

rectilinearlywith

of reference

system

contradictoryto

non-validityof

have

partaking

different way

see,

principle

different
systems

In

Measured

another.

not

result

the

body

processes take place in

propagated

of reference

ment
experithe

was

state

and

uniformly

sound

ship

earth

way.

than

processes

the

may

principle of relativity,as

certainlybe

in

we

other, all natural

each

respect to

for

moving

Thus

on.

so

of reference moving

The

the

ordinary laboratory experiments,

our

vaUdity

or

its modified
of

substance,

an
we

aether.
must

of perceivingit directlyor indirectly,

possibility
though it need not be tangible or ponderable.

the

if its real existence

is in any

way

capable

of per-

THEORY

SPECIAL

26

of

case

We

velocityis
chose

of course,

must,

who

experimentalistB,
the

direction

the

lull, and

is to

all sides.

hill visible from

of the
the

The

other

which

they stop

them

from

30 km.

B.

very

To

ensure

which

nature

Will

going

at

clocks

the

velocityof

km.

per

second

idea

second

in the

reader

the

it may

for

doing

of the

may

be

to

so,

because

minuteness

the

value

is

consider

impossibility
every

of the

measuring-rods, etc., required by

* For
of simjdicity the
sake
the
of

direction

exactly 300,000

of

we

velocity
J5 to C

velocityof

from

to

direct

in

of

this

there
way

per

are

get

of

relativity.

assumption
km:

to

experiment,
But

effects, e.g. contractions

theory

A.^

it superfluous

physicist.
can

from
a

fluence
in-

to

influences

with

direction

per

is, of

hypothetical

wind

with

culated.
cal-

around

which

the

as

surface, and

stop-

easily be

aether-drift

way

in the

of the

the two

propagated

the

that

this

earth's

though"
reasons

be

the

in

highly

revolution

velocityof
same

rate,

arrival

second,

expect

observers

of

can

earth's

the

advanced

more

obvious

better

would

numerically

prove

good

Ught

km.

relativelyto

The

should

of Ught in the

; hence

299,970

the

the

Ughtning rapidity.

expected

per

in

might,

exact

with

the

in

from

same

contrivances

km.

30

time

We

rays

of 300,030

to

to

same

aether-drift.

sound

be

The

at the

course,

Both

we

register the

effect

placed

away

the

reaches
light-signal

accuracy

The

amounts

sun

the

instant

is

km.

be noticed, then, between

difference

of

middle

is situated
B.

of light automatically,and

ray

the

30

from

place of observers, imagine

sensitive

greater

on
light-signal,

observer

observer

the

the

motion

chronometers

accurate

station

us

give

earth's

opposite direction, also

have

times

experimenting ground

an

greatest possiblelength. Let

the

'

million

of sound.^

that

than

its

light,since

RELATIVITY

OF

is

second.

made

here,

OPTICAL
The

distances

should

BA

require

and

these
millionth

is

part of
this

The

light

that

so

and

A,

to

seconds, i.e. the

Before

could

we

should

experiment, we

have

to

best

clocks

in

estimate

is

our

tween
be-

difference

fifty

hope

to

construct

accuracy

miUionfold.
The

result of

that

technical

day

in

problem
Michelson

became

one

than

more

of the

famous

of

idea

relativity. The

glass-plateat

into

two

the

glass

parts

is

and

is

distances
in

from

mirrors

respective directions,
the

same

ray

path

and

as

present-

of

solving

favour
follows

the

meet

their

so

gained

in

at

physics,

other

principle
of

ray
is

the

surface

again

at the

of light is splitinto two

the

parts traverse

travel

then

are

perpendicularly
they

of

the

to

part traverses
Both

that

light

separated

point of origin,and

up

portant
im-

most

the

Later, this

perpendicularly

straighton.
set

of

the

physicist

ago.

angle of 45", and

an

propagated

travels

glassplate and
reflected

our

constituting the
in

original direction, whereas

certain

perhaps

experiments

part is reflected

one

its

evidence

empirical
on

thirty years

most

account

on

falls

that

will

point. And
yet the American
performed the experiment, and

result

of

possibilityof

kind, and

capable

not

are

discouraging

so

the

granted

it for

means

definite

perhaps

this

of

take

to

doubt

well

may

experiment

satisfied

be

numerical

our

reader

the
actual

an

from

C.

to

o'oooooooa

surpassing

chronometers

30 km.,

seconds

second.

27

each

are

from

times

accomplish

BC

o'oooioooi

seconds

0-00009999

PHENOMENA

their

to

back

along

glass plate. When

rajTS in this way,

and

the

parts re-unite, certain optical phenomena are observed

of the parts lags
called interference
fringes,and if one
behind

by

an

infinitesimaUysmall

fraction

of

second.

SPECIAL

28

this

gives rise

taken

by

to the

ray of

one

ray which

following

The

that

so

of rotation.
decide

travelled

way

it

whether
the

that
of

effect

an

the

But
in

with

there

contrivances

amounting
the

not

was

the

validityof

It would

such
on

conscientious
that

had
motion

in this

of this motion

one

light.

have

to

been
of

fringes

into

various

motion.)

part

detectable.

the

Michelson-

certainty in favour of
relativityfor optical
ones.

be

For

and

non-uniformity

it

however

might

decision

problem
and

exact

stiU be

possible

circumstance, of which

accessory

paralysed the

experiment, and

effect of the
that

might still be proved in

been

made,

hundredth

Hence

with

by laboratory experiments.
instance

then

convincing, if our
fundamentally important

thought, had

in

capable

earth's

have

must

its execution.

incidental

some

the

accurately adjusted,

so

experiment only,

one

in

finally,Morley

for mechanical

as

and

principle of

not, of course,

concerning

depended

well

as

processes,

the

other
an-

floated

was

of the

even

decided

Morley experiment

of

interference

trace
slightest

of

propagation

the

in

value

that

absolutely negative. The

subsequent years with more

apparatus,

computed

parallel

out

brought

was

direction
were

sensitive

tried

Miller

to the

fro

vibration, and

shifts of the

repeated

were

and

exact

apparatus

apparatus

the time

perpendicular

carried

free from

was

obtained

results

fro in the

was

entire

any

positionsrelative
attempts

to and

thorough investigationwas

occurred, when

The

and

with

motion,

(The experiment

direction.

to

earth's

readily

are

compared

Michelson

lightin travellingto

of the

direction

mercury,

fringes,which

to shifts of these

In this way,

perceptible.

RELATIVITY

OF

THEORY

To

possibleto

the

begin with,

suppose

the

earth's

existence
other

some

it

body
no-

way

might

moving

for

earth

OPTICAL
to

sether

carry

at the

relative

of such

conilict

with

quite different
and

devised

the

that

without

from

light,but

of

nothing

to

concerned

were

of nature.
the

experience,

cairries sether
of

and
but

with

with

of
into

come
so

that

the

with

it

experiments
Morley

were

them,

results.

the

other

theme

all of

negative

so

bility
possi-

along

other

execution,

do

The

obtained

of Michelson

into

understood,

validity of

constituted

exception, gave

had

for the

number

that

carried

any

these

be

readily

results

earth

discarded.

be

must

of the

law

the

facts

other

assumption

the negative result

explanation

an

only
earth

decisive

as

be

sether and

could

investigation, but

close

that

so

in

its surface

would

there

case

far-reachinga

and

body moving

velocity between

regarding it

important

it, just as

this

experiment

without

of

In

earth's surface,

Michdson

29

along liquid particleson

friction.

small

very

with

along

carries

liquid
owing to
a

PHENOMENA

Some

propagation

of

electro-magnetic

processes.
It is of interest

The

took

their

of the

science

of chemistry,
of

alchemists

the

and

into

energy

originated in
In the

the

negative
to

came

due

to

the

want

insufficient
at

fault.

from

the

results of the

on

lead

and

of

Einstein,

fundamental

as

attempts
common

of

effect perpetual
a

The

consequence

of

experiments,
dilemma

nor
physicists,

technical
cause

tion
founda-

conservation

aforementioned

our

the

other

of the

the part of

development
The

forms

unsuccessful

following conclusion
of sldll

of

fruitless efforts to
way,

same

the

law

portant
im-

most

ph5reics and
experimental failures.

in

convert

to

gold,

doctrines

origin

arose

of the

some

elements, which

metals

motion.

that

fundamental

and

chemistry

notice

to

is not
can

knowledge

lies rather

in

the
be
the

THEORY

SPECIAL

30

absolute

of

the

the

the

mechanics,

as

in

was

any

principle
and

processes,

determining
of

influence

motion

earth's
because

natural

of

impossibility

experiments

RELATIVITY

OF

not

formerly

physical

only

laboratory

rectilinear

the

of

by

phenomena

relativity
for

those

supposed.

component

is

valid

connected

soever,
whatfor

all

with

CHAPTER

THE

LAW

OF

IV

THE

CONSTANCY

VELOCITY

ti\'ity

valid

is

itself

is in

far

We

other.

it

that

opinion

thus

are

this.

oscillatory

"

this

"

something

sound

experiment

on

appeal

to

and

thus

we

us,

principle
the
to

are

of

rajre
and

of

of

Ught

magnetic

to

be
field

no

for

oscillations,

long

would

optical

the

If

processes.

negative

result

of

all the

substantial
more

than

intensity.

oscillations
II

we

if

ments
experigive

and

aether,

of

must,

must

we

(Chapter

the

validity

we

chapter),

we

necessarily

that

last

as

with

analogy

doubt

the

something

(and

the
a

As

to

us

be

aether.

ship

light

deduced

relativity

the
in

hj^othesis

lead

of

understand

mentioned

the

board

of

rays

these

the

of

we

responsible

out

aether,

an

any

processes

was

must

carry

one

for

were

optical

that

there

for

not

hence

the

relativity

principle

for

former

only

then,

Why,

and

to

of

vaJid

rda-

physics

our

and

certainty

being

notion

than

hypothesis

that

the

accept

valid

processes,

accept

the

be

substantial

and

concrete

ask

with

conclusion

erroneous

to

aether

knew

We

it is

of

of

range

mechanics,

led

the

principle

entire

which

to

cannot

doubt

Without

special

satisfactory

more

THE

LIGHT

the

ph3reics, namely,

of

are

the

for

according

assumption,

for

that

discovery

THE
part

OF

OF

up

consider
of

electric

contains

OF

THEORY

SPECIAL

32

descriptionof

detailed

what

description of this
velocity of propagation

the

has

reference
with
"

relative

this

of

the

which

to

velocity. Formerly

that

the

relativelyto

aether," in

this

the

system

is

hght

have

analogous way,

an

again
of

propagated

should

we

the

state

and

waves,

the

complete

must

we

indicate

we

To

means.)

process,

unless

meaning,

no

RELATIVITY

said

sound

as

propagated with a velocity of approximately 330 m.

the aether, in
relativdy to the air. Now
per second

is

former

the

hence

we

can

velocity

experiment of
rays of Ught from

inclined

to

definite

velocity

one,

We

precise

devise

must

reference, for

and

which

Morley

terrestrial source,

our

taught

which

propagated

are

measured

as

to

the

to

have

waves

relatively to the
therefore, transmitted
deck

the moving
the

on

stem

in

us

takes

all directions

board

which

light
be

once

more

the

along
a

distinct

atmosphere
in

ship, but
towards

the

every

direction

deck), which

relative

is at rest

to that

has
made
our

deck

of

they

travel

the

more

bow
not

moving

of

are

the

source

pagation
pro-

not,

along
quickly

same

sjretem of reference

relativelyto

by

example

of the
the

the

clear

velocity
;

distinct

with

be

light.

and

all directions

velocity of propagation is

Thus

of

source

present statement

uniformly

than

the

aether, may

comparing both alternatives

of the propagation of sound
Sound

from

the

according

velocity relative

towards

giving

light.

Michelson

between

difference

ship.

of

significance,

equal velocity. We
might, therefore,
of light are "transmitted
with
say : Waves

with

former

lost its

velocity of light shall be valid.

part in the earth's motion,

The

has

to it when

of

system

of the

statement

that

the

suitable

more

The

longer refer

no

of

statement
a

of the word,

sense

ship.
in

(the

of sound.

SPECIAL

84

of the

deck

experiment
The

we

obUged
of

the

coast, and
of the

the middle

fired

from

fired in the
than
the

those

bullet

for the

q-v,

Bullets

fore and
But

let

the

these

the

earth

earth, be greater than

will travel

away

from

us.

This

to

bullets

observer

the

on

must,

If

gun

call

we

q, and

the

fired forwards

land.

star

has

been

apply

us

the

to
star

Ritz

which
from

which

will

opposite

Let

measured

as

from

quickly

more

fired in the

those

deduction

suppose
of
means

projectiles

direction.

relative

that

aft with

us

observers

to

approaching

fired

provided with
velocity of projectiles

optical phenomena.
According
theory, the velocityof rays of lightfrom a
this

our

it is

suppose

it.

travel

opposite

velocity of the ship v, the

have
the velocity q-\-v,and
direction

shall

For

to

more

once

ship.

and

For

fired in the
the

the

direction

forward

velocityof

We

ship will

ship.

the

revert

us

hence

hjrpothesis also.

parallelto

equal speed for observers on

observers
posted on land,
kind
for measuring
some

and

"

this

up

sion,
conclu-

to another

us

experience,

ship.

moving

the

sailingnear
from

give

to

of illustration, let

purposes
simile

leads

conflicts with

which

one

are

easilyimderstood.

be

thus

theory, however,

Ritz

"

would

Michelson's

of

result

negative

The

ship.

RELATIVITY

OF

THEORY

is

is
the

moving

tested, both

for rays of light from

radially moving stars, and for
emitted
of light.
those
by moving terrestrial sources
of the

velocityof light on the state of

of the source
of hght could
be detected, and
motion
be maintained.
the Ritz theory cannot
therefore
On
and
the other hand, a new
important fact based on
the velocityof lightin
:
experience has been obtained
has always the value c
km. per second,
vacuo
300,000
and
is quite independent of the state of motion
of the
No

dependency

OF

LAW

and

regards
in

equal

it

these

pillars

of

principles

rest

to

science

exact

sensitive

in

deserves
occasion

of

system

reference
On

32

and

this

of

reference

of

each

to
"

said

again

has

the

which

to

are

now

velocity

the

able

to
to

soon

all

the

for

all

we

indicate

is

propagated

that

light

of

systems

of

the
of

of

propagation

rectilinearly

the

velocity

earth.

this
the

system

with

is

cess,
pro-

waves,

the

that

propagated

above-mentioned

and

the

validity

to

description

light
state

when

the

relatively

unless

uniformly

move

of

valid

to

also

the

complete

relatively

owing

motion

which

This

shall

we

is

this

good

meaning,

no

relative

velocity

to

absolute

principles.

because

but

holds

rectilinear
"

way

correctness.

earth,
it

any

systems
with

respect

other.

For

spoken
kinds

uniform

state

reference

the

in

exact

have

two

experience,

relativity

We

the

their

own

is

must

velocity."
with

of

we

we

our

reference

in

p.

doubt

to

to

principle

the

of these

validity

special emphasis,

According

the

most

most

can

must

we

the

by

the

we

known

ground

and

If

tion
founda-

fundamental

two

surest

experiments

experience,

own

Relativity.
the

supported

are

nature,

Relativity.

of

and

Light,"

of

of

the

as

of

Velocity

these

measurements.

confidence

have

they

optical

our

point

safest

law

constitute

that

notice

the

on

astronomical
trust

principles

to

this

Principle

Special Theory

important

35

principle

the

to

two

the

the

of

fundamental

as

LIGHT

designates

Constancy

importance

Together,

It is

the

of

Principle

OF

Einstein

of light.^

source
"

VELOCITY

of

the

sake

of.

The

of

brevity

law

electro-magnetic

only

mentioned,
waves.

however,

(Gf. Chapter

of

holds

II.)

light
good

is
for

here
all

CHAPTER

THE

CONFLICT

BETWEEN

THE

TWO

MENTAL
FUNDA-

PRINCIPLES

the

to

UP

The

sailing.

deduction
and

experiments,
is

experience,

then

importance

is this

principles
other

consider

we

quite

it is

vaUd

be

to

much

in

the

majority

the

least

for

of

such

theory

everyday

of

ence
expericlosely,

more

fundamental

both

they

siders
out-

about

the

matter

for

practical

the

of

our

natural

greater

level

impossible
together,

contradiction

same

choose

for

which

moves

track.

A
train

measured
stationed

between
Let

experience.
and

between

that

as

change

the

when

in

distinguishes
the

from

contradict

each

The

of

and

lifts it above

that

find

present),

plain
from

laws

common

of

minds

been

conclusions

general

branches

which

has

of

quite

their

fact

and

relativity

the

the

The

matters.

we

in

trouble

rarely

of

something

(moreover,

science

everj^hing

present

with

of

on

given

by
the

is

is

two

Ritz

fundamentally

theory

and

it.

develop

the

By

measurement,

illustration

velocity

constant

Ught-signal

both

again

us

purposes

the

convenient

more

at

the

sent

moment,
observers

out

from

and

its

in

embankment.
36

the

facts

shall

we

railway

along
the

According

train,

straight

middle

velocity
train

of

way

and

is to

of
be

others
to

the

TWO

PRINCIPLES

FUNDAMENTAL

87

of relativity,
take place
principle
phjreical
processes must
in the
in a
moving train precisely as they would
measured
of light, as
stationary train ; hence
rays
by observers situated in the train, must be propagated
and
backwards
with the same
both forwards
velocity,
be if the train were
just as they would
stationary.
According to the other of the two fundamental
principles,
the
from
however, the velocity of light as measured
embankment

should

of the

of the train and

motion

because

it
of

motion

the

contradict
V

and

ought

train's motion

the

c+v,

01

Sound
and

velocities
Let

which
the

imagine

us

the

up

not

minds

our

"

them

As

must

they
be

direction

for

chapter)
to

and

it must

be

of velocities
confirmed

for

to

to

the

(as
all

bicycle track.

direction

in which

of the train, would

can

judged by

as

see

no

light also, and

if

of the last

an

we

had

chapter

should

be

observer
this

why

reason

he

naturally

not

made

to trust

the

incHned

to

obviously contradictory, one

wrong." (From the point of view
so

so,

in

deal

form

as

principles,we
are

be

everyday life.
railway carriages joined

velocities

end

train),

contrary direction.
that

to

of

length

in the

last

be

of the

embankment

addition

have

We

at the

fundamental

two

say

entire

hold

the

us

we

embankment.

should

train

the

tested

roofs

quite different

possess
on

the

of the

in the

in

be

together in such a way

Then
a
cyclist,according
traversed

speed

the

of the

it) can

with

demands

in

teaches

sense

call

may

we

from

of

state

two

(as mentioned

classical law

this

the

velocityc (measured

the

direction

These

light.

propagated

common

of

independent

of

measured
a

c-v

in the

in the contrary direction,

propagated

find

must

both

same

other, for if the

with

velocity

be

to

effect be

we

the

source

each

an

then

be

of
of

SPECIAL

38

THEORY

logic,they might
other

hand, if

must

suppress

that

the

the

of

both

course

adhere

we

to

wonted

our

apparently

RELATIVITY

OF

mode

Oii

wrong.)

of

of the

analogy

cyclist
have

of the

moving railway carriages can

possiblevalidityfor light.

on
no

In

roofs

order

analyse

to

closely

more

velocity of

To

the train, we

the

all three

clocks.

embankment
be

stationed

provided

would

have

moment,

be

to

observers

their

clocks

could

then

the

calculate

measured

as

the measured

We
exact

of

in

saw

light,and

described
the

earth.

is

for the

Hence,

passing

embankment,
the

see

stop

flash.

We

from

and

train

differences

the

must

in each

III that

direct

tion,
direc-

from

the

in the

times

is much
on

thousand
the

our

clocks

not

nearly

measurement

are

of the

velocity

present experiment, conditions

there, and

train

is

distances.

for

observations

given

velocity of Ught
the

have
clocks

At

train

the

on

these

all observers

they

of the

unfavourable.

still more
our

the

Chapter

enough

out, and

instant'

means

of the
the

provided

would

All

the

out

be

intervals

on

of the

observers

way,

middle

both

by

embankment,

sends
to

clocks.

stationed

very

end

absolutely alike.

the

be sent

must
light-signal

and

timed

who

have

certain

exact

just as

say,

of the

one

with

the

from

at each

middle

same

at

and

velocity of light from

would

In the

the

measuring

train

observer

in the

man

of

the

the
an

shall

possible,we

process

station

hght-signal,and

to

the

measure

must

train, besides

exact

be

can

light-signalfrom

embankment.

with

this

how

see

the

principles,then we
thought, and admit

two

our

obvious

so

be

On

the

smaller
the

than

other

times

differences

one

are

hand, the base

in the

of

experiment

hand, the velocity of

smaller
of time

than
to

that
be

of the

measured

FUNDAMENTAL

TWO

are

much

our

clocks

our

conscience

are

involved.

contradict

each

of

We
the

rods
the

as

be
but

must,

other

those

at

two

therefore,

to

thing

the

laws

out

carry

satisfy

not

of

which
to

nature

discrepancies
modem

are

technical
take

outset,

clocks
the

measure

more

difftculties

by
at

does

the

having

account

measuring-

and
of

velocity

different
with

are

at

the

stations
clocks

all

in

require

we

observers

the

provided
which

srffer

times

with

light

precision.

necessary

is, that

logical

that

so

to

us

the

imperceptible

our

billion

this

when

even

of

enough

exact

to

cannot

be

possibility

One
that

relation

89

case,

enable

to

are,

that

But

other,

to

as

means.

about

measurements.

in

in

were

be

to

actually

We

small

they

have

they

necessary

so

than

would

than

exact

the

smaller

PRINCIPLES

on

which

exactly

timed

ends

of

the

and

experiment,

our

the

train,

well

as

shall

embankment,

only

not

go

and

alike,

precisely,
this

is

"

an

essential.
Einstein
idea

of

was

able

simultaneity

contradiction

between

to

show

brought
the

that
the
two

strict

solution
fundamental

analysis
of

the

of

the

apparent

principles.

CHAPTER

ANALYSIS

OF

FIRST

THE

of

all

between

if

foimd,

we

If

clock.

of

positions

and

twelve,
the

of

needs

time,

what

does

corresponding

clock
of

the

by

star

new

and

this

became

had

which

mass

previously,

cause

and

had

visible
Nova

thus

the

Persei

certainly
had

in

been
become

by

other

the

table,
^the
"

stroke

of

the

of

hands
The

proximity

them

see

that
?

21st

two

Let

how

example
the

in

the

at

simultaneously.

say

On

question.

star,

we

set

the

the

spatial

if

been

in

set

aglow

visible.

in

illustrate

us

justified
of

But

events

we

February

constellation
the

be

timed

events

at

simultaneously
drastic

on

two

close

place

when

occur

called

was

take

are

simultaneously.

definition

they

mean

following

asking

in

in

further

then
it

events

clocks

of

positions

place

only

us

dock

one

^take
"

two

places

different

the

the

no

same

whether
of

can

hands

before

hands

simultaneity
thus

discern

of

law

simultaneously

are

clocks

both

the

exactly

are

the

as

the

other

timed

clock

one

and

light

clocks

position

place

of

contradiction

relativity

exactly
Two

the

same

readily

can

we

of

that

velocity

that

of

we

stated

principle
the

SIMULTANEITY

OF

be

places.

the

precisely

it

assume

hands

the

when

let

of

different

up

CONCEPT

the

constancy

VI

of

are

1901,

Perseus,
This

astronomers.

existence

by
The

as

some

dark

unknown

flaming-up

of

SPECIAL

42

THEORY

July 1871.

Let

motion

common

direction.

hght

star

the

and

then

longer

have

the law

the

reach

happened

fixed

of the

that
of the

far apart .^^ The

and

from

the star

even

if I

latter

say

to

know,

come

happened

the

right?

to the

means.

But

case

He

without

higher velocity than light to bring us

In point of fact, according to human
If one,

should

ever

which
be

is

my
forth

events,

Now

is the

if the

the

osopher
phil-

inability

events

was

the

be fundamentally

simultaneity

availingourselves

there

is

tidings

no

other

of distant

of

effect

of

events.

is no
experience, there
propagated with a velocity greater

discovered,

theory of relativity would

happen.

with

life,whether

It would

determine

that

being

not

present-day technical

our

is different.

assuming

new

another

bursts

of both

occurrence

spatiallydistant events,

take

mind

might be,

quite impossible to

are

all."

on

spatially

events

all my

at

imperfectionof

this

we

two

simultaneous

are

are

of this

prominence

these

only due

c,

of

date

If I hit this table

instant

the simultaneous

effect.

aid

less
quite meaning-

Never

Sirius,then

ever

all this

is thus

"

may

to prove

In

motion

the

birth

the

principle,it

same

never

in

it,

from

what
principle,

on

with

simultaneity.

at the

event

decide

simultaneity of

He

able to prove
hand

without

philosopher will perhaps

of view.

point

of the

ment,
experi-

the combined

Thus,

simultaneous

was

speak

to

than

for instance,

say,

sooner,

constancy of the velocityof light,we

Without

star.

such

and

us,

detect

not

stars.

positionto

earth

could

we

and

in

never

'

rajre of
the event of the
the

retreating from
to

opposite

is in the

star

Michelson's
1870. Now
principleof relativitydeduced

that

us

earth

of

hand, that the

other

15th of October

taught

the

need

must

and

of

earth

are

th6

on

suppose,

of

We

they

new
on

us

RELATIVITY

OF

fall.

then
But

the

entire

this is not

structure

likely to

ANALYSIS
the

law

what
exist.

idea

philosopher
absolute
simultaneity of spatially distant
pure thought fiction,though it could never

of

as

absolute

But

then

even

principleof

the

this be

valid, then

of

star

the
its

and

in

actually found

of the

constancy

lapse of time

between

that it is this

principlethat

the

of

notion

separated is

principleof
be

may
which

and

stationed

the

principleof
a

than

means

fundamentally the
see,

lead

We

to any

of the

thus

events

see

Hence

spatially
by the

It

aiid B,

simultaneous

are

from

i"
B

and

see

simultaneously.

events

the constancy of the

far

than

more

with

velocityof light,
assertion

mere

It does

connection

the train and

contradiction

much

property of Ught

mere

between

from
with

velocityof light,for

the

cerning
conmore

it defines

"

space and time.

then, that the experiment of measuring

of Hght from

both

not

or

Events

distances

physical phenomenon

acquaint us

velocity

perceive the far-reachingimportance

reader

that it

the

is defined

places,

at equal

of both

occurrence

of this

different

perforce

velocity of light.

simply thus

most

at

occur

Does

constancy of the

the

of

priori,but

is

simultaneity.

simultaneity

given

not

defined

observeis
the

the

defines

If

birth

the

earth

on

motion.

common

the

velocity of Ught.

perception

executing

are

practice.

retain

we

equal to the distance earth-star, divided by

of light c, quite independently of whether
bodies

between

to contradictions

if

of

this idea

discard

is different,however,

matter

the

is

as

the

to

must

we

simultaneityif it leads

facts of experience,

The

concede

might perhaps

proved.

the

48

constancy of the velocityof light; and

be said to
essentiallybe observed, cannot

We

events

be

SIMULTANEITY

of the

cannot

the

OF

the

the embankment
the law

of the

observers'

We

velocity
cannot

constancy

clocks

can

be

SPECIAL

44

only with

exactly timed
definition

by

performed

with

discussion

in

The

of the
the

the

definition.

between

principle of
that

or

the

The
of

the

least

at

the

follows

constancy
have

to

modify
way

that

of the

same

habit

with

value

c,

of

that

can

existence

of

wrong,

abandoned.
fact that,
the

but

of

His

idea

and

to

or

be

carried

relativity;
logically

of both

in

systems

other

out, is the
it contains

fundamental

to

such

always

direction.

deduced

they

have

we

more

each

the

having

time

two

was

of

Without

thought,

space

two

unproven

correct, for

are

irrespectiveof

be

idea

experience, rather

our

respect

to

are

specialtheory

simultaneous

on

velocity of light in

modifications

inferences

be

preference to

experimentally.

conceptions
the

is to be

simultaneity.

previous

our

no

velocity of light,

lies in the

velocity of Ught

proved

priori,

this

principles of relativity and

uniformly

the

these

The

encounter

we

self-evident

apparently

of the

our

moving

hgs

been

regard

work

gave

absolute

of

principlesmust

of Einstein's

of

conception

taneity
simul-

the

required

thus

of the

simultaneity

of

of

principle of relativity and

principlesbased

fundamental

as

the

alternatives, he

to

and

trained

were

given

was

essence
quint-

recapitulate

us

application

the

of these

idea

importance

than

events

constancy

one

absolute

these

conception

simultaneity, however,

contradiction

so

In

Let

minds

our

meaning,

ments
measure-

the

contains

relativity.
the

absolute

an

absolute

the

of

are

this law.

chapter

spatially distant

it had

previous
of

this

that

persuasion
of

that

confirm

briefly. Formerly,

matter

to

exactly aUke, unless

them

problem

of this law, i.e. they

hdp

the

timed

never

RELATIVITY

OF

THEORY

How

subject
all those

from

the

principles.

CHAPTER

THE

SPECIAL

THEORY

SUM-TOTAL
THE

left
embankment

of

again,

of

the

deductions

of
but

one,

at

is
at

who

point

valid

are

of

events

in

how

the

but

differences

exact

the

quite

it

idea

for

to

absolute

an

I
and

that

say

another

this

ment
state-

observers

observers,

however,

will

another

me,

right

taneity
simul-

those

in

take

saying

Let
results

should

be

pointed

of

time-intervals

that

not

show

to

the

when

this

is

of

simultaneously,

Other

me.

strate
demon-

co-existence

earth)

and

them

to

it is
easy

is

simultaneous.
it

adjustment

to

Thus,

(say

upset

fundaniental

the

the

been

way

revert

place,

events

myself

be

and

the

from

of

relatively

not

were

definition

to

motion

view,

demonstrate

that

for

only

no

two

now

relative.

place

relatively

rest

first

(Sirius) happen

place

given

had

measurements

distant

only

in

the

on

we

the

must

definition

spatially

at

event

We

and

after
can

perform

the

In

it is

of

resiilting

rigid

that

they

perform

principles.

Einstein's

that

an

them

let

train

lurch,

that

correctly.

and

both

the

they

the

in

validity

the

provided

clocks

their

in

of

FROM

PRINCIPLES

persuaded

conviction

principles,

DEDUCTIONS

THE

observers

our

RELATIVITY:

FUNDAMENTAL

fuUy
our

OF

OF

TWO

WE

VII

The

two

proceed

us

from
out

with

to

Einstein's
forthwith
which

we

SPECIAL

46

have
of

to

here

are

we

shall

speak

by
only one

shall suppose
be

to

stationed

Electric

infinitesimal, that

so

detectable

in the

results

far from

following are

observer

set

are

the

We

apparatus.
present-day

our

in

exactly

lamps

RELATIVITY

OF

deal

which

being

THEORY

train, and

middle

the
the

on

up

in the

of

the

him
train.

embankment

at

two

places A and B, their distance apart being equal to

the
length of the train. They are
provided with
convenient
a

flash of

contact-levers,

light the

it, and

passes

train passes

the

it.

midway

lamp

the

observer

between

the

lamp
beginning of

the

moment

An

that

so

the

moment

is st ationed

and

B.

emits

the

train

end

of the

ment
the embank-

on

The

train

travels

Train
-+-

Fig.

past, the lamps send

light
A

are

and

reach

that

the

places

then, according

to

has

and

rays

of

lightcoming

coming
the
The

travelled

two

from

events

did

that

also

correct

embankment

events

the

at

distance
reach

take

from

the

Chapter VI,
flashes

observer

following objection might

statement

in

the

maintains

not

both

by measurement
equi-distant from him,

are

short

he

from

ascertained

definition

from

B, and

both

sees

the

the

on

of

light,waves

velocity

observer

quite right in asserting

simultaneously. But the
meanwhile

the

he

if he

and

time,

the

Thus

simultaneously.
same

with

propagated

B, and

2.

their flashes of

out

A'

him

in

he

took

the

place

train

towards

is

has

A, hence
than

sooner

those

quite correctly that

place simultaneously.
be

raised

point

"Is

of view

this
of the

SPECIAL
Einstein

THEORY
?

theory

According

simultaneous

are

them

sees

at

for when

the

the

in the middle

between

flashes

of

exactly

the

lamp

embankment,
the

idea

just as

time

same

it passes

sends

this

out

and

at

A, and

the

as

wards.
after-

lamp.
no

the

second

lamp at B on the
(In this statement
because
difi"culty,
of two

are

in the

not

by

seen

lamps

doubt,

if he

of view

the

succession

The

that

they
is
"

he

says

train

between

emit

flashes

is

both

their

quite right
The

does

phenomena

in the

midway

times, he

when

of

observer

situated

observes

different

light at

point

modify

observers.

both

without

now,

of

least

the

on

with
the simultaneity
only concerned
spatially proxinmte events.) This arrangement
we

end

Ught-signal

lamp

it passes

what

him

beginning

the

as

out

sent

objection, we

the

to

longer

no

stationed'

to

respect

simultaneity presents

of

is

was

above-mentioned

time

same

as

with

up

here,

Ccise

latter argument,

observer

The

attached

exactly the

at

This

B."

first of these

and

embankment,

the

take

lamps

at

is not

him, he

the

train ; the

of the

middle

lamps at the instant they

light ; it is quite immaterial

meet

suppose

can

in the

standing

the

position the lamps

To

events

That

and

47

definition, two

light reach

correct.

between

midway

time.
of

rays

to

observer

an

same

is not

however,

their

if

RELATIVITY

OF

flashes

from

his
not

were

simultaneous."
To

mark

regard

to

our

may

difference

simultaneity

definition, and
be

added

stationed
nearer

the

to

light from

on

the

than
A

sooner

between

which

those
third

observer

embankment,
to

B.
than

not,

are

and

is
to

He, too, wiU

that

from

with

according

correct

are

which

assertions

the

following

supposed
be

to

situated

see

B, but

to

the
he

be
far

flash of
cannot

THEORY

SPECIAL

48

maintain

that,

two

the

situated

is not

On

light.

of

sources

RELATIVITY

consequence,

for he

simultaneous,
the

as

OF

events

between

midway

the

contrary, he

must

AD
and
BD
path between
and
account,
by doing so he will discover that
took place simultaneously for him too.
events

take

We

of

difference

the

arrive

thus

at the

conclusion

place simultaneously for

take

Two

observer

an

at

place simultaneously for an observer

the
According to the principleof relativity,
rest, and

the' observer

hence, of

course,

which

events

observer
a

rest, do not

The

at rest.

The

it, so

it.

biUionth

part of

however,

the

advancing

This

is

We

for

Two

towards

observer

said then

at rest, it must

events

on

instant

end

of the

light will
the

observer

the

delaying

not

ment
embank-

time-interval

; for the

(the

in motion,

will be still greater, because

the ray
and

mines
deter-

an

after the

flashes of

certain

second)

extension

contrivance

for the

spatiallydistant

observer

slightly,
by supposing

the

time-interval

he is

two

good

of motion

state

second)

case

after

either, but

statement.

holds

light will be emitted

In this

simultaneously

an

at

him.

to have

part of

bUlionth

train passes

in

in motion

spatiallydistant

result

its flash of

that

observer

simultaneityis,therefore,

two

generaliseour

(say the
occur

not

lamp

of

observer's

or

of the

contact

embankment

assertion

idea

simultaneously for
can

motion.

place simultaneously for an observer

take
not
place simultaneously for an

whether

We

in

take

relative idea.

occur

the

on

the inverse

do

motion,

in

both

equally justifiedin considering himself

is

train

into

which

events

take

the

not

are

of

lightcoming

generalisation of
:

our

If the time-interval

events

differ

is

equal

to

slightlyfrom

zero

zero

from

A,

former
between
for
for

an
an

SPECIAL

50

We

find

something

of

measurements

deduce
of

THEORY

from

the

be

different

This

the

on

according

length

is

hand

theory

fully justifiedin looking upon

other

in motion.

as

and

lose with
the

or

reference

other

C,

to

relativity, every
his own
system as at
would
to

as

in

clock

the

whether

the

the

system K,
to gain or
system

one

this

and

is

and

rest

have

"

caution.

observer

then

in motion

memory,

with

what

was

theory of relativity naturally regarded

as

logical contradiction.
We

consider,

must

of

comparison
position of
just

their

the

at

motion

the

certain

for

moment,

of

intervals

between

only

hands

in two

passing

at

K'-clocks)

that

to

with

like

C,

relativity,

"

that

means

all

the

the

it should
fact

K'.

that

to

be

of this

return

at

dock

possible

The

to

simultaneity

therefore,

are

of

to this in

the

vice
same

timed

VIII.

from
for

The
as

to

pared
com-

to

C', like

be
all

which

it

theory of
slowly," simply
the

different
above

sense

alike

versa.

kind

two

different

at

of

(timed exactly

more

is different

length, subsequently
Chapter

go

be

happens

K-clock

of

in the

C,

results, in the
in

is of

that

ar"

moment

either
it

at

comparison

can

which

with

systems

of C

arrive

antithesis

K'

each

clocks

second

statement

to

and

this

special moment

that

moving

different

if-observers,

measurement

the

compared

comparison

K'-clocks,
for

in

in

"

repeated

(timed exactly with

K-clocks).

Clocks

indicated, leads
That

be

can

out

the

pass

both

together, and

system

moment

passing

be

happens

viz.

"

of the

given
C

or

ways

clock

that

close

the

of time

clocks

course,

for

compare

contrary, be

of

Then,
carried

both

the

on

not

to

particularmoment

one

must,

time.

different

with

at

sufficient

clocks

two

instance, when

spatially separated and

of their readings can
be
time

it is not

that

however,

other; this comparison

not

the

applied

be

the

quite clear

of

as

upon

from

help for

it must

according

looked

were

the length

be

must

we

K', C

system

antagonists of the

the*
a

the

that

measured

as

If, therefore, C be

in

clock

easily

can

the train itself must

convenient

other
the

to

from

this purpose

formulation

it is true, but

For,

the

For

short

We

lengp.

measured

as

from

embankment.

of

tivity
rela-

also in the

quite analogous

preceding considerations,

train

moving

RELATIVITY

OF

ways

discussed.
is due

results

to

simultaneity in
K'-observers, but

apparent

that

of the

be

discussed

absurdity
relativity of
;

we

shall

THEORY

SPECIAL
what
"

from

measured

"

by

is meant

measured

train takes

down

repeatedly

from

the

back

engine, then

the
times

measuring-rod

the

"

length of the train,

determine

that

embankment,

simultaneous
When

know

we

their distance

determine

down

repeated laying

the

lamps

In

the

beginning

these

distance

between

for

the

from

the embankment

and

an

train

he

must

travelled

edges of
to

of the

past B,

and

are

ment.
embank-

B,

we

can

to

situated

conclude

sooner

past B, the length of the train

must

distance

metres.

train

hundred

than

the

contrivances),

hundred

as

measured
On

simultaneous

train.
than

For
that

beginning
the

We

metres.

not

the

on

precisely,the

more

in the

as

taneously
simul-

of the train

the

place sooner

that

sured
mea-

posted

measure

be, say,

"

as

points passed

their contact

amoimts

the

on

previous exainple

our

lemgth of the

observer

past

must

we

the

on

observer

must

observer, the flash of A took

Hence

train

hand, the flashes of lightwere

for

To

the train."

by the end

(to speak

The

then

those

an

we

lamps

may

at

were

will suppose
state

the

apart in the usual way, by the

of a measuring-rod.
result
The

by

between

events

poiats

"

the other

the

and

"

we

observer

(i.e. simultaneous
Hence
embankment).

which

an

embankment."

the

be

wiU

is the length of the train

of this measurement
from

of

beginning

of the

car

number

situated

so

of the

end

for

events

B,

passage

of the

down

from

and

last

front buffer of

embankment,

the

the

past A, and

train

from

points

two

of the

to the

laid

was

measured

as

length

the

measure

observer

an

figurerepresentingthe

the

and

begins laying it

buffer

along the entire length of the train

"

train

If

measuring-rod, and

51

the

from

embankment."

the

in the

RELATIVITY

OF

end

this
of B.

of the

travelled

be greater than

the

52

SPliCIAL

line

AB.
would

lamps
the

For

would

past the

point

be

observer
moved

this

hundred

be

equal

than

A'B,

length

embankment
train

the

observer
smaller

the
the

on

shortened
appear

length

the train.

to

shortened

to

contraction

objects lying

the

length

height and
that

of

from

for the

have

to

A'B

wiU

Since

AB

results

A'.^
then

is less

(i) The

observer

an

of the

point

the

the

on

the

in motion.

over

of

is
the
to

appear
at

(One

observers

rest

result

equally
other is moving.)

the

only

occurs

reason

the determination
CJ. Fig. 2.

are

in the

of motion

is shortened,

height and
'

the

other, because, according to

train

The

in

equal

objects

rest, and

direction

moving

as

motion

objectsin

at rest and

am

in the

train, whereas

regards ^B

be

to

direction

for

of

at

of length

breadth.

measurements

the detour

the

following

observer

an

of
To

lamps

would

train.

principleof relativity,both

This

the

distance

Hence

observer

an

in saying
justified

of

the

embankment

necessarilyarises
the

train

the

case,

{i.e.
equal to AB) than for an observer
(who finds it equal to A'B). (2) For
in the train, the length of the track
AB

length of

the

beginning

the

embankment.

from

is smaller

train

than

observer

in

away

the

have

we

the

of

the

on

of the

length

the

of it

end

measuring-rods, each

forward

in motion

observer
to

the

train, the lamp at A

moving train, i.e. farther

the

is not

flashingof

slightlyfarther

For

than

sooner

down

simultaneous

in the

the

same,

shorter, the

were

As

length, laid

the

ensure

A.

longer than

metre

one

train

past the point B

travel

must

the

hand,

other

the

passed simultaneously ; if,on

been

have

been

had

length

if the

RELATIVITY

OF

THEORY

dimensions
hence
and

not

for this Ue5 in the

breadth
of

do not

only
its
fact

involve

simultaneity. The

SPECIAL

observer
the

THEORY

in the

wheels

the

the

that

between

the

the

rails

to

might proceed

point

sharp

bottom

of the

erects

verticallyand
rails

the

to

scratch

carried

in

in

We

of which
to

our

remind

must

as

The
those

the

the

on

suring-rod
meawe

in

is

placed

motion

as

to

to the

the

the

is

between

may
of

described

expect
relativity is
above

cannot

Unes

ment.
embank-

once

nonsense,

be

that

there

observer

at

lengths of

of any

objects

of motion.

of this

chapter.

that

more

hear

be

quite definite,

the

dimensions

results

even

the

an

to

as

direction

to

slab, as

these

libitum, so

motion

reader

cars

(the train) could

process

opinion
in

dose

comparison of a standard
at rest
(the embankment)

This

of

fix
and

top

marble

from

are

theory

embankment

between

measured

of

could

of which

speaking are only conceptual

experience concerning the comprehension
we

relativity we
"

from

the

recapitulatethe

us

use

train

be repeated ad

can

measuring-rods or
situated normally
Let

interval

height

people in the

system

observer

an

agree

embankment,

the

distance

as

way

difference

no

and

rest

cars

execution.

into

be

The

system

reversible, and
can

the

similar

measuring-rod
that

the

simply

can

slab, the surface

past.

height of
In

If the

parallelto the train's motion, and so

the
that the points projecting from

the train travels

with

we

observer

The

cars.

the

measure

sharp Unes in the surface of the

two

is the

To

on

between

will

and

project sideways

to

large marble

observer

the

observers

it from

follows

between

gauge

measuring-rod.

wheels

train

the

53

distance

the

the

measure
as

as

way

equal.

are

carriages from

same

rails, both

between

gauge

the

of his

use

fit the

exactly

determine

determine

can

rails,viz. by the

wheels

RELATIVITY

can

in exactly the

embankment

the

train

OF

the

State-

experiments

ones.

of the

According
theory of

objection of this kind

an

for

carried

measurements

out."

such

SPECIAL

54

of

ments

THEORY

length

meaning.
that

pole

the

state

We

cannot

has

such

motion

observer.

between

New

York.

in

observer

the

can

and

different

interval

an

event

To

be

which

out

their

measurements

the

time

needed

contrary,

events

we

So

arrival

light

happened.

to

reach

is

light
of

both
and

them

would

case,

i.e.

events,
of

an

the

comet

this

tidings

correctly,
by

in

rays

that

presume

for

"

addition

passing

observer

between

not,

of

time

event

an

This

the

the

to

add,

time-interval

on

always

of

and

earth."

between

instance,

must

we

must

we

do

for

seconds

London

exact

absolute

relative

many

in

We

the

measured

observer

an

bring

the

the

the

the

On

the

on

for

length

say

value.

between

waves,

where

we

interval

apparent

such

no

have

maintain,

object

the

because

events

have

and

situated

necessary,

time-intervals

reasonably

of

Nor

elapsed

of

and

RELATIVITY

OF

the

or

both

observers
take
from

mean

into

timeelectric
events.

carry
account

the

places

CHAPTER

THE

VIII

APPARENT

ABSURDITY

OF

THESE

CONCLUSIONS

conclusions

THE

quintessence

the

present

which

relativity,
the

on

the

with

accepted

forward
On

the

of

part
has

been

illogical,

and

not

"

take

Einstein

both

are

between
for

only

"

My

and

and
hand

is

can

portant
im-

an

Now

they
even

of

two

both

cannot

clusion
con-

taneously,
simul-

they-

did

be

academic

statements.

has

fingers,"

the

right."

critics)
difference
If

and

to

make

persons

relative

S5

place

for

according

overlooking

five

the

that

and

by

is

the

said,

to

took

when

it

that

been

has

the

that

shows

maintains

however,

right.

view

contradictions.

comes

simultaneously,

mistake

absolute

instance,

at

(advanced

the

It

observers

the

statements,

argument

involves

and

other,

place

contradictory
This

true,

events

it

theory,

not

the
the

not

the

against

from

that

of

so

philosophers,

free

of

Seen

indeed

are

or

itself

One

other.

points

in

instance

they

nonsense

misunderstood.

been

has

matter

the

of

celebrity

great

professional

some

theory

knowledge.

our

raised

is

however,

in

aU

special

on

two

chapter

last

Einstein

of

is

the

the

attacks

one

it

step

objection

That,

only

Either

of

philosopher,

that

in

brought
many

of

eyes

revolutionary,
be

and

hand,

one

forth

set

say,

somebody

SPECIAL

56

THEORY
"

else tells me,

other

the

or

"

Africa," and
the

be
of

situated

another

left-hand

the

on

but

upholding contrary statements,

their own
point of view, because
According

is relative.

is also

the idea

of

and

one,

has

left,but

right and
all

his state

to

idea

practicalpurposes,
the ideas

of time

of simultaneity

of time
in

one

and

motion

train, than

the

We

we

hardly

for

are

calf and

an

regard

at rest

terrestrial

events,

sider
con-

ments
state-

and

for

always

to

At
cow

its

some
are

own

contradictory

as

is

than

longer
with

calf and

distance

grazing.
calf

on

ment
embank-

the

one

from
The

larger than

in

apparent

shown

the

the
the

on

relative
be

can

the

similar

other

shares

rest

on

as

at

observer

to

realise them,

field.

another

appears

observer

famiUar

so

following trivial example

grazing in

between

measuring-rod

metre

with

contradictions
that

to

absolute, for, as will

regarded

measuring-rod

own

train.

Certainly,for

measuring-rod which
longer for an observer

metre

whereas

embankment,

the

be

of the train is

motion

with

case

difference
an

all

cannot

the

logic, that

his

for

as

to

small.

Similarly, it
the

the

length for

are,

immeasurably

space

X,

refer

safely continue

may

and

Chapter

in

shown

we

left

its absolute

lost

of motion.

lies

right or

relativity,however, does not

positiontaken up by the observer, as is the

the

to

are

This

meaning.

be

relative

both

of

apparently
right from

are

Einstein, the

to

says,

Madagascar

they

an

side

right-hand
"

is

Town

Cape

says,

of Africa,"

statement

hand

my

at

man

fingers,"one

for my

wrong,

in Cairo

side

four

only

fingers on

if

But

is

has

course

statement.

Madagascar

on

of

number

concerning the
absolute

hand

No, your

must

RELATIVITY

OF

old

ideas,

by
cow

the
are

them, another
first cow
the

other

ally
naturcow,

58

SPECIAL

with

the

THEORY

sense). By

common

in

proof given

flash of

from

(not only

the

account

from

the

time

than

sooner

is based

than

needed

the

the

the

at

the
the

lamp

so,

rays

of

end

Ught

of the

common

B, and

place
out

into

reach

him

he

train

cludes
con-

arrives

conclude

to

the

the

of

takes

train);

proceeds

naturallytaking

sense,

length

takes

to

of the

is

following :

for he

the length of the train is greater than

Sound

AB

path

on

do

beginning

the end

the

the

flash of light sent

the

to

by

and

this, that

that

take

us

train than

from

out

appears

beginning

from

that

lightsent

for this observer

sooner

in the

proof

let

example,

chapter,

last

That

thought (calledsound

of

of

way

observer

itself.

the train

at

the

for the

smaller

The

traditions

old

good

RELATIVITY

OF

path
point of

AB.
view

simpler absolute theory, will raise the following

B
In reaUty, the flashes of lightat A and
objection :
of the

"

simultaneous.

were

towards

they
flash

the

takes

scholastic

place

in."

who

follows

at

the

within

of
in

observer

ignores
as

we

the

have

first.

A, and

He

of

time

and

him.

On

the

into the

relativitywill
the

train

fact

and

that

motion

that

other

reader

every

as

of ideas
"

the

deeply

hand,. whoever

the

the

thinking

rooted

progress

as

is where
of

the

know

to

long

are

space

defend

somewhat

of his

therefore

pretends

attentively, so

matter

sufficiently
penetrated
theory

from

advances

this he concludes

movement,

own

notions

enough

; from

in the train

hj^ocrisy of this entire way

arise in
Such
thoughts must

comes

absolute

lightcoming

sooner

of his

nothing

of

rays

him

reach

observer

The

has
in the
"

hj^ocritical

follows

That

he

is

quite all right, for,

repeatedly emphasised, according to the

the
principleof relativity,
is at rest and

statements

the train in motion,

that
or

the embankment
that

the train

ABSURDITY

is

at

motion.

observer
sent

out

the

on

the

of

is
own

can

reproach

not

must

of

or

the

otherwise

difference

fundamental

The

dealing

with

logical

results

an

the

drawn
never

instrument

embarrassing

is

designedly

subtleties

Logic
only

in

from

matter

they
"

truth

that

from

of

observers

however,

simul-

they

their

between

scholasticism

and

relativity

nature.

of

nothing

both

right

but
seen

emission

the

were

as

towards

know

"

simultaneous,

observer

simultaneously.

view

are

events

the

that

we

the

light

were

respective

reference.

of

systems

if

the
the

of

moving

to

see

both

view,

occur

pretends

and

flash

hence

to

thus

other,

not

or

simultaneous

from

We

that

say

taneoiis

but

he

because

each

him

to

The

was

B,

is

absolutist,

from

from

appeared

point

than

quite

are

matters

an

say

however,

motion."

higher

were
"

might

coming

motion,
that

thing

too,

from

light

only

his

train

sooner

signals

That

he,

59

in

one

embankment,

rays

both

the

If

the

in

CONCLUSIONS

embankment

for

justified,

relative

was

the

and

rest

equally

OF

from
was

two

its
with

situation.

own

this,

the
that

we

of,

thought

experimental
object
which

he

of

theory

with
freed

are

but

not

with

facts

Einstein,

physics

of

CHAPTER

THE

UNION

IX

OF

AND

SPACE

TIME

THE

MINKOWSKI-WORLD

this

IN

chapter

special

the
of

Those

it difficult
shall

We
as

which

We
take

which

we

must

of

the

the

are

events

like

at

know

of

last

But

to

state

required,

that

way,

to

point-events."

To

the

number

and

because

space

determine

longitude
however,

of

place

any
and

the

point

seconds

the

event,

has

three

latitude

6a

time,

time)
of

is not

three

the.

bers
num-

dimensions.
the

on

only
which

occurrence

place

co-ordinates

(Greenwich
the

at

determine

of
of

lamp,

ambiguity,

so-called

statement

and

without

the

but

absolute

of

space,

century,
the

of

of

the

have

rdativity,

flashing

midnight

between

discussion.

theory

the

for

perhaps

that

of

theory

point

numbers,

e.g.

will

following

point-event

For

close

that

"

time,
of

the

certain

required,

is

geographical
In

call

certain

elapsed

event.

We

classical

point-event.

have
of

the

time

state

figure

one

on

of

and

place

the

place

instant

certain

with

ible
plausfaculty

considerations

do

to

shall

the

point

new

more

equipped

so

with

up

the

of

results

imaginative

not

with

based

are

space.

keep

all

an

are

commence

nothing

yet

with

who

to

it

the

from

relativity

makes

gifted

readers

geometry.
find

of

theory

consider

to

propose

which

view,

to

we

must

yet

earth,

its

be

given.

fully

deter-

UNION
because

mined,
other

have

the

case

the

earth

is the

other

the

of

the

height above

height

above

2'3

out

m.,

the

closed

not

the

to

use

distances

the

as

2'5

side wall, and

the

time

of

the

12

seconds.

ordinates
space-co-

from

m.

the
a

above

m.

of

after

counting

point-event
Let

an

front

seconds

12

the

must

we

instance

commencement

and

m.,

three
For

room

at

co-ordinates

The

m.,

left-hand

flash

(chosen

midnight
time).

the

four

in

hanging
to

On

best

state

numbers,

time-co-ordinate.

one

from

of

stars,

point-event,

and

floor, is

the

fix

To

give

m.

ordinates.
co-

perpendicular walls, together with

the floor.

electric lamp

wall, 3

to

always

therefore

our

used.

are

this

latitude, together with

and

sea-levd, but

of two

each

of

positions

it will be

room,

geographical longitude

for

particularpoint in

the

from

stated,
In

reference

reference

to fix
in

for instance

space,

of

system

systems

hand, in order

be

also

must

each

latitude.

definitelydetermined.

determine

other

verticallyabove

lie

sea-level

is

point

To
course,

above

height

then

61

geographicallongitude and

same

and

TIME

AND

all points that

the

the

Hence

SPACE

OF

then

are

us

suppose

point-event : a second electric lamp standing

of the same
writing-tablein the right-hand comer

another
on

room

is to

flash out

at

being

m.,

co-ordinates
form

the

events

difference

between

time

5 m.,

of the

differences

of the two

the time

the

2-3

1, 3

and

seconds, its space1-5

corresponding
-

5,

the flashes of both

of the third space-co-ordinates 2

difference

in

the

other

height

two

farther, forward

of the

pairs of
one

12

12-8

difference

lamps,

co-ordinates

of the

lamps

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let

us

co-ordinates

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the time-co-ordinates

elapsingbetween

Now

m.

8.

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4 gives

lamps,

the

1"5 gives the

difference

indicates how
is situated

of

much

than

the

THEORY

SPECIAL

62

how

other, and
to

much

between

reference

the two

is used.

The

between

them)
of the

(It is
win

choice

obtainable

from

the

by
to

example

is 2*55

m.)

enclosed

within

the

also

not

from

the

these
and

results

the

relative

of time

between

of

reference.

of the

We

old

the

new
same

summarise

singly,
ordinates,
corresponding co-

system

of the

theory

from

co-ordinates, taken

magnitudes

are

also the
calculate

we

may

they
of

events

^We

different

exactly the

two

"

if

obtain

points, however,

{N.B.

lamps

lamps

between

the

of

system

first,it happens that

two

independent

are

of view

choice

between

distance

The

walls)relative

second

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m.).

differences

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also

to

follows

as

we

are

of the

means

of reference, but

two

{i.e.2*55

before

as

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our

of course,

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of both

co-ordinates.

between

are

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to the

of co-ordinates,

differences

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as

room

its walls

floor and

co-ordinates

of their

distance

value

that

the

in

another

suppose

when

those of the first system

differences

operation
result

lamps by

the

Now

the

are

of co-ordinates.

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and

both

actuallyinclined

is

only

us

first room,

room.

rectilinearly

spatial co-ordinates,

let

(distancesfrom

the second

reference

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the

pendently
value, quite inde-

readers.

many

between

stretched

to

of

system

mathematical

the

positionsof

the

co-ordinates
to

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the walls of the first one.

to

give

of

time, the

always equal

system

simple

and

distance

certain

of the

differences

be well known

inclined

has

also

of

thread

is

events

spatial

lamps (thelength of

right. According

space

quite independently

seconds,

two

the

to

more

classical theory of absolute

the

time-interval
4

RELATIVITY

OF

are

reference.
and

absolute

choice

of

the

The

interval

magnitudes
the

still speaking from

of absolute

ing
accord-

vary

space

system
the
and

of

point

time.)

OF

UNION
To

be

of

quite certain
another

give

the

two
to

its lowest

give their

0.

straight line h-h

the

and

B.

from

0, and

the

proceed

can

and

draw

we

purpose

wards
to-

position of

distances

through

profile

to be situated

place,we

that

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place 0

to this

reference

the

slightlyinclined

determine

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horizontal

above

height

shall

we

hills A

two

shall

we

co-ordinate-

3 shows

be

to

plane,and

point.

with
hill-tops

63

simpHcity,

Fig.

plateau

the horizontal
at

of

sake

right and left by

the

suppose

TIME

relativityof

dimensions.

it in two

shall

of the

for

of- a plateau bounded

We

AND

being clearlyunderstood,

example

differences, and
choose

SPACE

their
zontal
hori-

drop perpendi-

Fig.

cular lines to it from

and

respectively.

distances

of the

heights with
the

reference

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of the

h-h

place 0

make
not

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with

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and

can

we

draw

to

inclined

the

basis for the system

the

perpendicular

draw

the
a

their

AC

are

OD

and

BD

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to

the system

imagine

for the

stances
circum-

inhabitants

straighthue

straight line

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BT)

and

plane itself,and

distances

horizontal

and

horizontal

of reference.

and

OC

reference

it convenient
to

the

AC

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point A,

it in C

meet

then

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point B

chosen.

through 0,

parallelto

OD

to

of the

of the

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B, which

and

hill-topsfrom

co-ordinates

co-ordinates

OC

3.

to

They

e-e

running

use

then

this

as

define

respective hill-tops

SPECIAL

64

from

that

OC

and

BD'

line

AC
of

this

B.
"

different

from

i.e.AO
each

and
other.

horizontal
a

of the

Thus, what

distances

more

are

less

or

is

points ;

two

"

and

from

the

case

OU

and

"height"

0,

reference.

viewed

as

But

what

of reference

system

in
hill-tops

BO, and the distance

between

on

of

this

different

distance

indepraident of

the distances

are

of A,

hills have

system

In

height."

co-ordinates

The

inclined

"

their

horizontal

remain

always

the

RELATIVITY

OF

as

e-e

are

those

and

THEORY

the serial line from

AB

of the

from
hill-tops

reallyinvariable
the differences

is the

of

only projectionsof

arbitrarilychosen

0,

tance
dis-

height and

this distance

framework

of

ordinates.
co-

They take the part of shadows, and vary

in magnitude and shape according to the positionof the
In other words, the concepts of
plane they fall upon.
difference
of

of

height

They

be

has

of the

no

of reference,

between

time-interval

according

magnitudes, too,
the

the
same

co-ordinates

are

of the

the

the

only
notion

we

three

ence
instance, the differ-

lose

the choice

on

their

the

absolute

in value

What

before

tween
be-

relativity. These

variation

ing
accord-

is the

The

in space,

result

three

single dimensions,

of distance

classic

our

aerial Une, and

of

theory

said

now

spatial distance

events,

of reference.
as

ponents
com-

should

reason

depends

in the

liable to

are

system
way

but

so

two

to

The

pointsaccording to

points,measured

two

to

two

three

is all this connected

as, for

meaning,

absolute

system

meaning

How

Just

height between

the

spatialseparation.

"

?
theory of relativity

the

difference

independent concepts.

dimensions,

ask

now

may

readily understood.

view

In

three

singleconcept

one

reader

of

and
,

just the

are

The

absolute

not

are

of

with

length, difference of breadth, and

so

spatial

the
now

ponents
com-

we

THEORY

SPECIAL

66

RELATIVITY

OF

explain clearlythe difference

and particularised
between
equally justifieddimensions
two
Let us suppose
dimensions.
lamps fixed in a room

of its

Let

own.

exactly above
'other

the
from

and

by,

they

appear

to

they

them

appear

to

"

Ubitum,

be
"

above

choosing

by

of

independently
distance, the

choice

two

of

difference
of

different

that

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so

beside

point

of the

Just

as

distance

But,

whereas

"

the

circumstances,

motion,

different

line

suitable

result in the

e-e) being
theory

in

height and the

Fig. 3 can acquire
of the system
distances

values, when

states

of the

hill-tops

two

above

that

always
"

suitable
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templated
con-

in different

defined
height
theory of relativitywe

of

of

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chosen

choose
such

case

can

what

situated.

be

of reference

difference
the

in the

ad

quite

at

in the

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example

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ence
hill-tops(the differ-

two

this work,

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in the

always

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behind

of

is

lamps,

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spatialand temporal

the

both

"

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in

in

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point-eventscan

and

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values, according to the choice

motion.
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behind

of reference

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distance

reference,
two

connecting

head

my

position in which, or
contemplated points are
the two
hill-topsin Fig. 3,

height

equal to zero.
?
of relativity

that

so

line

perpendicular

their

horizontal

above,

the

example of
of the plane

the

alongsideof each other,

suitable

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to

me

situated

"

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to

appear

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from

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them

contemplate

horizontallyon a sofa
from this side position,

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convert

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and

it.

floor,and

close to the

one

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the other.

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above

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standing

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each

to

try

us

system

difference

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may,
of
time

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reference
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UNION

OF

point-events is
do

As

chapter.)

reduced

shall

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dimensions
distance

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in

the

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analogously with all worldcompletely exchange spatial

cannot

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for

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teaches

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the

this is not

it is that

how

us

other, but

of space

contemplate
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time

world-famed

Naturalis

Principia

Mathematica

the

to

ideas, quite

relativity

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next

chapter

be

maintained

science
"

^Newton

generally
"

I. Absolute, true,
and

"

II. Absolute

According

to

uniformly like

name

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and

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conception

leave

it.

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Philosophise
^rightlyconsidered

"

and

of exact

natural

nature,

own

to

practical

any

self,
time, of itflows

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thing external,

and

is callgd duration.
in

its

own

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without

thing external, remains

always

immovable."

Newton,
stream,

we

mathematical

its

space,

regard
similar

and

from

another

by

says

regard

without

all

work.

pillarof physics

fundamental

space

of

could

before

more,

his

introduction

that

us

the classical Newtonian

once

different

are

long as independent ideas, and that for

continue
to be
they still justifiably
purposes
us

world,"

primitive

so

Let

time

theory

case.

they

"

most

our

experience teaches us that time and space

things. Up to the present it appeared to
and
time
two
were
absolutely different

for

the

temporal succession). That

plays a particularisedrole in the

next

system of
alongside of,"

of

with

co-ordinate

always

this

choice
"

above

67

cannot

we

about

suitable

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do

but

zexp,

above,

by

TIME

AND

more

convert

cannot

we

to

find

spatialco-ordinates
but

SPACE

absolute

time

ghdes

quite independently

along

of whether

still exist,

Minkowski,

Mach

perhaps

in the universe

whatsoever,
Could

may

subtleties

from

the

perhaps

conception

of time

eternity,and

uniformly

into

described

above, before

dimensions
to the

distances

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the

has

are

to

height

points A

classical

the

followed
of

and

in

independent

and

spatial

of motion.

with

depend

absolute
the
of

aerial
the

the

on

but

sufficient

and
by height-difference

and

distances

time,
of two

system

of reference, and

their

spatial distance,

line, has

system

point-events take

of space

horizontal

of

an

absolute

co-ordinates.

theory of relativity,the spatialand

of two

ing
For, accord-

this

conception

and

differences

nothing

measured

^the "World."

chapter on the
all
World, will perhaps, on
thinking over
before, put the following question :
gone

Minkowski

According

have

who

considerations

the

attention

that

conception of space

in different states

for observers

vary

ourselves

glidingalong

time-intervals
theory of relativity,

readers

Those

"

These

appreciate the ideas of

regard both as single

who

greater whole

free

we

stream,

philosophical

as

that

can

Minkowski,

and

Einstein

us

of the

we

happening

nothing

to

as

movement

no

were

contained

facts of

if all matter

exist

all

appear

sophers
philo-

assertions

actual

executed

it is necessary

but

makes
the

like time

if it

exist

Long

greatest clearness),

here

lay dormant, and

and
if nothing at

space

questions

with

descriptionof

anything

Would

nature.

the

aU.

at

it would

Newton,

to

physicists and

Newton

that

exists like

space

nothing

and

Einstein

pointed out
go beyond

which

and

if it contained

even

(Ernst
had

not

or

vessel, and, according

large empty
before

it

place in

take

events

RELATIVITY

OF

THEORY

SPECIAL

68

similar

horizontal

temporal
part

to

In

the

distances

those

distance

value

taken

formerly.

UNION
Is there
which

OF

SPACE

absolute

an

is

AND

TIME

69

construction

of

geometrically capable

spatial and

which

same

measured

temporal distance, and

part as formerly the distance

aerial line, i.e. which

reference

'

afiirmative

x,

goras, that

the

points,the

be

different, say

of the

help

be

system

"

the
of
swered
an-

tude
magni"

World-distance

x', y', z'.

In

the

mathematics,
be

can

of

made

law

of these

give

to

differences,the

in

in

space

of

Pjrtha-

points is
position of

the

differences

calculating

clear

points

two

well-known

used

co-ordinate

co-ordinate

new

results

again

in

absolute

an

spatialdistance

of the

value

chapter

differences

the

co-ordinate

other

these

is

elementary

in this

of the

value

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from

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with

co-ordinate

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we

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it is called the

familiar

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subject-matter
few

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two

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plays

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from

independent of the system

be
well-justifiedquestion must

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in the

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magnitude

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the

value

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before

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so

V"* +y* -!-"*= n/"" +)''"-I-.?".

Thus
the

the

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motion

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is

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two

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y,

and

be

fulfilled ;

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system, and
given by *', y', z',and f,

are

magnitude
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absolute

two

the

spatial

repeatedly)

depends

fully independent
"

hence

mentioned

sJx*+y^+z*-cH*
c

be

point-

two

in
we

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on

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has

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of the
mentioned

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the

slx'^+y'^+z'^-cV*

velocity of light in

vacuo.

of

absolute

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of

above,

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system
given by the

expression
where

relativity

" to

of

differences
reference

of

equation

; its

world-distance

x,

theory

first co-ordinate

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to

the

suppose

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us

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'

geometry.

relatively

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meaning

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thus

temporal

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eyents.

find

of classical

case

CHAPTER

NUMERICAL

Chapter

IN

from

for

VII

the

each

simultaneously

the

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on

Chapter

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very
in

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mathematical

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aid

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CONSIDERATIONS

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NUMERICAL

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CONSIDERATIONS

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between

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to

us

velocities

the

train
in the

the

from

Of

observer

we

as

the
were

course,

embankment

be

only
But

as

if the
its

would

the

course

half

Hght,

of

embankment

distance

hand, also

train, since all

already mentioned.

happens,
than

we

of

train.

in the

per

length during

the other

^yould, on

What

to

km.

if

velocity

the

in

round

and

the

on

would

succeed

run

of

observer

velocitygreater
what

of relativity

velocity of Ught.

second),

reciprocalones,

of

the

theory

to the

altogether.

for the

zero

observer

zero

lamps

of the two
be

the

to

which

changes

(both possibilities
are,

contemplated

reduced

its temperature

measurement

travelling with

were

dimensions
be

exact

an

journey

would

as

and

the

we

permit
in

question),the
the length of

of the

out

milliard

velocity of 244,800

six times
out

able to carry
this

with

(thisvelocitywould

second

is

practicalUfe, they

in

with

reaching velocities approaching

If

observer

an

degree by

an

being.

human

of

In

for

measurement,
the

earth.

the

for

undergoes when

tiny fraction

such

is different

less,for instance, than

rod

and

difference

of

powers

our

of the

length

the

rod

the

add, to be

to

such

relativelyto it, than

than

times

million

with

of the

to it, but
relatively

rest

ought

we

relativelyto

rest

length

in motion

observer

RELATIVITY

observer

an

is at

of fact, the

point
at

for

e.g. who

motion,"

though

metres,"

of ten

length

OF

THEORY

SPECIAL

72

that

if the
of

emphatically

observer

light?
declared

Let
in

SPECIAL

74

world-ships to
a

fixed

years

visit

star, at

colony

distance

from

away

force, and

OF

THEORY

the

increases

this process

of the

and

From

is attained,

the

only

of the

statement

of about
The

speed

until

been

the

hundred

one

ship
the

with

starts

maximum

velocity

elapse (accordingto the

ship'sclocks)until they

sufficiently

are

the

planetary S37stem of the distant

require to slacken speed again, and thus
to

near

to

velocityof
occupies

the

far

the

appears

to

duration

the

the

acceleration

he

the

when
will

find

himself

in

earth, he will not

the

that

dream

realised, if

we

than

more

of H.
could
of

the

velocityof light.

means

Let

us

return

to

two

G. Wells'

locomotion

our

men

in

or

of

gether.
alto-

planetary
stellar
inter-

weeks, he then
it until the

have

years

gone,
older.

way

year

disappeared,

Time-Machine
in

velocities

science

the

year

3600

year

and

some

him

period

in the

few

again

is covered,

everyday reality. The

surprisedthat exact
fantastic
pictures. The

will be

dead

succeed

to

the

reach

generationsof

is little

ship

stay of

great-grandchildren are

himself

such

the

if,after

Meanwhile

5700.
his

the

leaves

the

the

period of retardation,
he

reduce

For

only a moment.
journey involves
only

time, and
to

distance

traveller

and

star

journey performed
during which

velocity,and
the

fixed

which

process

part of the

maximum

the

But

returns

That

greatest part of

of

colony,

world-ship to rest, a

months.

six

with

by

lasts six

ship's chronometers,

seconds

assume

the watch

according to

the

full

velocity

shall

We

to

light-

utmost

reached.

instant

few

planet belonging

of acceleration,

traveller

months.

on

earth.

(equalnearly to c) has
that

RELATIVITY

he

We

see

might be
imparting

approaching
sober

places

sceptic will

but

reader

before

him
"

say

No

NUMERICAL
such

stuff

for

"

me

And

theory by
that

that

the

such

as

in

ready

are

cursed

get

will

at him.

them

For

absolutely

are

means,

so

To

we

we

matters

that

believe

to

circumstances

with

modern

our

to

put

reply

same

That

small

so

in

the

velocities

are

unable

give the

we

twists

are

hold

are

"

reasonable

unreaUsable

that

this

He

yet

sense
non-

disprove

exclaim

effects

results

in such

to

aU

and

fanciful

most

test."

nuisance

practicallife,the

measure

technical
the

is

can't

we

can't

who

75

I believe

counter-arguments

attainable
we

should

why

those

fellow Einstein
so

CONSIDERATIONS

them

to

at

the

as

conclusions
arise with
Chapter VIII : These
unyielding logicfrom the two fundamental
assumptions
(the principleof relativityand that of the constancy
of the velocity of light). As long as
our
experience
does not disprove the validityof these two laws, we
are
made
from
them, and
compelled to believe deductions
end

of

do

must

we

all the

so

fact that

sma;ll bodies

which

approaches

of

made

measurements

the

importance.

relativity,it
at different

for

times

is

to

possible that

as

the earth's

could
in

be

London

But

that

discovered,

to-day,

surface

and

another

an

in

happen
different

they

motion

to

take
tively
rela-

understand
of this kind

event

event

to

at

that

not

are

which

relativity.

may

S3rstem of reference

from
and

we

of

events

observer

an

validity of

point
special theory of

observer, but

for

earth.

meaning

two

the

attention

the

to

velocity
light. Exact

chapter.

draw

According

the

theory

in the next

terrestrial

the

the

must

place simultaneously
this

from

speak

points of
a

confirm

of the

account

of

velocity

them

on

take

we

exist in nature,

the

doing this, we

Before
of

shall

we

do

drawn

consequences

Of these

when

more

happening

happening

in

SPECIAL

76

New

THEORY

York

of such

events

New

York

This

is very

in

as

state

this

be

for
the

place

to

the

other.

the

two

time

km., the

detect
of

to

travel

were

to

be

would

by

time

the

that

their

from

of

the

observer

order

reverse

Chapter IX,
the

amongst

for

What

of the
where

four

"

an

equal

in motion

the

events

time-interval

observer

moving

observer
been

statements

World

would

second,

has

the

time-

light, whereas
an

^^th

were

for

velocity of

illustrative

as

If the

is

for

at most

velocity of light,if
for him.

one

distance

events

observer

an

in

happen

events

or

at

at most,

or

travel

the

us

they
moving

said
made

singular part
"

dimensions

here
near

taken
was

discussion.

under

There
much

between

rectilinear

between

velocity of Ught.
of

end

if the

be simultaneous

in the

occur

the

the

terrestrial

one-half

serve

between

observer

an

is smaller,

be less than,

must

simultaneous

the events

may

for
of time

where

places

with

by

the

Thus,

time-interval

measured

with

observers

simultaneity. If we
accept the
-g^th second, the moving observer

have

would

interval

second, in order

to, 3^th

with

simultaneous

required by light to

terrestrial observer

interval

astronomical

time-interval

terrestrial observer

to

may

if the

if the

equal

1000

London-

simultaneously by

seen

two

the earth, is very small.

Let
which
events
occur
numerically : Two

places can
rapid motion, only

between

be

place

from

different

detection

take

to

with

compared

motion,

observed

them,

found

quite impossible,because

is

small

only

system

be

spatialproximity (the distance

distances)can
on

would

to-morrow,

simultaneously.

RELATIVITY

OF

is
more

other

one

far less obvious, but

important

changeability

of

the

difference

spatial

fundamentally

between

dimensions

the

inter-

(cf. p. 66),

NUMERICAL
and

To

can

we

both

that

"

the
"

difference
different

height-difference
be

altered.

such

then

the

vice

versa.

make

to

as

way

the

if the system

that

The

the

space

and

point-events from
relativelyto each

two

the

two

the

first,then

of reference,

system

be turned

in

larger,and

If the

reference

the
two

moving

time-interval

between

is greater than

system

will also be

in

greater

the numerical

(Compare

versa.

in

contemplate

us

sjTstems of

vice

first,and

in the

Let

spatial distance

the

investigate the

we

different, however,

second

in the

events

horizontal

height-differencesmaller,

time.

other.

"

the

will become

is

case

and

tops,
hill-

of reference,

of reference

horizontal-difference

relativityof

than

If

possible positions of

discover

the system
"

will

of the two

example

by turning

arrange,

distances

of the system

of motion

to the

return

77

spatialand temporal

the state

point-events on

of reference.

we

of the

dependence

the

of two

CONSmERATIONS

the
example at the beginning of this chapter, where
length of the train as well as the interval of time between
from
the flashing of the two
the
lamps, as measured

train, is greater than

As

the

to

That

terrestrial

two

for

fact

moving

small

fraction

the

expression
Chapter IX)

of

square

for
with

and

the
the

"

the

obvious

yet it is just this less

the

character

the

creates

can

observer
a

so

ment.)
embank-

profound

time.^

events

of

not

take

only

second

for

time-difference,
"

world-distance

opposite sign

to

that

place

when
an

formulated, this circumstance

Mathematically
that

space

the

determines

and

world,

between

difference

within

and

which

circumstance
Minkowski

the

from

before, this fact is

non-mathematician,

apparent
of

said

we

measured

as

they

taneously
simuloccur

observer

is due

t', enters

at

to

the

into

the

(cf. footnote, end

of x",y\ and i".

of

rest

of

velocity
represents

in

therefore,

such

way
If

to

unity.

time,

the

unit
"

natural
human

of

to

the
of

that

this

the

earth's

and

time

said

been

of

return
1

This

associated
the

to

spatial

this

point

with
of

human

milMons

many

of

extent

in the

implies

statement

velocity

be

of

our

all
are

ad

light

very

light.

is

of

equal

units

of

equal

to

what

carried

Ufe

our

greater

of this

as

that

(however

activity.*

slow

the

libitum.

after

duration

motions

reader

is

measure

part

0*04

way

the

of times

second

that

beings

propagation

the

about

well-founded,

of

Umited,

units

between

numerical

^the

"

such

of

scene

quite arbitrary,

these

velocity

single units)

case,

the

the

the

on

because

number,

relation

physically

above,

the

win, in any
that

is

small

the
that

so

^which

"

choose

we

choose

we

in

matters

to

is

these

the

to

of

duration

very

appear

in

In

only

time

measured
or

is

import,

and

length

arrange

large

when

unity,

of

Ught

spatial

The

and

unit

it amounts

measures

without

the

^the

"

hand,

perhaps

wiU

diameter

to

globe

of

km.

them

for

one,

other

is

always

can

length

It

call

it is

length

as

300,000

of seconds.

our

units

our

we

has

of

second

be

long

of

and

velocity

the

the

may

the

on

statement

and

either

we

the

make

will

very

length.

of

choice

imits

miUions

many

diameter

units

But

as

choose

retain

we

"

in

to

as

length

existence,

our

for

units
life is

average
of

of

to

physics,

magnitude

the

magnitude

This

immense.

so

that

circumstance

the

to

fundamental

equal

"

is

light

convenient,
time

is due

earth,

the

on

RELATIVITY

OF

THEORY

SPECIAL

78

We

than
will

book.
out

compared

by

or

with

XI

CHAPTER

FURTHER

CONCLUSIONS

AND

EXPERIMENTAL

IN

in

footnote
the

that
involves
is without

can

is

and

if

were

effect

devise

no

to

shall

we

such

be
that
for

in

of

the
a

reduced
such
the

quite

body

chapter,

moving

zero,

an

observer

length

of

effect

and

with

the

obtain

moving

ensue

than

greater

could

one

preceded

that

at

of

imaginary
a

and

velocity

are

with
as

tioned
men-

rest

light

calculation

with

the

there

Besides,

velocity

an

one

material)

not

observer

an

furthermore,

would

body

light.

for

would

propagated

are

of

the

experience,

to

c.

bodies

on

existed,

conclude

which

that

if

kind

the

to

velocity

contradictory

than

last

to

which

have

material

(even
a

than

subsequently

results

any

light,
soever
what-

greater

than

absurd

of

effect

theory

greater

fact
which

velocity

which

(cf.

the

on

other

no

to

of this

effects

as

the

this

with

effect

laid

velocity

that

that

again

greater
in

with

that

an

once

things

velocity

length

is

is

simultaneity

simultaneity,

of

there

propagated
If

of

velocities

assume

be

This

was

according

experiments

cause.

stress

constancy

other

the

on

of Ught.

that

VI),

unless

given

could

of

surprising

be

hand,
we

of the

results,

to

idea

propagated

it is not
rise

the

definition

purport

never

so

Chapter

law

that

gives

of

Einstein

the

Hence

VERIFICATION

analysis

our

THEIR

the

would
shows

number

greater

80

SPECIAL

than

that

of

of view, would

Ught, a result which, from

be absolutelyunreasonable.
with

again confronted

the

of relativity,as

complete

is in
no

it

with

quickly than

that

velocities

and

so

connected

velocity of

velocities of

those

of fixed stars

through
are

propagated

material

bodies.

pass

of the rays

evacuated

of

of these

substances

radium,

which,

emitted

the

by

^are,

"

smaller

the

than

a
c.

which

value

These

c.

of

electrons,

Rontgen
over,
working. More-

space

it is

as

in nature

so-called

radio-active

electrons, emitted
with

latter of which

bodies

velocitywhen

enormous

consist
((8-rays)

material

the

through

of the solar system,

times

the
electricity,

of

atoms

in astronomy,

atmosphere,

our

approaching

velocities

with

some

one

traflBc,shooting,

comets

thousand

many
Nevertheless, there

with

At

of

up the matter

appear

of meteors,

and

general rule,

bulb

know

we

was

by

human

with

planetsand

occasionally shoot

as

This

so

"the

such

theory

light ; but this has proved

greater velocities which

the

are

ridiculouslysmall compared with the

at all.
Even
light that they do not count

forth, are

move

in the

Ught.

gravitation

attainable

velocities

we

of all velocities.

It is interestingto foUow

All

much

Thus

experience,as

our

greater velocitythan

in regard to the

are

hmit

more

assumed

was

physical point

velocityof hght

with

travels

to be erroneous.

the

the
upper

accord

effect which

time

RELATIVITY

OF

THEORY

substances

by single atoms

incredible

velocity. The
of the elements
themselves, when passingthrough
atoms
rarefied gases during electric discharge, attain smaller
velocities (though stiU enormous
compared with those of
balls or stars),so do also the so-called a-rays of
cannon
as

nothing else than

gas

helium.

The

we

an

now

know

with

electrically
charged
velocity

of

certainty,are

atoms

all these

of the

rare

particleshas

SPECIAL

THEORY

classical mechanics

can

82

be

choice

other

of

point

than

to

enabled

and

Einstein

that

time.

which

mechanics
technics

following

motion

to
{i.e.

accelerate

force to
the

to

of
so

end
the

attain

to

as

of

force

to the

To

cause

of

10

m.

per

second,
have

to

increase

within

one

us,

same

second

to

would,

the

body

deviations

from

set

They
into

body

is well known,

as

ing
Accordlaw

from
lo

the
m.

force

of

product resulting
multiplied by the

If, for instance, a

condition

be

the

at

applied.

be

wotild

mass

of rest

second

per

must

this force

the

20

m.

per

according
same

velocity

another

in human

about

In

equal

by gravity on the kilogram weight.

body to increase in velocity from

exerted

expend
the

certain

classical

fundamental

to

the

velocity of

before

the

with

to

must,

acceleration.

second,

example

order

equal

kg. is to be accelerated

from

kind

considerable.

are

Newtonian
is

views

new

velocities, however,

For

In

of

satisfythe

of such

are

deviations

it),we

mass

of the

magnitude

its inertial resistance.

this force
inertial

the

from

overcome

elementary

mechanics,

accomplish.
them

changes

mechanics

in the

In

equations

velocity of light,the

consist

apply

mechanics

correction.

for velocities met

of the older

the laws

make

to

astronomy.

the

approaching

classical
of

to

relativityhas

the basis also of the

These

occur

in

or

that

supposed

fundamental

neglect the

can

we

of

difficult to

in the

on
principleof relativity,

of space

is

theory

is in need

is not

alteration

mechanics

the

state

and

fact, this

sUght

very

valid for mechanical

principle"however,

strictly vaUd,

is not

RELATIVITY

longer be

no

of nature,

general law

no

this

As

processes.

OF

second

of

to

second
classical

force, and
the
from

same

in

so

the

mechanics,

on.

Thus

kilogram
10,000,000

next

to

weight
m.

per

FURTHER
for

second,

other

instance,

the

exactly

of the

whether
to

10

to

10,000,010

m.

the

of

the

inertia!
when

of

hour.

per

are

would

become
If

of Ught.
of

on

one

at

all ;

would

our

but

not

dust, if

Thus, from
are

able

material

limited
This

were

But

the

fingers,we
suffice to
once

the
to

point

bodies

of the

in

why

of every

mass

our

dust

solar

self-same

lying

system

particle

velocity of light.
theory of relativity,

the

manifold

nature

boundary

limitation

velocity

the

of the

existing in
the

velocityapproached

this

attained

understand

the

of

of

mass

particleof

stored

of view

rate

feel its inertial resistance

accelerate

it had

the

at

the

the

part of

in the

that

cannot

forces

all the

just within
fact

accelerate

we

thousandth

if its

enormous

is not

weight is,

tons

200

This

Ufe ;

daily

approaching
so

ment
state-

of motion

changes
is

which

the

to

travel

to

considerable,

very

of

words,

above).

of

himdred

if it

velocity of

the

train

in

slightlyincreases

state

velocities

railway

less than

hght,

that

small

required

In other

made

the

on

rest, only about

km.

body

of

force

but

constant,

mass

the

mass

gramme

body,

we

quite immaterial
the velocity zero

greater.

mechanics

older

in

at

100

of

in relativistic

velocity 10,000,000

The

be rather

of the

detectable

In

applied.

quite independent

not

the

second.

is not

body

is

from

from

or

per

would

dependence

of

be

to

second,

per

increasing velocity (in contradiction

with

is accelerated

m.

of

have

this, it is

to

second,

case

mass

m.

longer holds good

no

according

per

the latter

This

body

would

particularbody, and

10,000,010

force
and
quotient resulting from
the inertia! mass) is a perfectlydefinite
{i.e.

velocity.

mechanics

83

the

acceleration
for

to

force

same

words,

number

CONCLUSIONS

are

of the

of the

velocities
one

and

all

velocityof light.

scale

of

velocities

RELATIVITY

OF

THEORY

SPECIAL

84

undoubtedly tells in
striking circumstance, which
of the theory of relativity
favour
; but, on the other hand,
is

deduction

inertial

of

mass

velocity,and by
of the theory.

formulae

in

triumph

the

so-called

and

helium

hydrogen
remarks
be

discharge

lines appear

defined
of

the

succeeded

in

the

spectrum

of
{i.e.

Up

spectrum.
of

be

In

succeeded, with

by
light on

the

the

discussion

still more

1913
the

German
process

in

graph
photo-

electric

sharply

the

plate at

succeed

the

each

processes

in

the

other

kind
of

name
our

of

series-

knowledge
atom

was
series-spectra,

Danish

of

complet
in-

physicist N. Bohr
quantum
theory proposed

of the

emission

of this theory, which

more

intervals

This

ago

the

of oscillation).

considerable

physicistM. Planck,

complicated and

If

time

the

of

theory.

frequency

on

these

help

matically
mathe-

luminous

regularity.

short

emitting

gas,

of this

useful.

of

received

the

physicist

explaining

appear

showing

very

of

mechanism

the

luminous

to

the

surprising

German

help

certain

always

therefore

has

by

plate,these belonging to light

mathematical

certain

creasin
in-

of spectral lines of

which, though unequal, nevertheless

with

the

with

(Geissler-tube),
very

the

series of Unes

numbers,

since

gases

lines

These

achieved

spectrum

on

colour

distinct

demanded

with

rarefied

in

the

amount

that

proved
increase

fine structure

of the

taken

velocity for

on

result

subject will

this

on

mass

Einstein's

really does

years,

Munich

in

of

It

validity.

examine

to

relativityhas

recent

Sommerfeld

few

of

theory

The

body

of its

proof

the

and

/3-rays of radium,

the

direct

as

possible, however,
of the dependency

found

was

taken

be

it cannot

of

in

throwing

series-spectra.

is in many
mathematical

respects
than

the

FURTHER

theory

of

merely

mention

CONCLUSIONS

relativity,would

is supposed

that
be

to

the

so-caUed

sun

; it is

each

nucleus

constitutes

the

like

planets

applying
in

the

of

which

the

them

is not

the

closer

are
spectral-series

comphcated

three,

lines very

more

familiar

known
to

aU

containing

example
who

have

sodium

showed
1

At

In

in the

that
the

case

so-called

above-

arrived

at

and

helium

the

this

lines

lines ;

of

the

on

the

consistingof two,
so

that

helium,

into

observed

single line.

one

D-line
a

of sodium,

luminous

the spectral series of

juncture, in
of

fleime
The
Hne-

hydrogen

1916, Sommerfeld

electrons

only for those

spark spectrum.

when

spectral apparatus of small

orbits

theory

spectral apparatus.
of
explain the appearance

if the
of

simple

lines

shrink

ever

theory could not

etc., in
doublets, triplets,
helium.

single

of this is the

with

Bohr

and

atom,

series,however,

close together,

they are investigated with

dispersion,they appear to

the
the

with

these

The

in general

are

best

of

Planck,

analysisof

contrary, they

The

in

laws

connected

results.

not

by

experience.^

immediately

following

or

ellipticorbits,

or

electrons

of

theory

tricity)
elec-

planetary movement

the

with

(i.e.
tiny

physicist Bohr,

for

of

trons,
Elec-

negative

series-spectra of hydrogen

relativity. A

gave

The

this

mass

atom.

of

atoms

sun.

its

the nucleus

circular

splendidly with

agrees

This

the

orbits

quantum

theory

of

the

by combining

mentioned

than

it in

the

to

In

part of the

the

of the

mass

holding good

laws

astronomy

and

be

to

aroimd

takes

shall

elements

and
positive electricity
entire

around

move

of the

atoms

atom

lighterin weight

considered
particles,

We

planetary system.

of the

with

almost

much

of

far.

too

us

of the

sort

charged

take

85

in

series-lines

the
which

atom
occur

SPECIAL

86

of

(similarto those

into

taking

of

dependency

above-mentioned
obtain

velocity,!we

calculated

not

but

of classical mechanics,

relativistic mechanics,

to

RELATIVITY

planetary orbits)are

the laws

according to
the

OF

THEORY

the

only

not

ing
accord-

consideration

the

general

mass

on

of

structure

spectralseries already elucidated by Bohr, but also the

In addition
to this,
fine structure
of the single lines.
Sommerfeld
able to predict certain
was
complicated
of lines in the helium

groups
based

on

theory
confirmed
by
the

Let

us

of

"

if

even

^have

beheve

should

the

and

the

further

no

in

of

the

the

at

the

"

far obtained

so

in

theory of relativity.
of Chapter VI, the

end

fimdamental

two

and

supported

strengthened by
experiments, so that we

exact

vahdity of the theory of relativity

available.
experimental evidence were

immediately forthcoming, which

to the fact that

is due

and

mechanics
from

old

our

It is

nature.
with

the

The
the

electrons

stars.

all deviations

conceptions
only

orbits

of

of actual
in the

of

for most

variability of
case

would

of

for the

of

planetary
atom

measurab
imof

processes

atom,

and

important

more

orbits, because

far surpasses

are

velocities connected

in the

is much

of

divergencies

time,

known

enormous

electrons

mass

the

the old laws

all the

and

space

not

dispel all doubt,

from

electro-dynamics,and

small

the

of

means

the

in

by

strikuigexperimental proof of the correctness

deductions
from
the theory of relativity
was

That

quently
subse-

were

Boim

have

we

theory

been

careful

most

Paschen

results

shown

of

principles

relativity,which

of

confirmation

all, as

foundations

the

the

survey

experimental
First

calculations

spectral measurements.

deUcate

very

from

spectrum

that

of

the

for the

here

than

velocity of

planets

or

fixed

FURTHER

fiand

cathode-rays, that the theory

from

of

of

Einstein

all

experiments

of

favour

in

deviation

havci

velocities

enormous

fact, decided

the

of

theory

the

and

increase

in

equal

is greater

the

to

of Ught.i

the

and

(cm.

is

mass

possessed by bodies.

again increased,
by

kinetic

energy

divided

by

the

kinetic
Now
1

in

increase

We

with
energy

c,

of

is

mass

to

velocity
immense

an

thus

time

2V,

increase

the

velocities

usual
the
its

body

same

would

mass

increase

given by the
the

body

length and

for the

amount

an

square

Einstein

increase

in

of

velocity)

velocity of light. Hence

the

proportional

to

that

know

the

by

-vK ,

that

able to show

was

the

in

increase

kinetic

energy

of

not

mass

only
with

does

an

velocity

"

wti'

formula

from

{m^"m")

energy.

given
"

of

velocity v,

of the
to

amounts

velocity of

(produced by

the

the square

small

say

the

motion

trillions ;

If the

of

mass

possessed by the

by

900

immeasurably

again increase

the

by

energy

i.e. to

velocity

is the

it has

phjrsicalunits

usual

it has

If m"

magnitude

last

sec),

when

when

mass

kinetic

This

figure in

be

thus

caused

m^s

mentioned,

Mathematically formulated,

stated

ot" its

important

most

above

relativity. As

the velocityv, divided

with

in

be

can

at rest

body

of

body

the

physically

which

deductions

those

to

it is at rest.

matter

the

be

to

when

than

is

stated

mass

the

refer

must

we

'of the theory

result

IS

leads to

and

ph3^ics,
such

87

relativity.
Finally,

z;

with

moving

matter

as

classical

older

the
bodies

on

CONCLUSIONS

",

The

mcrease

"

of

mass

is

i
therefore
i,.

_,

"

2C'

"'2

This
.

(v) small
compared
exactly valid only for velocities
the kinetic
mechanics,
because, according to relativisdc
is

for very

large velocities

is

no

longer given by

-"'.

SPECIAL

88

increase

of

of

mass

THEORY
kinetic

such
in the form
of

in the

equal
square

of heat

win

mass

after the
the

to

this increase

absorbed,

velocity of light. A
(say by weighing the same

infinitesimal

be

cannot

smallness

however,

of

before

energy

energy

heating)

vsdU,

mass

divided

direct

led

to

deviation

the
As

is well

of

chemistry, namely,
atomic
weights from

known,

nitrogen, and

the

atomic

than the atomic

greater, respectively,
numbers

these

But

cent,

have

cannot

be

and

in

of

numbers

even

of

weights

other
that

agree

the

Periodic

hydrogen
12,

these

Ue

14,

and

16.

of

of

carbon,
16

times

hydrogen.
;

than

on

the

per

Now

it

that the ratios between

Sjratem
dose

of

numbers.

established.

elements

so

mental
funda-

quite exactly
less

the

problem

whole

weight

somewhat

undoubtedly been
regarded as fortuitous

atomic

each

not

divergencies of

contrary,

the

do

the

siderations,
con-

that

14, and

12,

of

Certain

weights, e.g.,

almost

are

oxygen,

and

account

suppose

of

be
the

before

on

effect.

by

as

examination

body

performed
us

increase

an

theory of relativitywill perhaps best explain

problem

duces
pro-

mentioned,

of the

have

the

of energy

body,

of the

of this law

in

If, for instance, energy

conveyed

kinetic

heat

increase

an

every increase
mass.

and

of the
the

of

be

occur,

case

to

that

increase

an

RELATIVITY

produce

energy

but

body,

OF

(which
of

to the

Why

the
three

these

succeed

Elements)
successive
ratios

are

exactly equal to the numbers

given, has been
hitherto quite inexplicable. But the theory of relativity
suppliesus with a possible explanation. If we suppose,
not

for

instance, that

atoms,
any

or

of 3 helium

arrangement
of these

C-atom

consists

hydrogen
(atomic weight 4), or of

atoms

of these

of

12

constituents, then

constituent

parts to

the

bination
com-

single atomic

SPECIAL

90

is

considerable.

very

teaches
to

THEORY

that

us

in

RELATIVITY

the

theory

increase

every

increase

an

Now

OF

in energy

This

mass.

assumption, immediately made

of a body is equal to
total mass
it.

Mass

and

identical.

And,

magnitudes,
structure

found

are

of energy.

Let

us

by

an

all sides

neither radiation
of

of

whatever

constant,

in this

energy.

be

may

they

Exactly

regard

energy

the

and
In
of

mass

to

empty

word,

all,we

must

only, owing

conservation

the

total

is maintained

envelope, chemical

thermal
the

total

sum

fundamental

two

and

mass

and

energy,

According

same.

law, for

one

that

same

the

but

energy

elucidate

to

and

idea, which

of the

of the
the

to

laws

energy

of
one

are

thing.

same

order

analogous

reactions, explosions,

into

the
energies always remains
theory of relativity,these
reduce

two

envelope remains
undergo amongst

may

the

Within

transformed

this into mechanical

nature

of

i.e. the law

contained

of chemical

etc.

to

just for these

ma^intains

process

combustions,

with

view, become

of the

law

the

within

stored

this

to

mass

themselves, in the way

or

the energy

that

impenetrable envelope, which allows

heat to pass through it. The law
nor

of all the bodies

mass

plausible

system of bodies surrounded

suppose

conservation

the

the

equivalent

by Einstein,

validity;

and

relativity

the

laws of nature

to have

of mass,

is

to

of fact,

matter

fundamental

two

conservation

on

as

leads

according

energy,

of

energy,
let

has
to

an

important

In

general,the

that

we

have

accessory

r61e
mass

avoid

to

treated

been
an

and

of the

statement

its

analyse the idea of

us

state

the

the
of

in

to deal

here

circumstance
second

body

remaining

as

an

First of

mass.

physics

identity

with
a

dual

singleone

which

plays

part of this book.

is measured

with

FURTHER
balance

determine

we

CONCLUSIONS
the

i.e. we
pulls it downwards,
exerted
by gravityon the
this

weighing

of

is somewhat

body

resistance

offered

fundamental
the

at

and
the

inertial

"

is twice

energy

involves

certain

inertia
is

energy

tional
gravita-

the

of the inertial

from

this.

mechanics

We

know

mass

It is the

"

if

we

certain

to

heavier

arrive at what

also

that

every

weight.
in the

body

an

transmitting energy

can

be

evacuated

of

form

of
a

heat, that

startling
which

space
have

to

completely

we

twice

inert."

more

said

be

If, for example,

at first sight appears

even

body

one

it possesses

form
"

and

always proportional

must

that

mean

between

experience

hence, if

maintain
we

mass,

if

from

another, it

as

and

mentioned

is for all substances

mass

gravitationalmass

Thus,

result of

chapter, the quotient

result, namely, that

inertia.

force

Newtonian

conveyed

thus

We

designated
idea

the

The

mass.

different

of this

will become

body

it with

of

Now,

heavy.i

as

of

gravity

acceleration, i.e. according to the

inert

as

be

The

acceleration.

to the

miit

which

to

law

beginning

force
that

body.

with

compare

therefore

can

of the

mass

force

91

is

weight

evacuate

and

vessel

the last remnants

possibleto remove
(supposingit were
interior would
still
of the gas molecules),the evacuated
be permeated
by dectro-magnetic radiation
(e.g.by
if we
are
dealing with a glass vessel situated
light-rays,
in

hghted

which

by heat-rays,
lowest

the
the

This

transmits
is

by

definitions
second

means

no

part

of

if this is not
are

these

the case,

alwajre present,

temperatures).

attainable

radiation
'

or

room,

energy,

so

But

every

self-evident, and
notions,

of this book.

as

we

as

at aU

shall

kind

every

not

show

the

at

even

vessel,
does

events

even

follow
in

of

if it
from

detail

in

SPECIAL

92

does

THEORY

contain

not
;

vessel

possesses

sound

may

the

that

the

of

from

off

arrived
be

law

pUed

breath

be

set

suffice

dormant

free, say

in

to

ground.^

This,

of atoms

are

entirely

are

'

It

the

from

would

Dreadnought

will

t}^

to

lift

height

END

two

of

OF

i.e.

in

happen

brick

to

were

It would
to

the

because,

phenomena,

extreme

by

it takes

and

happen,

the

these
nuclei
and

slowness,

agencies.

imllions

PART

mtilti-

Ught,

in

The

of inhabitants

human

1000

thus

explosion.

never

of

system

might
single

an

with

by

of

contained

energy

liberated

to

of

must

its mass,

to

what

millions

uninfluenced
suffice

of

finally

measurement,

stated

stupendous,

radio-active
of

before

space.

C.G.S.

velocity

of

however,

only

equal

is

form

with

quantities

enormous

be

energy

city

know

we

as

raze

is

think

to

away

usual

must

the

of

note

mass

empty

an

units

the

figure

if the

town,

"

body
of

This

to

by starting

and

inertial

in

the

result

considerations,

radiation

to

square

This

interesting

developed,

natural

of

physicist Hasenohrl,

question
in

trillions.

one's

"

in

the

by

heat

more

contained

energy

is

result, i.e. that

the

once

inertia.

different

same

leave

units, the

Viennese

with

return

900

it

relativity was

the

at

we

and

but

completely

associated
If

and

deceased

interior

empty

gravitation

paradoxical,

theory

the

even

contains

substance,

tangible

any

consequently

energy

RELATIVITY

OF

of

m.

battleships

of

the

II

PART

THE

GENERAL

THEORY

OF

CHAPTER

XII

INERTIA

ON

AND

led

of

velocity

no

further

of

the

light

choice
follow

Einstein

the

origin
If

Relativity.

and
the

GRAVITATION

to

NECESSITY
Theory

held

all

those

of

the

the

there

deductions
in

of

lativity
re-

of

constancy

right,

as

Special

principle

of
be

to

compulsion,

by

the

principle

are

RELATIVITY

be

can

made

by

mathematical

problem.

did

not

of

view,

but

work

clearly

that

Newtonian

deficiencies

clearly
in

the

The

his

even

of

and
course

of

keenly
of

new

criticised
the

last

perception

still

philosophical
by

here
;

that

number

of

at

he

saw

all,

without

possessed

"

during

above

and

nature,

half-century
93

point

Einstein

force

(accepted

time)

by

out

motive

theory,

gravitation

that

to

up

main

theory

consistency

philosophical

theory

modification

and

the

physical

carried

was

perseverance

Einstein's

was

of

from

necessary

continuation

its

1907-1915.

years

development

the

absolutely

seem

unexampled

with
the

with

proceed

To

all
have

the
any

those
been

philosophers

without

any

of

GENERAL

94

them

being able

these

deficiencies

"

At

the

It

is

improve

to

of this book

beginning

reasonable

only

bodies

between

because
"

said

motion,"

motion

For

be

since

If, for instance,

Newtonian

of the bodies

is to

world

and

or

less than

which

the
"

comes

theory
the

relative to absolute
and

is not

of

of

of
with

Now
idea

were

space

the

railway-train

motion

of motion

this

the
a

train

is not

space

perceptible according

"

so

Uniform

compatible
to

the

same

accelerated
neither

means

more.

would.

train, the

of absolute

once

nothing

were

itself would

relativitycombated

front

to

to

relativity,these

change

down
as

earth.
the

the

every

occur

that

to

according

of

their absolute accelerations.

on

it moved,

slowing

in

the

change
According

nothing else, i.e. if there

would

phenomena
relativelyto

the

the relative accelerations

if there

itself felt,but

starting

also

other, but
say

which

relativelyto
malre

by

fatal.

special theory

to each

That

nor

and

depend solelyon

effects do not

In

the

of

into

suddenly stopped, we
distinctly; in a railway

this

mechanics,

brought

are

the

be

absolutely

prove

may

mechanics

forces

train

motion

considering

inertial forces called forth

collision the

not

notice

fail to

motion

we

is not

statement

without

inertial

reasonable,
un-

motion.

non-uniform

is

When

rectilinear

motion

motion

proved."
this

of

quite well,

detected

cannot

in the

existence

relative

absolute
be

following.

the assertion

uniform

meant

the

surroundings,

play.

of

general, however,

valid, because
can

it cannot

we

in

of

speak

to

made

talk

to

in the

we

What

theory.

the

upon

shall show

we

were,

RELATIVITY

OF

THEORY

with

more

against
fully
success-

motion
reason,

principle of

relativity. A change of motion with respect to

is doubtless
just as incompatible with
space

absolute
reason,

ON

it

phenomena,

of

specialtheory
aether

of

of

relativity,it

empirical
the

and

relativelyto
for

reason

if

our

Hence,

train

in

not

are

what

case

the

other

of

fact

last

assumption,
inertial

statement

that

forces

solely by

the

in the

the

{i.e.to
presence

should

caU

hand, there

is

In order

make

to

railway

it !

believe

one

haiid, and

is accelerated
called

are

universe

Let

us

this

reason

relativelyto
forth; a single

have

would

we

"

recapitulate for

the

no

grasp

world

in the

alone
to

of

believing

accelerated

an

and

on

bodies, inertial forces

This

is not

compelled
this

"

intelligencecannot

quite

experience teUs us
other : If a body

body quite alone

Hence

be

it to

way

any

advantage

take

on

supposing

"

idea

get rid of the earth

cannot

act in

that forces of inertia should

call

to

the

up

on

go

Nothing

believing this.
we

able

specialtheory

other

the

On

of this kind

stars.

the

to

"

It

space.

physicistsand philosophers
relativelyto an cether

permissible to

not

was

experiment

an

to

believed

had

one

the

by

aggravated
of absolute

motion

of inertia.

forces

forth

like Einstein.

man

place

sether, owing

acceleration

that

terrestrial

be
actually exist)would
after
But
inertia.
giving

should

substantial

reasonable

accelerated

forces

forth

and

relativity. Formerly
the

tions,
founda-

satisfythe philosophical

further

been

seemed

that

(if aether

of

taking

as

have

might

of mind

had

matter

an

to

However

such

on

astronomical

unable

was

scientific frame

The

aU

explain

could

95

effects !

theory, based

Newtonian

correctlythe

and

GRAVITATION

yet it is to call forth noticeable

-^^nd

in

AND

INERTIA

no

inertia.

is

evidently equivalent to the

capabiUty of a body to exercise
possess
of other

inertia, according

to

something appertaining

inertial

mass)

is caused

bodies

in the

universe.

this
to

mode

every

of

body

thinking,
of itself ;

GENERAL

96

THEORY

it is caused,
it and
of
the

RELATIVITY

contrary, by the interaction

bodies

the other

of the universe,

by

is caused

body

the

on

OF

the

the

justas

interaction

between

weight
body and

of the

earth.
shown

As
driven

in

these

to

the

foregoing developments,
opinions merely on the grounds
; it is

thought process
to be

an

that

interaction

which

may

lends

additional
is the

inertial and

gravitational

of this

book,

of the

inertia

to believe

mass

its

on

experience,

on

these

to

abstract

purdy

proportionality between
At

mass.

the

explained that

we

gravitationalmass

fact based

support

fact

inertia!

possess

arguments,

part

described, than

important

One

account.

own

of the kind

single body

of the

plausibleto imagine

more

are

we

end

of the first

inertial

and

mass

essentiallytwo perfectlydistinct
ertial
notions, but that according to our
ejqjeriencethe inof a body is always proportional to its gravimass
tational
are

This

mass.

mechanics

as

to do

nothing

has

fact

with

substances

different

instance

For
times
of the

heavy

as

different
that

so

platinum

and

size.

same

inertia,

to

the

for the

differ

they

have

mechanics

if this law

did not

ratios

and

change

of

the other
motion.

would

remain

claim

vaUdity.

between

us

times

the

each

inert

as

suppose

iron

specific gravities,
two

cal
mathemati-

for

inertial

other, just

stances.
specificgravitiesof different sub: A
platinum ball is about three

three
Let

tonian
New-

priori that

differ from

gravitational masses

and

in

occurs

The

could, for instance, imagine

One

as

all other laws.

classical

completely unchanged

experience

perfectly independent law, which

of

foundations

of

balls

of

the

and

but

would

iron

an

size,
same

have

ball

platinum

equal

same

of iron, offer the

This

as

to

specific
one

of

resistance
been

quite

CHAPTER

THE

EQUIVALENCE-HYPOTHESIS
shall

WE

of

this

to

the

us

that

is the

of inertia, and

existence

Einstein

of such

present in non-uniform

compel

not

motion

these

that
unable

other

How

but

the

motion
reveal

curious

then

always
does

presence
a

change of

the

observer

that

simply persuade

We

of

of course,

their

gravitational forces, for he is quite

are

distinguish gravitation and

illustrate

us

ourselves

notice

inertia

lift

just beginning

acceleration

usual

the

ground

the

the

than

spring

in

by

accelerated

bodies

our

this

an

performing

From

motions,

For

each

from

imagine

of

place.

forces

to

Let

We

change.

Can

more

always

must

necessarily to conclude

us

took

these

no

change

Inertial forces are,

says

it is

motion

any

theory

of non-uniform

that

of uniform

case

the

question

existence

the

hopeless, for

seems

forces

produces

the

observation, and

our

than

moment

generalisationof

the

that

imagine

escapes

detectable

begin

relativityby discussing

we

motion

XIII

on
a

more

balance

the

body

rectilinear

by

the

floor of the
released

quickly
would

following example

stretch

physiologicalpoint

fact that
lift is

upwards.

the

pressure

sUghtly greater

suddenly

would

fall to

weight suspended
the

i.e.

move,

motion

spring

of view, the
98

to

We

matter

more,

on

etc.

becomes

THE

EQUIVALENCE-HYPOTHESIS

strikingwhen

more

If

downwards.
the

in

thus

diminishes

notice

whilst

stomach,
as

compared

to

the

Our

would

take
at

were

other,

and

the

and

midnight

moon,

by

Let

us

to

the

acting

off from

dayhght,

suppose

the

which

he

gravitationat
Gravitational

always

if the

lift

some

reason

or

can

any
shows

case

small

of the
to

the

be

by

to have

ject
sub-

are

earth, the

and

sun,
noon

evening.
the

near

other

directly

sun

of the

now,

noon,

let

in the interior.

spring balance

tension, he
and
it must

We

by

the force
that

wiU

since I know
now

us

liftshut

intensityof

to

tional
gravita-

If he determine

small

directly
in-

as

surface, and

exact

the

the

longsleepin

lamp

moment.

at

we

to be felt

so

an

measure

matter

tides.

earth's
after

force is small
the

as

far surpasses

daily fluctuations

at

weaker.

or

distinctlynoticeable

are

but Ut up

observer

morning

too

are

waking up

one

balance

way

effect differs at

earth

earth

the

some

of the

this

cdl

But

etc.

fall

by

stretched

stronger

the

in

they
phenomenon

imagine

him, with

bodies

gravity, for

of the

notice

forces

this is

that

the

released

same

attraction

of

differently

earth's surface, for

fluctuations

Suppose

us

enable

spring

the

from

in the

region

behave

spring

suddenly

bodies, but

our

this combined

attraction

forces, these

the

lighter

is suf"dent,

gravitationalintensity do,

and

and

the

earth's

simidtaneous

to the

case

exactly the

place at

of fact, take

in

phenomena

become

of

acceleration

former

in

the

to

were

performed

to be

appears

slightly relaxed,

place

rest

the

slowly

be

Fluctuations

Since

the

body

sensation

other

more

would

weight

"

it.

with

ground

is

moving downwards
quickly,
opposed to the gravitationalforce,

peculiar

motion

Kft starts

weight, and, provided

we

of

accelerated

an

force of inertia is

and

99

be

the

say
that
noon."

GENERAL

100

Another
need

who

passenger,

has

necessarilybe

not

OF

THEORY

RELATIVITY

the

possiblybe very great at

be moving downwards
may

we

(We

may

kilometres

many
can

be

the

conversation

kept

the present moment,

indeed

be

motion

also ;

doubt

whether
of

cause

of the

the

inabiUty to decide,

our

the

when

we

uniform

to

say

same
were

stated

relativity. We
without

of the

motion

existence
of

the law
That

to

in

the

is

our

of such

of

of facts,

again the
to the

right.

We

first part of this

discussing the

special theory of

there

existence

that

is not

the

discernible

by

of mechanics,
motion

; and

we

of rectilinear

our

then

senses

went

and

we
finally,

on

servatio
ob-

discern

cannot

relativityto all physical processes.

not able to
two
are
lift-passengers

extended

decide

by

viz.

by weighings, pendulumof them

is right,is owing
fall-observations, which
of proportionality between
the
law
inertia! and
experiments,

mechanical
and

as

doubts

reference

observers

can

accelerated

is

nature

consideringthe surroundings ; we
measurements
exact
that, by the most
in the range

the

path

of

without

two

there

knowledge

general principleof

pursue

book,

insufficient

an

from

see

whether

to

as

shaft

motion

We

that

existence

is

question

in

moving

passengers

the

about

surroundings, which
must

two

tion."
accelera-

an

length of time.)

some

arise from

this kind
or

for

with

the accelerated

in length, where

up

intensity of gravitation

the Uft to be

suppose

This

up, says

; the

case

may
but

"

just woken

which
is the kejmote of the general
mass,
gravitational
it is not
valid,
theory of relativity. Let us suppose
in Chapter XII)
and
assume
(a possibiUty indicated
that the specific
gravity of platinum is three times as

large as
the other

that

of iron, and

hand,

are

equal.

that

their

In that

specificinertias, on
case

all doubts

could

THE

EQUIVALENCE-HYPOTHESIS

immediately be allayed,
with
moving downwards
The

observers

ball

the

on

the

will

we

suppose

spring balance

volume

^by a platinum

"

the

as

iron

accelerated
of

the

the

motion,

lift

effect

gravitationalforce,

iron

of one-third

If the lift be at rest,

be taken

if the

But

not.

or

replace the
baU

into accoimt.-and

ball will strain the spring

ball.

was

originallyhanging

of equal weight).
(i.e.

platinum

to

was

only the force of gravity can

the

have

lift

the
motion

accelerated

in the Uft would

^which

"

whether

to

as

101

exactly the

move

downwards

with

spring

consists

the

on

by

diminished

same

the

of

value

the inertial force

the latter to be
of the
the

acting upwards. As we have supposed

weaker
for the platinum ball, the tension

spring would
way,

pendulum-

substances

would

same

various

lift and

accelerated

in

between

of

experiments
phjTsical
the

decision

specialproblem
obliged

were

negative, for

differently in

case

the

of

by

exists

of uniform

When

other
of

means

dealing with

rectilinear

the

or

problem

the

thought of, by
at.

the

mechanical

relativity),whether
be

an

holds

that

motion

(analogous to

be arrived

of

of proportionality

vaUdity guarantees

arises

answer

law

gravitationalmass

accelerated

an

can

reasons

an

motion^

analogous question
empirical nature ; we

we

in the
had

of

results

the

to

out

experiments before us, all leading to negative

experiment). At the time
{e.g.Michelson's

number

when

can

with

fall-phenomena

possibly decide

cannot

special theory

the

which

the

its

experiments, whether
The question now
not.

In

lift at rest.

inertial and

good accurately, and

passengers

and
turn

is not

This, however,

Uft

be greater in consequence.

here

Einstein
more

began

his

theoretical

general problem

now

investigationsof

under

consideration,

experimental

no

that

assumed
out

data

and

in

one

at rest, but

thereby

"

of

theory

the

^whereas

hypothesis,

of empirical facts.

up

with

situated

entered

Those

readers

in

the

entire structure

pre-eminently a

was
relativity

he

could

downward

moving

when

Hence,

whatsoever

Uft

gravitational field, he

RELATIVITY

available.

were

experiments

no

differentlyin
motion

OF

THEORY

GENERAL

102

ated
accelerweaker

realm

of the

rational

who

turn

of

special
worldng

have

followed

foregoing developments carefully will be able to

illuminating and plausible this
appreciate how
very

the

have
hypothesis must
supposed possible that

been

for all
other

by

"

of

point

facts.
be

entirely in

chapter.

For

of

(the special

nature

hand, should

its

under

from

already

and

be valid

in

for mechanical

nature

the

purely

demand
processes,

opticalphenomena
of

it be

generalisation,on

as

well ?

consist
in-

contain

cannot

kind, Einstein

(to be
time,

Could

necessary

view,

laws

that

of this

that

so

for electrical and

Convinced

at

and

"

not

Einstein.

one

philosophers, only

many

and

the

physical processes,
hand,
apparently

theoretical

law

on
principleof relativity)

to

his

Equivalence-hypoth
explained presently),though not,
set up

compulsion of any direct

Subsequently, experience proved him
the
the

the

right,as

shall

we

present,

we

show

shall

in the

formulate

pirical
em-

to

next

the

equivalence-hypothesis.In the second chapter of this

book we
designated any space in which electric or magnetic
at
forces act
point as an electric or a
every
magnetic field. Analogously, we shall call every space
in which
gravitationalforces are at work a gravitational
understand
field. We
by a homogeneous field a part of
single point of which the gravitational
space in every
force possesses

the

same

direction

and

the

same

intensity.

THE

Every

EQUIVALENCE-HYPOTHESIS

human

looked

dwelling
to

upon

homogeneous
the

and

point

lift,

for

Now
the

Einstein

lift

decide

cannot

caused

the

by

downward

the

can

to

all

field

of

entirely

designated

Einstein

of
force

house

call

we

is
in

space,

inertial

an

variation

of

field

with

moving

the

two

physical

any

in

accelerated

in

the
of

lift.

the

as

to

an

acceleration.

as

follows

homogeneous
inertial
This

the

ever,
whatbalance

spring
gravity,

With
field

gravitational
statement

in

passengers

experiments

tension

phenomena,

rectilinear

by

walls

that

of

equivalent

as

gravitational

diminution

and
this

the

be

can

present.

decreased

inertial

physical

constant

is

momentary

formulate

is

by

acceleration

ideas

we

field

is

maintains

whether
is

the

which

inertial

an

the

present,

are

instance,

motion,

of

earth

approximation

Furthermore

forces

the

since

field,

within

small.

inertial

of

of

degree

direction

point

to

infinitesimally
which

surface

gravitational

magnitude

from

the

on

close

103

by

or

reference

just
:

to

described,

With

respect

gravitational

field produced

by

assumption

was

equivalence-hj^othesis.

CHAPTER

CURVATURE

XIV

RAYS

OF

OF

LIGHT

GRAVITATIONAL

the

of

theory
To

in

these

how

question
the

exactly
Let

of

reference

all

processes

same

imagine
the
the

and

at

passengers
to

appears

the

be

inclined

(This
astronomers

naturally
if the

chest

lift

of

We

as

hole

path

aberration.)

The

the
uniform

suppose

velocity,

and

in

During

the

wall.

by

the

short

strikes

the

than

has

possesses

will

moves

lower

equivalence-

outside

of

downwards

with

in

place

horizontally

move

phenomenon

increases

the

constant

light-ray

the

hj^othesis

take

to

example.

latter

sUghtly

point

ated
acceler-

the

to

required

the

calculate

uniformly

of

to

the

that

so

in

processes

must

we

tation.
gravi-

cases.

through

chest,

the

field,

application

time-interval

upwards,
wall

both

with

Ught
it

enter

minute

traverse

of

ray

lift

simple

physical

bound

are

upwards

moving

of

of

theory

according

an

"

between

bridge

the

laws

place

in

way

by

hypothesis
lift

take

demonstrate

us

the

gravitational

processes

sjretem
in

is
and

relativity

find

homogeneous

FIELD

equivalence-hypothesis

THE

IN

the
the

long

been

inclination
of

opposite
To

hght-ray
not

the

acceleration,

to

distance

hole.

and

velocity

hght

to

be

the
thus
zontal.
hori-

known
of
chest.
its

the

to

path
Now

velocity

GENERAL

106

THEORY

in order

Hence,

to

for instance, have

of stars

again

the

at

verifyif
to

time

at another

OF

of the

period

is

zodiacal

part of the

tions of the

stars

will not

show

to

only

used

these

-^

mm.

effect

with

(~\
^^^

irfi"
IT

served),
finally ob-

was

in

heavens

in

cannot

be

because

the

of

effect in

the

the

plates

mical
astrono-

is great enough

certainty.

elsewhere

amount

expedition,

accuracy

determine

The

question

difiScultylies

general the
vicinity of

starred
the

complete blurring of
negatives during the long time
I
E
Fig. 4.

ejcposure

picture
It

^as

necessary
of

total solar

the

therefore

to carry

eclipse,during

out

sun

at
photographed
all,
glaring sxmlight would

cause

but

thesis,
hypo-

the

on

measurements
to

posigraphs
photo-

two

(they

I
the

The

displacements.
displacements

Eddington's

the

is in

mutual

indeed

about

in

where

the

then

sun

Einstein's

small

small

very

the

sky.

on

to

Though
are

in it, and

quite coincide,

will, according

constellation

v^en

year,

should,

right,we

is situated

sun

another
S

Einstein

photograph
the

RELATIVITY

stars

to

receive

on

the

necessary,

the
of
a

plate.

in order

observations, to wait for

which

star-photographscan
be taken
by night. The first total
just as they can
solar eclipseafter Einstein's prophecy of the bending of
light-raysin the sun's gravitationalfield took place in
broke
out, and owing
August 1914, just after the war
a

OF

CURVATURE
this

to

it had

be

to

preparations had
place on the 29th
take

the

of

other

during

the

later, when

had

sky, control plates of

could

of rays of
reader

The

successful

signifiedthe

last

on

same

stars

The

the

more

the

nature,
this
this

motion,

uniform

Then,

of nature.

processes
we

obliged

were

for
generalisation
of

form

supported

were

in

an

this

between
proportionality
extension

processes
actual
Since

we

to

but

of

was,

of the
at

had

for

to

mechanical

Einstein.
this

theory
for

do

With

the

only

to

for all

theoretical

generalisation of

also ;

we

could

state

with

processes

tainty
cerwe

the

gravitationalmass.

to
equivalence-principle

all physical

; there

experience to compel an assumption of

the solar eclipseof 1919, however, we
in this matter

the

ment
develop-

the

since
equivalence-principle,
by the empirical fact of
inertial and

it

of Einstein's

valid

of

reasons
a

the

result of

was

demand

in the

tion
deflec-

proofs

first,a hypothesis only

empiricalknowledge

months

referred

which

principlefor arbitrarymotions
in the

The

of all

taken

the

Einstein

chain

west

measurements

predictedby
what

in

with

confirmed

relativity which

of

special theory
rectilinear

First

few

made

were

and
validityof a generaltheory of relativity,
conception of gravitation. Let us recall
once

the

far
sufficiently

for the

in

to

Sobral

to
near

the necessary
results

meant

Unk

Islands

successful.

lightby the amount

will readilyjudge

prophecy

went

one

moved

then

performed.

be

eclipse took
British expeditions

places the photographs

the

instruments, and

same

Principe

eclipsewere
sun

full

though

leadership of Eddington,

In both

solar
the

the

107

next

Two

1919.

the

to

of Africa.

coast

The

photographs

necessary

Brazil, the

May

LIGHT

unused,

over

made.

under

equipped,

were

passed

been

OF

RAYS

we

find

was

that
do
a

no

kind.

possess
natural

GENERAL

108

THEORY

phenomenon
of

which

the

us

with

is true,

that

Einstein's

those

the

of

explain

will

is

sun

magnitude
the
would

the

be

given

possessed
density

observable,

but

of
but

would

light,
this

is

subsequently

of
be

certain
not

by

profoimd
the

other
such

needed
other

the

planation
ex-

atmosphere

for

case.

to

original
of

the

to

stance
in-

phere
atmos-

Moreover,

atmosphere
as

the

possible

compulsion

due

for

as

in

tell

tational
gravi-

Einstein's

rejected

an

sun's

always

preference.

completely

deflection

is

hoc,

as

the

light

fact

the

on

deflection

be

to

of
it

course

it is

relativity

explained,

rays

ad

of
in

light

natural

as

be

and

observed

Of

based

of

the

of

exactly

otherwise

invented

hypothesis

sun

be

basis

the

on

which

theory

of

rays

established

an

thought,

of

sun.

the

to

refraction

the

explanation,

If

opposed

might

the

by

the

but

predictions

deflection

field

some

explicable

only

not

equivalence-h57pothesis,

coincides
It

is

RELATIVITY

OF

of

reasons.

immense
to

cause

phenomena

CHAPTER

THE

RELATIVITY

convenient

and

thought

tends

banish

to

of

bodies

in

to

us

all other

the

principle

mechanical

the

of

gravitational

with

deflection

the
unbounded

its

of

only
other

to
"

of

tions
accelera-

body

its interaction

by

considerations
Its

validity

the

for

the

by

lead

validity

from

for

beginning
of

inertial

optical

successful

light-rays

is

in

cesses
prodiction
pre-

the

sun's

field.

waiting

Without

and

leads

can

proportionality

subsequently

proved

was

during

mass,

imiform

This

mass

These

the

ehminate

both

mass

guaranteed
of

absolute

forces

equivalence.

was

fact

gravitational

to

of

processes

empirical

the

by

inertial

bodies.

with

of

absolute

gravitational

the

to

"

for

general

relative

are

of

relativity

to

inertial

not

the

words,

other

similarly

caused

and

the

motion.

which

universe,

the

train

idea

motion,

that

accelerations

for

appear

the

accelerated

necessary

of

necessary

absolute

conclusion

further

the

to

of

and

is

lose

theory

fiction
it

it

fonner

to

The

hence

idea

motion

rectilinear

not

as

empty

an

the

meaningless

so

find

the

up

connections.

as

MOTION

shall

take

more,

physics,

from

space

ROTATORY

we

to

once

logical

of

survey

OF

proceeding,

BEFORE

as

XV

solar

the

results

eclipse,

Einstein

for

confidence

in
X09

the

of

observations
continued

truth

of

made
to

his

work

theory,

GENERAL

110

it

that

so

confirmation

for

room

Einstein's
it

how

had

pulled down

made

will be

best

made

of

the

to

begiiming

The

been

problem

fundamental

be

to

has

thought

Eddington's

The

edifice.

new

continued
the

before

years

theory

the

train of

was

four

RELATIVITY

followed.

of Newton's

structure

OF

completed

was

splendid
make

THEORY

dear

already ;
templating
by con-

dear

rdativity

of

of

rotatory

motion.
that

know

We

whence

motion,
rotation

the

Newton

idea

devised

He

centrifugalforces
of

concluded

well-known

motion

immediately,

friction with

by

of

mass

water

As

bucket.

the

force becomes
does

not

concave

At

flat but

mirror

bucket

the

the

ascertained

surface

the

of the

of the

at

the sides of the bucket

and

no

the

effect is

there is
water

no

owing

of the

to the

water

appear,
rotatory motion

and

sure

of

the

on

the

argued thus
rdative

the water

they

not

quite even
(as
proof that no

He

is greatest,

however,

of the

must

motion

the bucket

partaking
not

of

sides

the

rotate, but

between

hence

water

in the form

perceptible. Afterwards,

relative motion

centrifugalforces
absolute

and

the

centrifugal forces.

work.

experiment

between

when

of

^this being

then

are

beginning

yet

surface

remains

water

"

this

effect of centrifugal

curved

influence

by Newton),

centrifugalforces
At

the

the sides of the bucket

first,when

water,

the

particles rise up

the

show

to

velocity as

same

case

becomes

water

under

the

apparent

remain

is reasonable.

bucket, until the whole

this is the

as

soon

of

case

quick rotatory
does not partake
water
is gradually set rotating

but

with

the

is set into

sides of the

rotates

motion

experiment

empirically: A bucket of water

motion.
Owing to inertia the
of the

in

that

absolute

an

in rotatory

appear

and

rotation,

depend

on

relative rotatory

RELATIVITY

OF

ROTATORY

motion.

This

conclusion

first,but

when

submitted

maintained,
"

Newton's

teaches

that

for the

appear

sides

of

rotation

heavenly
would

if the

increasinglythicker
and
known

and

Only

facts

of

bucket
do

of the

can

how

say

not

and

earth

to

result

the

as

says

relative

water

appear

mass

be

the

experiment

the

sides

of the

more

massive, up to, say, several

this

it consistent
and

nature

bucket

not

made

were

has

been

with

the

experiment

one

make

must

we

they

the

to

Nobody

out

thick.

but

bucket,

bodies.

He

centrifugal forces
of the

at

it cannot

rotating water

the

rotatory motion

relative

turn

nules

with

noticeable

of the

the

rigidcriticism

distinctlyby Mach.

experiment
us

111

plausible enough

seems

to

stated

as

MOTION

with

formed,
perother

arbitrary

our

fictions."
We

proceed

now

earth's
of the

to those

phenomena arising from the

considered
to be proof
by Newton

rotation, and
absolute

existence

centrifugal forces

are

Moreover,

they

rest

on

bodies

These
in
the

are

in the
and

to

the

earth's

in

motion

for

"

called

be

surface

left

small

they

that

day),

case

refined

proved

without

doubt.

in the

fact of the

earth's

forces
There

act

bodies

on

is another

t3rpe

by the earth's rotation, but acting

relativelyto the earth's surface.

Coriolis-forces," and

by

; these

of motion
on

the

to

bodies, but with

surface.

suffered

direction
the

own

In this

owing
per

centrifugal

These

deflections
earth's

our

can

of force, also caused

on

revolution

their effect appears

oblateness.
at

minute,

so

angular Velocity (one

be perceived on
cannot
instruments

of this rotation.

the

bodies

on

southern

instance, be

moving

deflections

shot

are

northern

the

manifested

are

freely along
to the right
hemisphere,

hemisphere.
due

southwards,

If

jectile,
pro-

it will

GENERAL

112

quite accurately southwards,

slightlyto the right, i.e.
very

travel

not

deflected

direction, for
the

during
the

of

RELATIVITY

OF

THEORY

the

time

earth
bullet

the

Coriolis-force

travelling. Other
the
following : the

the

on

be

westerly

is

are

trade-winds

in

will

rotating eastwards

on

goes

but

northern

effects
easterly
north-

hemisphere,

the

(inthe direction of motion) of the

right-hand rails of railway tracks, the greater wearing
of right-hand river banks, the
down
rotation
of the
greater

and

wear

tear

in

pendulum-plane
and

so

Considered

on.

view, all these

"the

earth

at

round

it.

Let

Let

distinction

between

performs

earth

will

equator

will

will

pendulum

bodies

we

that
if

we

keep

the

to

their

basis

the

idea

it

the

which

ject
sub-

Newton

facts,

Universe

are

the

same

according

to

relative
and

If

its axis,

appearance,

it will

these

phenomena
the

absolutely, in

we

relative motion.

motion.

the

about

takes

of absolute

and

Ptolemaic

rotating

on

rest, and

at

relative space

the

the

the
gravity near
plane of Foucault's
AU

be

round

of

ficance,
signi-

suppose

say

of

of

the

etc.

earth

the

on

rotation

relative rotation

from

real

absolute

acceleration

rotate

same

start

and

make

turned,

if the

and

justification,
concerning

diminished,
be

disappear

heavenly

so,

be

to

point

absolute

an

flattened, the

become

way

full

statement,

system

has

the

point

the

to

wrong

Mach

relative

centrifugal forces

will

what

with

lean

to

appears

that

fixed-star

consider

us

be

experiment,

Newtonian

absolute

an

the

hear

again

the

prove

it would
and

rest

us
"

the

phenomena

that

pendulum

from

rotates," has

and
earth

Foucault's

to

the

such

place.
space.

motions

each

It is

But

only speak

can

All

other

if
of

in the

other, both

Copernican system.

GENERAL

114

round

(ifthey really rotate

into

"

space

gravitation

the

relativistic

give

must

forth
"

the

earth

the

masses

earth

be

must

exerted

the

With

first

(which

mechanics

we

of

the

the

of

apart, but

not

bodies

regarded

for
"

fixed

the

centrifugal

and

being

as

stars
is

with
at

forces

are

with

in view
the

other

their

mutual

round

of

second
cording
ac-

depend

earth

again only

fixed

all,
dis-

uniformly

of non-uniform

special case

would

force at

no

are

average

fixed

force than

other

no

special

on

distances
Thus

our

rest, i.e. with

the

on

only

Newtonian

of their motion.

revolving

as

rotation

Since

the

on

gravitational forces

each

on

and

state

act, according to Newton,

stars

aU

of gravitation, for

theory

acting

the

on

considered

stars

with

of gravitation,^the gravitational

law

bodies

between

masses

of

mass

Coriolis-forces

relativity),and
his

to Newton's

forces

ing
noth-

the earth

assume

obliged to modify

were

overthrow

we

answer

the

overthrow

we

answer

special theory

the

we

as

upon

"

revolving celestial bodies.

the

by

centrifugaland
looked

calls

more

relativelyto

(2) If

stars,

"

nothing compared

mere

universe.

at rest, then

to be

fixed

no

of

(i) No

answer

centrifugal forces,^ and

is indeed
in the

nothing

rotation

than

forces

call forth

can

"

theory

in the

appear

relativelyto

inertial

and

following

perceptible centrifugal forces

for acceleration

earth),scattering them

mechanics

the

us

RELATIVITY

OF

THEORY

case

motion,
of

inertial

forces.
'

It

runs

(sun

bodies

their

of
of

would
three

and

from

the

gravitational

The

force

acting

between

earth, for instance) is proportional

and

masses

distance

their

distant

thus

Hence,

apart.
sun

as

inversely proportional

is

if the

actually

the

earth
case,

were

the

to

to

the

two

the

duct
pro-

square

twice

as

attracting

only one-quarter of that actually existing ; if it

far distant, the
force would
be one-ninth,
times
as
be

far

force
were

and

RELATIVITY

OF

tributed

round

neutraUse
A

our

each

constructed

only

field
and

for

in
relative

of

theory
that
of
which

their

thus

forces

law

fixed
is

such

of

way

accelerations,

gravitation

according
stars

its

as

in
to

admit

rotations,

formulae

that

to

of

mechanics
of

so

produce

must

Furthermore,
motion

be

must

to

equivalent

Coriolis-forces.

relativistic

general

and

115

other.

system

gravitational

MOTION

system,

however,

rotating

centrifugal

solar

relativistic

truly

constructed,
the

ROTATORY

the

truly
be

must

inertial
and

so

forces

on.

CHAPTER

THE

NOTION

XVI

SPACE-CURVATURE

OF

AND

OF

WORLD-CURVATURE

the

IN

mark

the

out

chapter

last

aimed

which

demands

the
with

here

of

help

is

this

possible)

discussed

motion
solar

our

let

in

space,

this

disc

disc

of

"

general

the

In

to

"

and

For

by

"

the

mathematical

"

bottom-

meaningless

of

sake

to

talk

of

the

most

elucidated,

is

as

the

that

it,

we

rotatory

place

by

disc

exerts

only

relativity

both

discs

round

which

for

demand

of

second

of

axis,

the

amount

above

suppose

an

of

circular
it

centres

the

reasonably

In

huge

of

knowledge

matical
mathe-

formerly

physicists.

simplicity

disc,

the

Immediately

The

the

of

of

thin

with

of

exactly

rdativity

so

connected

theory

far

forces.

exceeds

accessories

acquired

be

given

application

chapter.

and

magnitude.^

equal

realises

be

can

suppose

us

concentric

and

supposed

are

last

gravitational

small

the

which

least,

the

(as

him.

Without

at

by

of

the

system

freely poised
very

in

be

only

theory

out

problem

the

to

the

relativity

of

theory

special

of

carried

best

theory

some,

tions,
specula-

by

mathematics.^

higher

traits

the

can

up,

mathematics,

any

characteristic
and

set

of

help

the

of

pointed

Einstein's

attained

finally

was

explicitly

by

at

presentation

detailed

more

have

we

though
"

top

and
we

"

clearness
are

and
xi6

"

of

aware,

bottom

speak

we

"

course,

in

the

of

"

top-

that

Universe.

it

"

is

SPACEboth

AND

discs

relativelyto
one

both
aU

the

relativelyto

be

stars, and

it.

We

the

upper

imagme

to

are

rest

at

by intelligent
beings,provided with
phjreicalapparatus, including, of course,

of

and

will call the

and

those

forces

vistic mode

they

two

consider

their

exerted

by

if

consider

through
via

between
the

communication
their

immediate

time-

consequence

and

the

living at

measuring-rods

practicallyagree.

be

wiU

at

had

gone

clocks
But

led

which

ours,

different

not

(If,

rest.

perhaps

would

stars,

tions.
interpreta-

recognisethe

suppose

The

them

ence
differThis
be

to

and

Reds

axis will have

below

small

and

length-contractionand
of

the

of both

those
the

velocity

them,

immeasurably

in

pare
com-

living in
a

be

not

gravitational mass.

be

centre

be

can

fixed

physics

from

situated

effects of

and

forces

always to
length-measurements with

Whites

the

in

Whites,

the

chapter,

last

of

to

exist two

neighbours.

of dock-motion
those

they

vicinityof the
the

disc

further

and

lower

Reds

gravitationalforces

firmament

theory does
us

with

relativelyto

in the

as

thought

there

Let

"

Reds

inertia! forces,if they

as

development

inertial

way.)

their

of

their

Perhaps

brevity
"

The

Whites."

of these

or

own

Newton,

and

realise that

to

"

either

"

their

mode

of

top disc the

existence

revolving

different

GaUlei

able

the

ways,

the

sake

centrifugaland Coriolisthey have acquired the rdati-

disc in motion,

their

indeed,

of the

thought explained
that

interpretedin

the

of

occurrence

of

For

disc the

disc ; if

will know

they

lower

the

their

on

clocks.

inhabitants

of the

will observe

of

disc is to

discs inhabited

measuring-rods

by

117

lower

of fixed

system

rotate

sorts

we

The

rotate.

can

is to

WORLD-CURVATURE

in

ence
differ-

small.

For

disc, therefore, the

Whites

it is different

and

Reds

for those

wiU

living

near

the

and

concretdy,

of the
the

are

orbit

earth's

shall

we

edge

lower

disc will be

about

hour,

or

the

at

in

contractions

theory
than

that

assume

of the

The

6,000,000 km.

or

With

clocks

motions)

are

motion.

of

specialtheory
expressly only for

derived

apphable

all to

at

if

i.e. to

smaU

results

of

contemplate

we

edge of the upper disc

follow
earth's surface) and

the

time,

e.g.

few

minutes,

rotatory

special

the

only

can

to

very

short

and

spaces

the

uniform

of

case

to

world-elements,

less

and

rectilinear

the

the

of

transference

to

relativity(which

non-uniformly moving systems

permitted if we Umit the contemplation

Thus,

special

noticeable,

be

will also

results of the

theory

the

by

per

velocities

these

demanded

length

velocity

top disc relativelyto the

second.

of the

motions

different

were

diameters

the

relativity(although they stDl amount

P^^ cent.) will be just measurable

of

XTT

if the

plainly

more

per week.

5,000,000

in the

km.

1500

speak

To

revolution

one

the

point

RELATIVITY

of
approximately equal to the diameter
(300,000,000km.), the angular velocity

corresponding to
of

disc.

of the

periphery

discs

OF

THEORY

GENERAL

118

be

small
times.

relativelysmall region near

(say about the size of the
its movement
the

motion

for
of

short

this r^on

relativelyto a corresponding region on the lower disc

and rectilinear.
Hence
will be practicallyquite uniform
we

apply

can

with

the results of the

specialtheory

of

relativity

clear conscience.

According to this, the measuring-rods, like

objects belonging to the marginal regions of
considered

disc

when

wUl

appear

in the
must

same

be

shortened
the

way

slower

as

from
in

the
the

motion

compared

lower

direction
of the
with

the

top

stationary disc,
of motion,

clocks

the

all other

of the

motion

and
Reds

of clocks

SPACE-

AND

belongingto

WORLD-CURVATURE

the Whites.^

Measuring-rods of the Whites

being perfectlyequal, and in agreement

themselves

among

with

those of the Reds

who

inhabit

the disc's centre, it follows that the

rods

and

Reds

the

motions

of clocks

inhabiting the margin

the

We

centre.

know

only in the direction

measuring-rods of the
laid

119

and

lengthsof
for the

Reds

contraction

will be

ing
inhabit-

takes

place

only

those

hence

motion,

Reds

vicinityof
measuring-

will be different for the

that
of

the

shorter

which

are

down

tangentially (parallelto the disc's edge) ;

those laid down
radially(perpendicularlyto the disc's
edge) agree with the corresponding rods of the Whites,
When

the

therefore

the diameters
result

with

example

different

at

down

Whites.

of

For

Reds

and

been

the

in the

same

figure for the

for the
hold

not

Reds

but

of
As

on

p. 166.

to

than

lay
the

are

for the Whites.^

explanatory

note

This

of

ally
tangentiof the
for

Hence
must

the
be

conclusions

circumference
the

results

with.

of

motion,
See

it

ing
result-

the

objection, however,

rotatory

dealt

often

measuring-rods,

draw
the

has

laid down
circumference

circumference

above,

cases

the

as

cannot

mentioned

entire

of motion.

relativity about

only be applied to
small
space-time elements
can

Note

the

the

one

An

measuring-rods

also

Whites."

good, because

whole.

disc

following objection

proportion

length

for the

as

special theory

have

p. 153.

the

will

of

VII.

Chapter

tangentially in the direction

runs

as

only

contraction,

suffer

49,

conclusion

Not

p.

Chapter XVIII,

this
"

raised

disc, and

on

in

Against

they

ference
them, the resultingfigurefor the circum-

Gf. footnote

will be added

if

measuring

are

will

of their disc will be greater than

'

same

discs, they will

their

get round

to

measure

But

km.).

300,000,000

results, for the

oftener

to

come

will arrive at the

measuring-rods

shortened

them

Whites

drcimiference

the

arrive

and

of their discs, both

(in our

measure

Reds

same

does

from

the

of the

disc

this
when

theory
very

Supplementary

GENERAL

120

Consequently the
the

diameter

Reds

of the
for

than

remarkable

few

between
the

the

number

same

Ludolph-number
for all

by

the

Greek

zone

diameter

which

they
and

TT,

find

the

letter

of
is

by

laid down

them

their

top disc

of the
radius

the

of

ratio

equal

of the

measuring-rods

inhabitants
draw

an

circle,the

half

to

of

diameter,
disc-

the

larger number

somewhat

inhabitants

.,

If the

still greater number,

about

will find

different

centre

(with a

is

they will find

{i.e.the well-known
and
designated once

ir),for

the

of

detennine

Whites

contracted.

intermediate
of

the

this

diameter,

3-14159265

only shghtly

are

then

and

as

circle

for the

and

"

the

and

one

circles

living at

kilometres) and

circumference

ratio

for

relativelysmall

different

The

different
Reds

circumference

the

Whites.

If the

top disc draw

between

circle will be

^will be

"

magnitudes.

only

ratio

RELATIVITY

OF

THEORY

than

periphery

of the

since

measuring-rods

the

tangentiallywill

disc will

be contracted

most

of aU.
The
their

inhabitants

of

experiments

and

arrive

at

disc.

Whereas

diameter

Whites,

different

of

the

the

top disc

their

circles will

from

always

be

for the

only approximately,

those
disc

circles of dimensions
which

on

they

live.

small

Reds
use

disc itself.
are

wrong

contracted

The

of the

holds

agrees

from

with

the
be

measurements,
at

for the

ir

compared

as

Deviations

measuring-rods

to

law

and

objection might

in their

lower
and

magnitude

school),this

greatest for circles comparable

the

equal

of the

we

at

of the

circumference

circle (just as
Reds

learned

those

between

quite independently

to

geodesic measurements,

geometry
ratio

will, according

the

good

best

for

with

the

this law

are

magnitude
raised

that

because

periphery

of
the

they
;

but

122

GENERAL

the

earth, for

east-west,

the

is

surface

tangentialplane

in which
touch

we

this

described

at that

situated

are

plane,

Surface

The

matter.

be

can

north-south

disposal.

different

RELATIVITY

OF
dimensions,

two

their

at

are

however,
earth's

THEORY

thus

(a horizontal

whilst

the

curvature,
of

curvature

imagine
terrestrial globe
then

plane) ;

earth's

our

We

of the

point

and

surface

we

vanishes

plane (a ship receding from us on the ocean

disappears below the horizon). Now, if the ideas of
above
and
below
and
are
absolutely unknown
beneath

the

"

"

"

has

no

the

earth's

significanceat
surface

be able,

arrive

to

of

inhabited
them

to

number

the

Let

between
of the

the

60".

the

The

surface

earth's

surface.

with

the

ratio would
This

circle in

the

real diameter

be less than

plausible

is

The

ratio

circle of latitude

The

notion

and

of the earth's

two-dimensional

between
the

the
chord

beings. They

interior
and

circumference

is, of

interior cannot

circle

(Fig.5),

AB

connecting line through the earth's

two
diametrically opposite points A
circle.

be the

of the

chord

cumferen
cir-

well-known

question to

beings is the

the

circumference

compared
globe,

at

will suppose

we

the

on

the

to

this

greater magnitude.

this

for

curvature

terrestrial

three-dimensional

i.e. the

"

the ratio between

imagine

us

at

or

beings

reasoning

understand

result,but

would

circle of latitude
us

"

of

curvature

progressivedevelopment,

for circles drawn

circles of

enough

the

mathematical

To
by them.
begin measuring

it

for

for

sufficient

given

of

and

quite inconceivable,

again, for circles small

Here,

IT

them,

be

attributing

diameter

and

to

latter statement

Nevertheless, two-dimensional

abstract

by

conclusion

aU

would

least not obvious.

would

beings,this

two-dimensional

to

strange

"

course,

B
of
v.

exist, however,

only

know

of

the

SPACEearth's

AND

WORLD-CURVATURE

surface, and

according

straight connecting

line between

latitude

of

other
the

which

is the

than

the

hence

part ANB

points.

two

greater

lie

The

that

ratio of the

line ANB

is smaller

of the circle to the

"

real

"

the

the

of

this

considered

the

circle to the

circumference

by

If two-dimensional
between

AB

chord

of the

ratio of the

the

is

meridian-Une

corresponding

path AB,

ratio

the

two

circumference

than

diameter.

determine

perception

their

to

points of a circle
diametrically opposite to each
of the meridian
going through
length

of

123

us

to

beings

circumference

be the

were

to

of the

would
resultingnumber
be only two.
Geometry resultingfrom their experience
the following law concerning
contain
therefore
would
its diameter,

equator and

the

ratio

of circles

between
"

the

circle ;

and

for

This
for

the

larger circles

and

circumference

ratio
small

the

depends
circles

on

the

it reaches

it decreases,

the

diameter

magnitude
the

reaching

the

hmit
value

of
tt,
2

THEORY

GENERAL

124

for

circle with

for which

surface
of

circle and

of

surfaces

would
to

for

could

show

might

various

that

the

what

we

On

each

is constant

equal

and

to

the

the

so

more

course,

that

surface

itself).

closed
such

curved
a

surface

points

that

way
from

the

dimensional
ratio

the

Surfaces
of

"

between

where

circles

surfaces

the

"

with.

on

of

the

would

Such

ratio

go

conveniently
determine

curved

ever,
surfaces, how-

this

line

kind.

the

value

negative

curvature.

ir

the

along

us

riding-saddle,

and

imagine

in

drawn

along the saddleis exactly the same

for all

measured

would

be

diameter

are

circle

for these
is

circumference

between

exceeds

(supposing, of

measured

saddle-surface, and
and

magnitudes,

Let

saddle

circumference
the

circle,

its diameter

always

distance

of

the

this

circle and

curvature

ordinary

an

centre

beings

is

shortest

line.

this

on

on

of the

be

can

; with

n-

surfaces

are

line

for which

simply by calculation,
beings know
merely from
surface (plane)the ratio

of

diameter

Saddle-surfaces

to be

and

greater the

the

on.

for circles of various

this ratio varies

ratio

equal
Lastly, they

as

for they could

imcurved

an

this

distinguishing these

other

the circumference

between

so

quaUty

three-dimensional

observation

which

Mathematicians

ir.*

science

of

furthermore,

imaginable

are

the

from

help

and,

for

fictitious

for all circles,

ir

earth, e.g. so

"curvature,"

as

to

increasing diameter

larger than

designated

equal

km., and

surfaces

surfaces

with

the

on

with

discover

to

is

would

circumference

the

imagined

of

that

i.e. becomes
on

than

increases

ratio

between

magnitude,

be

diameter

ratio

their

more

vary

the

beings

possibleto imagine

its diameter

independently
that

it is

that

maticians
Mathe-

km."

20,000

two-dimensional

the

amongst
be able to show

of

diameter

RELATIVITY

OF

for
"

two-

greater than
and

"

circles

t.

diameter

called, in mathematics,

SPACEThese

owing

AND

WORLD-CURVATURE

considerations

lead

the circumstance

to

three-dimensional

we

that

beings

following :

the

to

that

125

have

we

comparatively early stage (in times

acquire the knowledge of the earth's
This

for

definite

the
would

Mankind
had

he

however,

circumstance,

been

have

order

curvature

of

have

penetrated

the

been

inconceivable

remained

in

abld

at

antiquity)

to

sphericalshape.
a

tion
condi-

necessary

knowledge.

this

attain

to

it

to

the necessary

this

if

even

surface
for

mind,

pubUc

tminteUigible.

that

been

cal
geometri-

the

case

earth's

less the

or

more

the

and

of

is

of fact,

being, provided

take

to

But

measurements.

been

of

able

point

Gauss, for instance, had

Uke

disposal,in

of the

attainment

two-dimensional

great mathematicians
at his

not

was

been

in

are,

It

knowledge

would

never

it would

have

It would

have

sole property of the

matically
mathe-

educated.
fold

We
"

How

about

the

solar

we

are

reasonable

in

ajid

carmot

similar

all the

beings in relation
from

depart

not, i.e. whether

curved

surface

or

ask

space
a

the

to

and
space

fictitious
earth's

this

not

able

to

we

are

not

able

to

It will be

as

dimensions

dimensions.

follows

school-geometry (designatedas
exactly vahd in
any magnitude,

the
we

universe
must

then

curvature

possesses

the

question.

surface.

are

foregoing explanations,it is clear

and
mathematicians
give an
geometers can
to

two-

we

is in three
two

question :

embracing
Concerning it,

"

the

to

it, hence

plane is in

the

space,

stars

position

imagine a fourth dimension,

our
judge directly whether
or

to

now

three-dimensional

our

system

dimensional
We

it

what

ing
Accordthat

only
to

answer

If the laws

of

our

EucUdean
for
say

geometry) are
geometrical figuresof
that

space

possesses

curvature.

as

Euclidean

"

circumference

of the

be looked

must
"

space

which

clear

conception

thereof

ratio

instance, is
the

exactly

not

of the

if

appear,

"

curved

three-dimensional

us

would

be

as

of the

curvature

when

following,we

talk

we

futile

as

from

exact
sufficiently

surface

on

of space-curvature

nothing

mean

deviations

certain

that

of

give fictitious two-dimensional

to

Hence,

live.

in the

will

for

the definition

as

give

conception

they

than

e.g. if the

large circles, or

very

to

the analogous attempt

beings

if deviations

space,

large trianglesis

upon

attempt

an

"

beings

"

is

space

180".

to

This

spaces

hand,

diameter,

for

""

of very

angles

other

discovered,

and

from

different

sUghtly
equal

be

can

the
curved

or

laws

these

between

sum

On

spaces.)

non-Euclidean

from

such

(Mathematicians designate

no

called

RELATIVITY

OF

THEORY

GENERAL

126

concrete

more

EucUdean

geometry

measurements

of

the

be taken.

space

deviations

that

idea

The

of this kind

measuring the universe

century ago by mathematicians
on

EucUdean

of

laws

clear

become

It had

that

other

free

from

dogma

logical

that

on

experience

must

the

the

which

In

live.

we

direct

measurements

many

miles

in
sum

point
on

length,
of

to

the

of

Riemann.
the

be

could

and

be

set up,

differing from
recognised

of these

that

is suitable

the

fact, Gauss

large triangle
determine

nearly

accepted
contrary, they saw

geometrical properties of

which

the

us

be found

validity of

not

Finally, they

teach

and

the

could

contradictions

geometry.

whether

foreseen

systems of geometrical laws

Euclidean

describe

them

to

been

like Gauss

geometry

of divine

like asort

had

might

universe

to

in

performed
with

sides

experimentally
angles actually amounts

SPACEi8o"

to

in

Every
teach

that

no

the

instruments,

does

no

be

way
exist.

not

later date

with

part of the earth's

EucUdean

the

the
the

"

natural

portion of

(say the

such

curvature

at

as

size of

units

pointed

we

of space,

out

at

as

surface

refer
In

only
the

to

all

our

small

very

only

discern

cannot

we

in, because

Uve

we

inhabit

discussion

to have

digressed from

may

perhaps

ask

relativityof
be

made

inhabitants

motion

clear

in

of the

the

the

of

of

our

in

of fact,

beings is

an

universe.
the

same

beings

whom

part of the earth's

curvature

of the

theme, and

our

has

and

with

disc

end

space

preceding paragraphs

What

the

small

the

experience and measurements

portion of the whole universe.

seem

their

number

terrestrial

by

from

matter

fictitious two-dimensional

supiposed to

we

square

scene

small

our

small

elude

of the

and

inhabited

space

the

some

few

certainly

comparatively

only

small part of the visible stellar

infinitesimally
here in
it is quite possiblethat we
Hence
are

position as

certainly

deviations

spatial extent

activity is given by
"

It

determinable

would

Now,

Chapter X,

of

curvature

slight.

aforementioned

geometry

measurements.

measuring

our

beings inhabited

surface

the

kilometres),

geometry

the

that

be

might

fictitious two-dimensional

of

be very

only

could

ments
perfectinstruments, or by measurelarger geometrical figures. If

more

much

on

that

words,

maintained
It

of

tectable
de-

was

Euclidean

limits of exactitude

in other

or

deviation

of course,

from

if it exist at all,must

in

can

deviations

127

no

negative attempt,

within

space,

but

large triangles;

such

us

appear

WORLD-CURVATURE

AND

all this to

do

gravitation ?

following statement
which

the

is

we

reader

with

the

This

will

The

Red

rotating relativelyto

THEORY

GENERAL

128

the

fixed-star

careful
live

geodesical

in, which

the

they

which

Euclidean
This

Uve

does
but

space,

does

not

of

could

The

of the

space

in

character

of

surface of
upwards

curved

their

circular

downwards

or

the

is not

this

space;

they

case

for if they be three-dimensional

the third dimension

use
they can
below) perpendicular to their disc for their

and

(Besides, if

like

of the

surface

greater than

not

the

contrary,

out

as

in

imagine)
dimensional

out

carry

their

four-dimensional

in

manner

were

circumference

the

than

ir

Reds.)

measurements
in

which

measurements

(which
the

On
turn

space

just as

is embedded

surface
space

by

space

it is curved,

in which

earth's

were
we

cannot

sional
two-dimen-

and

curved

in three-

which

to

is both

us

imaginable.

visible and
us

observed
of their

surface

be smaller

three-dimensional

whole

and

embedded

results

the

if the

ir, as

the

would

its diameter

and

and

work

disc's

the

bowl, the ratio between

curved

Let

possible

themselves

measurements.

they

geometry.

non-Euclidean

the

That

readily determine,

beings
(above

reaUsed.

they

space

considered

partake

as

bowl.

shallow

been

that

the

Euclidean

of curved,

mean

disc is to be thought
Uke

of

long ago

not

through

geometry

from

case

has

mathematicians

by

at

measurements

diverges

for them,

Hence,

arrive

system

RELATIVITY

OF

proceed

phenomena,

by

to

consider

which

the

processes

following :
on

the

top

All those
disc

are

distinguishedfrom those on the lower disc (the appearance

of
of centrifugaland Coriolis-forces,the existence
caused
are
by the fact that the top
space-curvature),
of fixed stars,
disc rotates
relativelyto the firmament
In the foregoing chapter
whilst the lower disc does not.
of the Mach-Einstein
conclearly,in the sense
we
saw

GENERAL

130

THEORY

(the fixed

gravitatingmatter

of

had

is almost

from

the

on

in

question.

imagine

the

universe

i.e. as

surface.

follows

as

but

would

be

the

of which

would

even

near

of space

eye, if

the naked

with
"

this

"

world-surface

The

them.

was

specialtheory

of

the

falls,so
size

in

space

according

of reference

from

to

taken

the

which

geometricalformulation
1

With

foieseen

one

exception

coimectioii

as

up

time

fixed

the

But

as

exactly
there

star

mid-point
the

ture
curva-

be

it is

discovered
of

model

the

by

referred
a

gravitational

perhaps

with

according

the

to

itself plays only the

shadow

of

body

the surface

The

of the

Hiemann

is

which

on

object is

any

of motion
seen.

the

to

different

system

following more

equivalent in meaning

of this kind.

small,

in connection

that

state

is

between

in

by

according to

different in magnitude
it

forth

showed

Just

shall

we

be somewhat

single

chapter

relativity,
space

shadow.

the

us.

question of

no

by

true-to-nature

this

Minkowski

Now

part of

had

of

curvature

be almost

slight to

too

space, called

of

field ; there

be
we

vicinity of

largest stars is very

before

considerations

curvature

would

be situated.

would

convexities

these

then

convexity,

the

two-dimensional,

regions lying

shallow

thus
space

exerted

as

picture would

star

the

clearer,

vicinity of every

sUght

it

moment

Ues

it is curved, the

of the universe

the

in

in

make

wide

the

stars, the surface

plane,

for

Our

In

To

According

matter

gravitational force

masses

hardly

was

Einstein.^

space

however,

gravitating masses,

planets)

gravitationalmasses,

Euclidean

exactly

depending

all

their

curvature

before

anybody

great distance

this

with

and

stars

general theory of relativitythe

to the

At

do

to

anything
dreamt
of by

RELATIVITY

OF

seems

to this
to

have

SPACEstatement

WORLD-CURVATURE

AND

Just

as

part of three-dimensional
of

the

who

refer

"

once

idea of the

three-dimensional
work

and

their

out

carry

in

embedded

and

imagine), just

surface

is curved
in

Li

assumption
"

"

space

the

as

which

to

this

statement

of

"

with

sentence

certain

"

be

the

space

in the

curved

four-dimensional

manifold,

to

the

"

non-curved

four-dimensional

of Einstein's

"

earth's

and

physics

is correct

metry
geo-

pre-relativistic
surface

embedded

was

in

"

must

world.

calculations, not

i.e. the

be

According

only

space,

called by Minkowski
space-time-entity,

to

but
the

non-

?
; the

word
as

say
is

world

omitted,

i.e.

to

in

one

non-

manifold,

embedded

in all but

of

similar

vicinityof gravitatingmasses
manifold

attribute

ideas

permissible now

three-dimensional

last sentence

the

ideas

In

mentioned
afore-

following

play

three-dimensional
not

the

Do

earth's

the

curved

This

the

manifold,

curved

analogy, is it

By

space.

explained

able."
imagin-

the

sense,

classical

that

(Euclidean)

curved

in

space

assumed

was

two-dimensional

that

"

"

this

Let

it

times

and

we

earth's

visible and

to
part in the theory of relativity,

surface

(which

three-dimensional

Minkowski,

world," in

curved

two-dimensional

plausibleenough

appears

whole

were

space

in

(the Reds)

they

is both

us

said

we

if the

as

measurements

comparing

and

which

embedded

and

way

out

four-dimensional

cannot

space,

in

Chapter IX.)

of space

curvature
turn

space

readers
statement

of this short
of

an

part

those

(For

discussion

results of measurements

The

itself is not

three-dimensional

sense

the

to

more

explairing the

In

the

quite grasp

not

two-dimensional

space

world.

four-dimensional

do

we

only

only
so

space,

but

independent whole,

is

surface

131

applied

the results
the

entire

"worldj'

132

GENERAL

must

be

is, of

course,

THEORY

regarded

difficult

more

RELATIVITY
What

curved.

as

still

OF

this
define

to

signifies
than

significanceof space-curvature itself,because

to

see
"

and

curvature."

(as shown
without

Chapter IX)
ambiguity : the
the

states

there

ideas

the

three

spatial

explained,

the

"

to

in nature

co-ordinates
co-ordinate

one

which

at

tirrie

required

are

events

and

"

ourselves

co-ordinates
to determine

fails

one

of

will confine

place of the event,

the
point of time

As

happened.

we

Four

in

relatingto
which

between

Hence

suggestion.

brief

connection

any

the

the

spatial

event

distance

be calculated
by means
point-events can
well-known
Pythagorean law (47th proposition
the differences of the
first book
of Euclid), from

between

two

of the
of the

(differenceof height, length,

spatial co-ordinates
was
breadth). Formerly this spatial distance

three
and

absolute

magnitude, independent of
the system of reference.
According to the theory of
culate
relativitythis is not the case, but it is possible to cala
magnitude with the help of a generalised

supposed

be

to

an

Pythagorean law,
This
"

(givenin

geometry." ^
geometry
the

'

Just

as

footnote

at the

Now

if the laws

is

of

designated

ordinates.
co-

the

end
is

of

Chapter

contained

contained

IX

in

for the
"world-

in this

"

world-

"

analogous to those of plane-geometry,

simplest description of physical phenomena,
are

talk

we

of

plane-geometry,

in

two

dimensions,

problems
(stereometry) for three-dimensional
course,

differences

of

special theory)

the

of

for

all four

point-events, and it has a real

generalised Pythagorean
significance. This

absolute

case

using

magnitude

new
"

world-distance

law

and

talk of

"

world-geometry

"

which
and

deals
of

problems,
in the

case

with

sponding
corre-

space-geometry
so

we

can,

of four dimensions.

of

SPACE-

and

if

AND

they
of

Euclidean.

the

world

is

space.^

of

still

Eudidean.

this

is

the

IT,

Such

in

the

law

the

valid

for

above-mentioned

is

independently

that
of

as

circle
of

of

the

to

we

the

of

its

magnitude

that

say
to

the

metry
world-geo-

general

theory,

world

the

before

diameter

is
of

world

Minkowski-world

the

example

an

the

ing
surround-

world-curvature

sense

used

of

the

to

hence

metry
stereo-

According

the

parts

the

that

case,

laws

according

of

say

the

not

hence

masses,

drcumference

quite

then

(curved).

relativity

But

gravitational
there,

is

Eudidean,

longer

no

this

those

to

we

non-Euclidean

theory

188

analogous

When

are

is

also

are

Euclidean

is

special

WORLD-CURVATURE

the

exists
word.

always
circle.

The

ratio

equal

of
to

CHAPTER

NEW

THE

THEORY

THOSE
book,

readers

knew

be at the

perhaps
find

be

the

Before

disappointed

back

If

we

To

to

given

reduce

it to

where

off

to

your

leaving

the

That

is

why

this

of this

rest

tumble

gravitation, may
:

in

according

do

this ;

why

we

do

Einstein

to

first,we

should

and

so

trace

If

given.
on

my

which
have

to

But

by

on.

finallyarrive

at
a

point

child

ask

when

nose

"

"

we

body

?
the

to

means

phenomenon,

I fall
?

do

general phenomenon.

be

can

Where

consider

must

we

other

we

your

steps of the

you

ask

of the

Why

to

will

more

tramcar

inertia

perusal

phenomenon

and

answer
:

brought

manner,

moving

of

phenomenon,

"

instance

for

jump

further

no

theory

question

cause

in this

continuing

us,

this

third

other

explain

the

as

the

gravitation

each

simpler

to

were

before

and

for

explain

GRAVITATION

general theory of relativity to

time

same

answering

it

was

the

attract

following

OF

who,

explanation

all bodies

XVII

may

retains

answer

car,

whereas

your

feet

by

friction

with

the

down."

If the

child

ing
Ow-

its motion

after
denly
sud-

are

ground.
goes

on

"

does the body retain its motion

?
Why
questioning :
but ovly say that this is
can
give no further reason,
we
a

fundamental
There

are

"

law
certain

of nature.
ultimate

facts

which

admit

of

no

NEW
further

THEORY

explanation

these

is

This

fact

This

reduced.

cannot

we

other

any

expect

Amongst

each

attract

needs

to

us

of

the

other.

tion
explana-

no

phenomenon

leads

theory

185

exist.

simply

they

simpler than

be

might

that

GRAVITATION

gravitation : AU bodies
be explained, and
cannot

; it is

it

OF

which

to

conclusion

gravitation to give

We
explanationof the phenomenon.
expect the
tion.
theory, however, to describe the phenomenon of gravitabe quantitative, i.e. it
This
description must
must
provide us with the possibihty of calculating
of a body, for instance
of a planet,
exactly the motion
of other masses.
The
under
the gravitational action
Newtonian
theory of gravitationhas done this in a very
and there would
be no
simple and unequivocal manner,
this theory, did it not show
those
to depart from
reason
defects referred to at the beginning
theoretical
pecxiliar
an

us

defects

the

To

part of this book.

second

of the

we

of

must

add

to

Newton,

According

philosophical nature

further

defect of

acting
of the

on

depend

on

that

and

wiU

the

be

in accordance

moment

masses.

on

the

of the

attraction

greatest part of the entire

other

planets.

distances

mutual

will be

force
gravitationeil

consist

to

far the

the

of

of the

These

forces

celestial bodies,

of time,
constantly changing in the course
with the positions of the planets. Now
that

maintained

Newton

from

is known

(forming by

sun

force)
and

planet

The

infinite

an

of this

meaning

follows.'

what

in

clear

tioned,
men-

physical nature.

gravitation possesses

velocity of propagation. The

made

there

planet
"

instantaneous

If, however,

say

the

force

Jupiter
"

constellation

gravitation

velocity of propagation; the

acting
^isto

be

of the

at

given

calculated

attracting

a
possesses
calculation
of the

finite
forces

GENERAL

186

acting

at

THEORY

certain

moment

performed differently:
between

the

planets

formula, but

earlier instant, i.e. as

to travel

On
cast

from

the

those

occasion
of that

precise

distances

admitted
kind

at

that

Newton

could

not

Seen

from

theory of relativity,this
impossible. For, as expounded in
of

assumptions

to

an

formerly

was

Even

of the

fundamental

our

as

propagated

distance.

in

moment

forces

he

distances

gravitation needs
Jupiter.

planets to

velocity.

be

to

corresponding

earlier

much

conception of

infinite

with

insert the

not

that

will have

part of physicists,great doubt

the

on

must

we

other

rather

Jupiter

on

at

RELATIVITY

OF

to

distance

himself
believe

on

one

in action

point of view
conception is utterly
Chapter V, one of the

the

the

special theory

of

effects can
be
: No
relativityconsists in the statement
propagated with greater velocity than the velocity of
science, with its progressive
light. For these reasons,
at last obliged to advance
development, was
beyond
the Newtonian
an

immortal

which
of

theory
work

enabled

mankind

to

for the

instrument

as

physicistand
theory

be looked

of

to

the

as

It

the

was

obtain

first

exact

an

of

astronomer.

in the

almost

the

approximation
Since

Newtonian

type of

theory

treatment

sciences, and

theory

the model

remain

ever

practicalpurposes

gravitation and

upon

will

theory

natural

for aU

it will remain

exclusive

this

for all time.

problems belonging

future

can

; but

the

tonian
New-

mechanics
mathematical

descriptionof natural phenomena, we will first of all

of a description of this
it to exemplify the nature
use
kind, and then show how the corresponding description
is given by the Einstein
theory.
Newtonian
The
theory supplies the mathematical
of which
calculate
the
we
can
apparatus by means

GENERAL

138

THEORY

disturbances

the

observed.

analysis he
at

of fact,the

position and
We

now

Berlin

the

by
at the

time

and

for the

is necessary

thetical
hypo-

Neptune)

Galle

in the

the

tion
descrip-

in which

is

given

in the

Einstein

introduce

purpose

comprehension

notion

of what

follows.

positionof a point in space is given mathematically,

in Chapter IX, by three numbers
shown
^itsthree coordinates.
"

unequivocally,if
of

moment

this

means

must

be

its

time.

of motion

must

any

of

instead

body's

device

motion

case,

drawing,

to

time-co-ordinate.

how

to

value

on

enable
survey

also

certain

matical
mathe-

calculate

the

ordinate.
time-co-

be

so-called

graphical timerailway officials,

by a glance at a

the

instantaneous

positionof

simple example,

solution

of the

railway line at every moment

illustrate the graphical description of

trains

the

given in a graphical
by calculation, i.e. the descriptionof a
be given by a diagram.
This is
may
may

for instance, in the

charts, which

terms,

space-co-ordinates

theref pre be

space-co-ordinatesfor

possible

mathematical

representing
us

is described

for every

of the

shows

This
way

value

formula

device, which
three

in

of the three

given for every

problem

point

stated

Expressed

the value

that

of

motion

positionis

mathematical

The

us

called

astronomer

the way

for this

must

Further, the

the

this

indicated.

to show

propose

theory,
which

afterwards

gravitationalphenomena

of

of

of this mathematical

predict that

to

planet (which was

discovered

was

as

result

be visible at a certain time, and

planet would
certain position in the heavens, and, as a matter

The

As

able

was

RELATIVITY

OF

which

shows

the

motion

all the

of time.

Let

motion
of

point (particle)along a vertical straight

draw
straightline OX (Fig.6) and
a horizontal

by
mass-

line.
a

We

vertical

NEW

THEORY

straightline

OY.

OF

The

GRAVITATION

straightline

equal parts representingseconds

line OY

into

vertical

straightlines through

and

on

point

by

the

the motion
the

of

straightline

second,

body

OX

from

traversed

seconds, and

so

for

accurately made,
every

further, if
we

obtain

particlein

tenth

If

on.

or

line

we

A mark
division-

traversed

after

second

on

the

the

motion

straight

line

second, at that

tance
dis-

the

first

body during

suppose

hundredth

all the

which

vertical

OX

OX

the

drawing more
instance, by marking the position

every

imagine

we

by

draw

6,

point

division

then

points of

from

is made

mark

into

the straight

We

division

first

the

during

the

distance

that

at

began. Another
going through the

for

of time, and

particleas follows
going through the

Fig.

is divided

equal parts representingcms.

describe

is made

OX

139

marks

of

second,

connected

represents the
direction.

If the

motion

and

together,
of the

particlemove

GENERAL

140

with

first second

will be

next

second, and

be

straight line.

with

uniform

Fig. 6

equal

velocity,then

the line A

line B

and

accelerated

us

the

hand,

represents

and

particle.
make

up

The

the

individual

special problem,
considered
in

comet

or

question are

world-lines

The

the motion

of the

in

Let

us

by

in

surface

that
time
'The

of the

of

second.

paper

Then

not

plane if
place in one

with

on

mark

mark

case

model

is needed.

of the

motion

thus
sheet

hdght

contains
2

the
cm.

circle described

of paper

of

is made

is put

The

of

vdodty.

constant

cm.

exactly

lying
above
above

particleat
high

above

the
graphical
world-point is nothing else than
of a
point-event." (Cf. Chapter IX.)
"

of

sufi"ce to represent

example

At

which
a

planet

particle (e.g.motion

does

drde

the cirde

point of

be

straight line). In the

table.

the

that

can

of the

represented in

particleis drawn

the

of

mechanics,

be constructed

can

horizontallyon
the

be

take, for instance, the

Its world-Unes

"

the

three-dimensional

lines

drawing that
world-points.^ Any

called

motion

particle moving

a plane drawing
circle),

world-line, and

the

in

the

material

world-lines

tarded
re-

on

These

rest.

particlein question takes

two-dimensional

the

known.

in
only (fi,g.

dimension

"

the

celestial

only

can

velocity
upwards.

particleor

In

and

solved, if the world-lines

be

to

in

say

of

are

uniform

straight line E,

marks

world-lines

proceed

curved.

motion

particleat

in the

not

downwards

The

designated

are

with

similar

represent the story of motion

point,

does

line will be

motion

upwards.

motion
other

the

represents motion

downwards,
shows

motion

the

will then

corresponding line

if the

But

during

traversed

path

the

to

The

on.

so

traversed

path

the

vdodty,

unifonn

RELATIVITY

OF

THEORY

the
the

sentation
repre-

NEW

THEORY

position in
2

which

the

seconds, etc.

then

The

becomes

dimensional
line

the

the

at

these

resembles

particle runs

four-dimensional

along

to describe

the

In this

model.

by

motion

marks

spiral
three-

and

curve,

time

(a screw-line, for instance),the

curve

longer be represented by
suf"ce

141

particleis situated
connecting line of all

when

becomes

GRAVITATION

screw-line, which

Now

spring.

OF

worldcan

no

it must

case

of mathematical

means

formulae

only, but even

so, the corresponding values
time-co-ordinate
three
space-co-ordinates and one

the

"

world-points," and
designated cis
world-points belonging to the motion

are

the

"

theory suppUes
calculate

to

of

simple
body

states

that

at rest

or

The

are

acted

upon

into

concerning

by

any

world-lines

of

straight

are

lines.

hence

That

of

forces.

body

agrees

assertion, according to

"

of

or

body

straightlines

run

thus

by any
gravitational masses
can

can

then

the

of rest

state

acted

acted

which

law

world-geometry,"

not

never

very

are

beiag

there

the

motion

This

therefore

When

it is always

force ;
world-lines.

the

world-lines

body

moAong

present, however,

forces, because

The

of inertia would

law

just what

law

terminology

fluence
in-

fundamentally a
generalisationof the

rectilinear motion

the

the

is

suitable

liable

that

under

is

in
left to itself persists

body

Newtonian

forces

in what

Newtonian

not
a

and

by

manner,

in uniform

translated
the

This

rectilinear motion.

of uniform

bodies

of

gravitationalmasses.

above-mentioned
of

particle,

one

rules

unambiguous

world-line

the

theory does,

Einstein
very

of

descriptionof gravitational

exact

an

if it contains

processes
us

total of

sum

world-line."

as

the

of

well
world

on

free

move

by gravitational

upon
be
with
in

of

straight

no

Einstein's
the

neigh-

GENERAL

142

bourhood

for

instance,

surface, for

in

ciurved

draw

to

line

line

straight

sphere only in one

point, whereas
of the straight Hne
would
he

There

It is

manifold.

straight

exact

an

RELATIVITY

is curved.

gravitationalmasses

of

straightlines

no

OF

THEORY

impossible,
spherical

on

would

all the

touch
other

outside

are

the

the

points

spherical

surface.
But

surface

every

which,

though

"

other

that

be

to

appear

surface.

always

straight

consider

the

point

one

The

directlyin
between
Euclidean

manifold.

given on
connected
by

points are

be

on

points, one
is the

line

hne

other.

all these,

shortest

connecting

surface.

the

other

which

But

lies

here

drawn

on

always

be

the

above

as

line

generally,of

more

always

completely
in

general,

again, of

surface

the

hand, two

surface, they cannot

designated

that

distinguishedby being
straightline can be defined

if, on

be

is

plane, or,

will

on

of

But

straightlines can^iot,

can

with

given

are

be drawn

can

straight line

curved

lines that

numerous

that

the

curved

surface, because

drawn

two

guishes
distin-

on

Now
a

what

points

of

Now

lines would

If two

to

points of

two

these

shall

It is the

last

in the

answer

of lines

idea

this way

them

have

straightcoimecting line

the shortest.

in the

all

they in common
this question, we

infinite number

from

one

be

To

with

fictitious two-dimensional

to

what

the

earth's equator would

direction.

follows

what

plane, an
plane

lines ?

mentioned

the

for

same

lines, and

these
real

and

because

the

in

run

We

straightlines

earth-inhabitants,

show

straightline, as compared

the meridians

chapter that

less
neverthe-

can

"

from

on

types of unique lines,

straightest lines, since they

least deviation

lines

certain

exactly straight Unes,

not

be termed

has

the

between

shortest, and
"

straightest."

NEW
In

THEORY

the

On

circles

equal

are

the

148

diameter

sphere,

the

equator in the

geodesic

lines

lines

geodesic

the

diameters

of

geodesic

called

are

{i.e.circles, the

the

and

plane

on

the

to

meridians

kind

spherical surface,

great

GRAVITATION

lines of that

mathematics,

lines.

OF

of

are,

of which
such

of

case

are

the

as

the

earth);
straight

course,

lines.

By

of this

means

of geodesic lines, Einstein

notion

remarkably simple law for the motion of

of gravitational force.
It
the influence
a
body under
thus : The world-line of a body situated in a gravitational
runs
fieldis a geodesic line. It is obvious that this
law
of inertia as a special
the Newtonian
law includes
established

in

For

case.

places where

accordingly

where

is

world

no

Euclidean

forces

no

acting and

are

gravitational field exists,

(not curved). In that case

the
the

geodesic lines are straight lines, hence the world-lines

become
straightlines, and that is, as before mentioned,
Newtonian

the

of

law

Wherever

world-geometry.
present, however,

the

curved

lines will be

the

in

inertia

is curved, and

world

like the

Unes

field

gravitational

of

terminology
the
C

curves

is

geodesic
and

in

Fig. 6.
It is, of course,

for

necessary

gravitational phenomena
besides
the fundamentally
of

This

mentioned.
world

for

the

kind

only
words.
"

be

geodesic

by
lines

These

"

establish

simple

tell

the

of

were

in

us

presence

naturally
second

mathematical

in

formulae

Field-equations

very

This

of curvature.

expressed

to

must

curved

becomes

masses,

law

complete description

law

of motion

what
of

way

according

law, however,
formulae

With

the

gravitational

vary

designated by

Gravitation.

law

another

and

not

Einstein
the

to

can

in
the

advent

GENERAL

144

of these
of

OF

THEORY

the
field-equations

gravitation became

RELATIVITY
of the

structure
It

complete.

be

can

theory

new

ised
character-

only in connection
(inteUigible
the
with
foregoing discussion) thus : Owing to the
of gravitational masses
the
world
suffers
presence
of which
bution
curvature, the nature
depends on the distriof the gravitationalmasses
and can
be calculated
of the field-equations. Bodies
in this
move
by means
in

two

sentences

world

curved

geodesic

in such
In

lines.
the

play

part
; the

corresponds

that

way

Einstein's

same

theory

Newton's

the

to

of

law

law

world-lines
the

theory

the

as

their

law

the

of

are

tions
field-equa-

gravitation in

ever,
geodesic line, how-

of motion

of Newtonian

mechanics.^
In the

developments of the last chapters we discussed

gravitationalmost exclusively,and hardly spoke at all
of the

problem

which

led to the idea

of

of

The

rotatory motion.

:
justifiable

defects

the

Is the

Chapter XII,

with

connection

Chapter

and

law

of the

of material
of astronomy,

points in

does
Mach's

theory

it fulfil the

presented in

as

demands

considerations

from

at

set

the

in

up
end

of

be

must

answered

notions

we

celestial

the

in

the

acceleration)do

not

geodesic line is strictly vaUd

only for the
points ; that sufQces, however, for the purposes
for the

mechanics.

of mechanics

in

entirely
objected to

which

stars

are

It would
hold

always dealt
take

us

too

with

as

mass-

far to discuss

exactly for spatiallyextended

according to the general theory of relativity.

laws

bodies

to that

origin in the relativity

followingquestion is therefore

theory {e.g.absolute

Newtonian

motion

and

their

Newtonian

Those

affirmative.

"The

of space

XV?

question

This

the considerations

theory, here outlinied,free

new

the

of

of curvature

took

world-curvature

of

the

relativity,
although

THEORY

GENERAL

146
"

"

motion

or

tinguished

"isc

of

law

is

for

physics), as,

refer to

the

"

rest

and

the

to

"

"

lower

motion,"

or

above-mentioned

disc, the

top

longer valid,

no

instance,

If the

example.

our

however,

"

of

systems
in

sjretems"

relativelyto certain "Msreference

inertial
(called
of

spoken

are

RELATIVITY

OF

replaced by

be

must

another.
This

is

motion

not

in

so

of the

Einstein's

geodesic line

systems of reference, and

which

equations,by
calculated
retain

for

their

the

is

in

the

form

same

of the

curvature

for

of

world

fieldbe

may

gravitating masses,

of

ss^tems

for all

the

way

of

law

universally valid

given distribution

The

theory.

reference

moving

Furthermore,
arbitrarilywith respect to each other.
the laws of electricity,
modated
optics,heat, etc., can be accomthe

to

thus

be

into

brought
of

systems

notions

new

form

reference.

of world-curvature,

In

is

that

this

valid

the

way

and

for

any

theory

new

can
general principle of relativitywhich
be brought
can
of nature
expressed thus : Laws

fulfils

form

which

the bodies

of

be

does

alter,

not

referred to

are

when

even

the

motions

of reference

systems

any

into

whatsoever.

Furthermore,
end

of

produces
that

of

the

be

appear
on."
so

so

following demand

truly

relativistic

constructed

revolving

the

at

the

that, according

firmament

of

of

theory
fixed

to

stars

gravitational field which is equivalent to

centrifugal and Coriolis-forces.
Also, a

truly general
must

be

gravitation must
its formulae,

"

XV

Chapter

the

set up

we

relativistic

constructed

only
These

for

mechanical

in such

relative

demands

way

law
that

of

motion

inertial forces

accelerations, rotations, and

are

also

fulfilled,
as

has

been

NEW

THEORY

proved

by

the
which

is

to

accept

in

Chapter
*

See

satisfactory
of

the

these
views

of

claims

on

than

physics

finiteness

old

it

of

the

XIX.

Supplementary

Note

on

pp.

of

166-167.

is

new

necessary,
universe

lishing
estab-

basis,
from

system

Einstein

the

completely,
the

on

therefore

can

by

147

problem

the

view,
solved

successfully

satisfy

The

system

point

been

To

calculation.

complete

philosophical
have

direct

more

GRAVITATION

OF

be

said

theory.^

however,
formulated

to

XVIII

CHAPTER

DEDUCTIONS

FROM

GENERAL

THE

THEORY

THE

theory

new

is

place

of

On

other

the

reference

differ from

could

sUght

very

of any

latter

theory

new

contradict

theory, they would

from

discarded

be

with

agree

the

beginning.

concerning

fields
with
1

those

general theory

Hence

with

those

of Newton's

lead

that

agree

the

formulae

theory,
148

are

at

the

to

a
on

with

results

from

the

old

and

have

to

Einstein, in
mind

of bodies

theory.*

out

to

in

motion

Newtonian

it turned

which

the

necessarily

must

of the

Subsequently

experience

experience

establishing his ffeld-equations,bore

resultinglaws

theory

new

performed

much

to

nature.

theory only

diverge

to

were

have

beginning

the

all calculations

the

world-

we

results,any

Newtonian

theory

take

and

precision. If, therefore,

absolute

almost

old
For

extent.

of the

basis

to numerical

the

from

old

Entirely

traits.

descriptionof

clear

was

tioned,
men-

the

^in short,

"

different

it

hand,

from

motion,

of forces

place

fundamentally

that, with

the

the

already

world-lines

accelerated

or

takes

deal with

introduced

are

uniform

curvature

different

in its essential

theory

notions

gravitation,as

completely

Newtonian
different

of

that
in

the

tational
gravi-

approximately
As

regards

the

field-equations of

the

agreeing
the

same

approximately
time

just the

GENERAL

degree

149

of

approximation, the matter is similar

specialtheory of relativity. Here, too,

the

from

the laws

of classical niechanics

exceedingly small

are

swiftlymoving
motion

the

of

the

such

theory by

detect

finest of instruments.

very

fields
and

the

are

theories

new

So far

we

turn

out

than

they

would

that

add

must

XIV

will describe

If, according

to

of

path

invented

ad

hoc.
with

mathematical
as

the

well

Newtonian

in

form,
or

in

the

better

theory.

remark.

with

to the

reference

small

with

cally
verti-

hole,
chest.

assume

corresponding gravitational

contrary,

are

In

by stating
a

alone

call

favour

of

Einstein's

composed

of

reasons,
tells in

theory is

last

the

gravitational field.

entering it by

mathematical

this

we

sun's

One

concerns

horizontallyoutside

circumstance

the

theories.

equivalence-h5^thesis, we

formal

On

older

considerations

our

path

Ught

that

shows

dealt

agree

curved

This

consideration.

theory ; it

measurement.

supplementary

chest, and

ray of

for

which,

ones

the

the results of the old

the

to

the

lightmoving

accelerated

the

with

in strong gravitational

discussed, and

began

we

of

ray

been

light-raysin

we

Chapter

new

it is absolutely

even

of
possibility

according

already

of

this

is

phenomena that are bound to

differentlyaccording to the Einstein theory

deflection
To

Newtonian

that

difference

the

to

the

amounts,

between
the

therefore,

of three

know

has

of them

within

very

trajectory of

from

Only

differences

tions
devia-

electricity

When,

according

the

of

gravitationalforce

obtained

infinitesimal

impossible to

of

obtained

those

the

and

the

or

influence

results

differ from

theory

dealt with.

are

to that

apparent only when

are

fallingstone,

calculated, the

they

bodies

projectileunder

the

THEORY

not

starting from

the

hjrpothesis
tions
considera-

chapters, and putting them

led necessarily to formulae
experience

than

those

for

drawn

into
which

from

field to

be

curved

can

the

same

any

material
in

Now

in the

under

path

OF

same

easily seen)

be

(as

or,

THEORY

GENERAL

150

ray

of

influence

of

body travelling with

short, the light-rayfallsin

for bodies

in very

resulting from
from

the

that

rays

Newtonian

law

light suffer

of

in the

twice

field according to
would

according

of course,

the

in this

that

material

to

bodies.

the

gravitationalfield.

the

in

tational
gravi-

they

theory, assuming,
of

too, rays
the

find

we

theory that

Newtonian

Hence

case

deflection

Einstein's

case,

considerably

present

the

of motion

law

differs

theory
;

light describes

gravitation as
velocity of light,

rapid motion,

Einstein's

this indicates

then

way,

that

the

RELATIVITY

light fall
stands

matter

like

thus

to Maxwell's

is to

be

theory of hght, no influence of

gravitationalfield on the propagation of light
have
to be
expected. The deflection would

equal

to

zero

Conformably
the

sun's

according to that theory.

Maxwell's
theory) we assume

(contrary to

gravitationalfield,the
theory of gravitation is

hght fall in
Newton's

whereas

deflection

of

17"

theory of gravitation. The

expeditionsproved the
Another
phenomenon
of

the

Umb

sun's

latter

value

Einstein

theory

is

of
to

the

o-85,"

Einstein's

of both

to be the

the

to

from

of

arisingfrom

amounting

results

if

rays

deflection

observations

suited

that

result

Ught-rays passing the

However,

British

right one.

amination
experimental explanetary motion.

planets to be represented with

good approximation by Kepler's first law, which states
the sun
that
is a
planets describe eUipses, of which
We

know

focus.

by
by
was

the

This

Kepler,

orbits

of

law, which

was

first

subsequently

empiricallyestablished
deduced

theoretically
from
his
Newton
theory of gravitation. This
the first great triumph of his theory,and an historical
was

GENERAL
fact in t)xe development
the

mentioned,

of

infinitesimal

this law

of

and

into
But

when

all

planets

of the

of the

sun,

solar

account,

system,

certain

result, which
One

Newton's

but

and

that

Fig.

7.

of

means

Now

agree

with

ence,
experi-

it

follows

only

of the

merely by
of all the

from

planets.

the

other

tion
attrac-

planets

taken

are

the

with

is taken

sun

of the

disturbances
is the

matical
mathe-

down.

all these

when

termed

by

abready

laid

motion

not

by

disturbances

of these

exact

attraction

sUght deviations
are

of the

theory

upon

also

have

exactly

not

acted

we

then

calculatingthe

are

As

sciences

was

solelythe

in

account

basis

natural

does

Kepler

151

physics.

calculus

also from

exactitude

of

fmidamental

treatment

the

THEORY

into

orbit
elliptic
of

so-called

the

motion

orbit.

of

the

periheUon of planets. The ellipsedescribed by a planet

its positionrelatively
to the system of
does not maintain
rotates
fixed stars, but
slowly in its own
plane. In
orbit of a planet,one
focus of
Fig. 7 is shown the elliptic
contains

which
the

the

eccentricity of

planet

does

not

sun

the

describe

only approximately,so

S.

(For the

sake

of

clearness

ellipseis exaggerated.)

The

this orbit with

exactitude, but

that

orbit

second

does

not

GENERAL

152

coincide

from

with

reference

to

it, and

so

forth.

second, and

the

thousands

some

placed
first,being slightlydis-

completely
with

of

RELATIVITY

OF

THEORY
the

third

After

revolutions, the

orbit

deviates

time, i.e. after

ellipticorbit

is

through a certain angle from its initial position,

The vertex
illustrated by the dotted curve
in Fig. 7.
as
which lies nearest the sun
of the ellipse
(calledthe periheUon) has then changed its position from P to P'.
of the ellipse
in its plane is therefore
The motion
nated
desigof the perihelion.
the motion
as
tmned

Perihelion

of this kind

motions

occur

more

or

less in

planetary orbits, and can be explained according to

the Newtonian
theory by the disturbing forces due to
other planets. A discrepancy exists only for the planet
of the perihelion deviating
motion
Mercury, the observed
from that calculated (from the disturbingforces)
tary
by an amount
equal to 43' per century.^ Now if planeEinstein's
from
be calculated
motion
theory, we
orbit with perihelionmotion, even
if
obtain
an
elliptic
all

gravitationalaction
For
account.
Mercury

the

to the

observed

of

value

(compared
remaining planets)to

too

the

nearest

the

43" ;

only

sun

this

with

small

one

of the

effect

be

amounts

for the other

taken

exactly
planetsit is

disturbances

the

into

from

the

be observable.

sun

; the

Mercury's orbit is
gravitationalforce acting

it is very strong, and hence the Einstein effect of

perihelionmotion is noticeable only in the case of this
upon

particularplanet.
The
new
theory, therefore, gives us the right result
the old theory failed.
ever
Wherthat very point where
on
found correct
the old theory,on the other hand, was
within

the

Einstein's

limits

of

theory leads
'

See

of

accuracy
to the

Supplementary

same

Note

measurements,

our

results.
on

p.

167.

THEORY

GENERAL

154

with

another

stationed

effect of the
different

at

this is not

field, but

the

with

by

disc to

in which

from

of the
and

overcome,

In

the

regions where

the

clocks

the

we

bound

Thus

assisted

is
relativity)
perceptible. Even

be

of

mountain

e.g. from
the

the

sun's

far smaller

than

ling
travel-

of the

would

have
of

that
be

atoms

the

spectrum
a

We

of luminous

colour, which

could

one

of

surface

earth's

usual

going

in the

upMU,
other

the

second

Now

this rule

as

is

influences).

effects

times

the

too

succeed

of

the

small

in

to

plishing
accom-

dimensions^

its attractive

force

orbit, the effect would

of

our

is
spite of this, its observation
pointed out in Chapter XI that

appear

hill.
up-

watch

daily fluctuations

gases emit

be

travelling into

superhuman

against

disc,
to

In

chronometers.

impossible.

the

if

of

million

many

tour

of the

distance

go

(likemost

effect, however

theory

we

were

we

centre

(neglectingall

be accelerated

to

This

if

centre

were

slowly, and

more

go

be

though

as

should

we

the

wiU

can

tional
gravita-

they go more
quickly.
Einstein
theory teach us that

equations of the
holds
generally.

of

towards

case

from

hand,

other

of

we

into regions where

case

to

travel

centrifugalforces
be
feelingwould

first

example

our

it is

that

us

gravitationalfield.

movement

the

If, on

periphery

the

action

the

the

downhill.

of

we

different

at

teaches

this influence

As

place.

clocks

particulargravitational

every

help

edge, our
centrifugal forces

the

going

the

manner

field takes
of the

in this

case

field go

further

quite generally,in

Furthermore,
discern

of the

treatment

the

only

RELATIVITY

gravitational field

points

Mathematical

rates.

OF

be
best
not

the

rays of

fightof quite definite

single lines (spectrallines)in

of the luminous

particularspectralcolour

gas.
is

Now

nothing

else

of

fight
(according

ray

GENERAL
the

to

considerations
of

wave
we

consider

can

lines to be

Chapter II) than an

perfectlydefinite frequency.

time-intervals.

of clock,

another

as

the

atom.

the

positive
regular

at

of

this

the
the

the

visible

red

than

red

of its

end

of the
lines of
the

are

rays

whilst

spectrum,

On

kind

colour

corresponding

is because

quickest).

Hence

oscillations

towards

with

in the

oscillations

clock

substance,

same

(This

alternate

slower

magnetic
electro-

sharp spectral

surroundings

atomic

an

i.e. emits

compared

spectrum
other

producing

will be shifted

spectral lines

slowest

if

of the

atom

emits

fields in its

Now

slowly,

more

goes

which

atom

negative electric

and

155

of

an

kind

THEORY

the- other

the

hand,

violet rays

are

the

know

the

nected
frequency and colour of light are conwave
length, red rays having the longest

that

the

with

length, and

wave
can

the

will

sun

because

would

one

of the

attraction
earth.

the

they

act

the

Hence
correct

as

in

to

"

go

order

to

atoms

clocks

said

we

slowly

have

Hence

we

light of greater

what

with

sun

shortest.

emit

more

go

the

rays

atoms

In agreement

length.
on

retarded

that

say

violet

than

(which

on
"

get from
sun's
be

can

wave

above, clocks

uphill
the

on

we

the

earth,

against
the

the
to

sun

surface, if

presupposed

good reasons), will emit light of longer wave

the
earth.
the
on
corresponding atoms
length than
result of the new
The
theory of gravitation concerning
therefore
be verified by comof clocks can
paring
the motion
for

very

the

length

wave

light.i

of
'

For

of the

emission

the
solar

length

wave

of

of solar

corresponding

The
benefit

effect is
of the

spectrum

lines, but

with

so

absorption

with

lines of terrestrial

small, however,

physicist we
which

spectral lines

we

lines ;

add

must

have
this

to

deal

does

sources

that
that
here

not,

the

it lies
the
are

lines
not

however,

GENERAL

156

the

at

of

limit

very

terrestrial

light

centimetre

for

the
is

Owing

the

to

arrive

to

difficult
finAl

at

observers

some

maintain

regard

this

we

it

results,
is
it

very
as

alter

it

the

of

in

said,
the

great

view

still

it

would

beyond

the

essentially,

matter

is

influenced

the

that

so

must

we

settled.
tions
examina-

hitherto

obtained,
of
of

truth

of

two

the

its

theory
consider

to

premature

seem

effect,

the

verification

for

probabiUty

Whereas

experimental

the

the

possible

present.

theory

of

been

detected

ffiially

yet

difference.

measurements

not

exist,

not

gravitational

new

that

atoms

have

does

results

has

the

to

up

not

as

it

they

confirmed

absorbing
atoms.

point

the
be

must

results

that

survey
of

hence

methods

the

these

effect,

the

maintain

others

If

of

theless,
Never-

measuring

perceive

to

us

biUionths

80

examined.

lines

optical

our

permit

smallness

about

to

spectral
of

to

extremely

are

the

delicacy

sufficient

just

only

corresponding

and

sunlight

amounts

difference

The

measurement.

exact

between

length

wave

of

of

RELATIVITY

OF

THEORY

doubt.

since
in

the

the

same

of

period
way

as

that

oscillation
of

emitting

of

PTER

CHA

THE

HYPOTHESIS

(though

possibility concerning

beings

of

sphere,

the

yet

revealed

have
thus

plane

surface.

surface

of

answer

with

If

arrived

do

is

"

by

they

would

were

quite

be
or

gained
grasp

at

by

asked

XVI),
part

would

not

curvature.

be

they

previously,

our

world-surface
date

spherical

they

shape

round
of

would

ultimate

an

later

knowledge

the

infinite

assume

voyages

be

to

whether

infinite,

small

of

the
a

by
two-

activity

must

to

the

of
or

to

to

us

If

knowledge

unable

their

boundary

every

have

of

It

permit

not

existence

finite
:

measurement

earth

were

extending."

on

at

they

conviction

Beyond
go

scene

world

their

conceptions

must

the

measurements

the

longer

no

(Chapter

only

is

assume

suppose

sphere

their

to

explained

again

the

space

Eire

best

inhabit

to

them

to

believe

They

Umit.

that

us

smooth

them

so

be

can

of

that

we

up

conception

now

Let

on

imagine

us

This

opens

compelled

But

example.

dimensional

the
convinced

were

Euclidean

not

slightly)

necessarily

this.

believe

two-dimensional

let

we

is infinite.

universe
to

as

were

we

our

and

only

new

long

is

space

curved

Euclidean,

bound

that

but

As

OF

FINITENESS

UNIVERSE

recognition

universe.

that

THE

OF
THE

THE

XIX

the

of

the

world,

something
namely,

had

they
the

geo-

GENERAL

158

THEORY

metrical

fact that

bounded.

This

it is nowhere
for

of

designated
number

time

closed

On

etc.

the

surfaces

with

the

and

surface

possibleto
in

travel

without
Such

infinite, are

not

We

it

over

infinite.

not

but

smiaces.

sphere

direction

any

yet it is

and

of

being

imagine quite

can

surfaces

Only

either

Geometry teaches
Einstein) that the
dimensional

into

take

"

this

runs

unclosed

are

the

"

is

and

before
more-

therefore

having

be

limit.

any

is curved,
that

infinity.

long

can

space

possibiUty

universe

into

on

cones,

be closed

for three-

good

curved

of

can

known

was

world-space

our

our

it

or

holds

same

account

i.e.

space,

(and

us

surfaces

be finite,without

can

since

curved

edge,

an

space.

i.e. it

Now

following

planes, cylinder-surfaces,surfaces

plEine has

dosed,

the

hand,

other

paraboloids,etc.^
a

finite without

possessing this property, as,

instance, egg-shaped surfaces, ring-shaped surfaces,

for

of other

be

unbounded

are

as

can

It is

boundary,

surfaces, which

case

bounded.

arriving at

RELATIVITY

surface

is the

length

any

OF

it is

we

must

closed

perhaps finite,although it

is

certainlyunbounded.
According
all

to

Einstein, this assumption, which

views

our

concerning
probable. The

only possible, but

that

idea

the

of

an

infinite

of
as

upon

'

here

too

curves.

its

is

There

own

to them.

whether

gravitation or that
right. Concerning the
analogy

an

in

the

case

distinction

can

be

former

are

finite, but

The

tail is

an

made

instance) ; the

of

universe, is not
for

reason

universe

difficulties,
independently of
theory

the

tionises
revolu-

this

presents certain
the

Newtonian

Einstein

infinite

is looked

universe, the

of one-dimensional
between

closed

unbounded
circle

and

is

and

figures ;
unclosed

(a snake
the

biting
ellipsebelong

FINITENESS

following two

alternatives

entire

infinite universe

that

way

great

as

the

visible to

density of
in those

(2) Those

us.

systems visible
in

is filled with

average

to

us

visible

the

space

represent

unfavourable

the

to

fact, these
in the

to

observed

things, the

do

individuals

of

of

of

kind

Now
of

travel

the

takes

place at

gravitationalforces

the
stars

are

equal

an

in

than

island
not

whole

system

fixed

of

positions

fro like the

wandering
that

so

even

constellations

eye.)

We

of the

stars, that

each

other

must

fixed

by
the

be

not

the

of ficxed stars

sun

severed

stars

to

all

second

case,

filled with

star

every

would

not

of

exist

things

Rather
After

space.

as

an

could

would
aeons

the

longer be visible in the surroundings

no

from

alternative.

to

were

eternity.

dispersegradually into

its

magnitude.
the

matter

are

density of attracting masses

mean

exist

to

starry sky would

path,

(As

in the infinite universe, this state

continue

our

other

stars

everywhere

were

stars

fixed

of

could

surroundings.
objections tell against

the stars

of

on

the

our

Other
If the

greater

or

This

universe

if the

however,

of

rate,

of motion

exerted

feeble.

very

solitaryisland

It is true this

the slowness

conclude, from

Milky Way

and

to

rdativelyslow
after centuries
a
change in the form
naked
is hardly perceptible to the
about

heavens

amongst

really absolute

of flies.

swarm

is about

regions beyond

first alternative.

rather

in such

parts of the

distribution

motions

but

heavens,

distribution

infinite

zero.

retain

not

in the

density

decreases

gradually

fixed stars

stars, nebulae, and

universe, whilst

the

159

possible a priori: (i) The

are

greater than

or

UNIVERSE

OF

would

neighbours by
Even

its

pursue

the

prevent them

own

distances

mutual
from

sohtary
of inconceivable

attractions

of

dispersing,as

GENERAL

160

be

can

have

shown

concerning

universe

our

be

can

gladly

density of

We

we

before

did

there

whole

"

the

In

the

at

surface

exactly plane,

but

be

would
our

whole

be

would

which

as

is studded

the

stars

what

the

with

the

with

parts of
can,

plane.)

the
in
In

fixed

point
such

of

fact, be

way,

single star

must

we

taken

extension^

humps, having
contradiction
distances
small

very

between

might

of

ment
supple-

surface

average

looked

centre

now

no

are

said

be almost

the

at

shallow

as

lie between

of immense

the

universe

We

universe, and

surface

world's

XVL

every

(This is

the

of this

dimensions,

world's

stars

closed

dismissed.

would

We

before, for

girth of

closed

hump

small

centres.

said

was

vicinity of

many

their

as

be

universe

itself."

star

average

can

regions that

shallow

sUght

neighbouring

between

stars

in the

the

on

ments
counter-argu-

Chapter

of the

beginning

into two

of

end

above-

uniform

the

at

picture as follows : The

is a sphericalsurface

and

to

right one
a

if

Einstein,

to

infinite ; it is

matter

extensive

fixed stars, the

there

is the

above-mentioned

the

by translatingthe

ality.
eventu-

expedient

According

against the first alternative

only appreciate the idea of

can

but

is the

expedient

an

explained

sense

Hence

chapter.

other

some

it is not

But

stars.

the

in

to

is filled with

universe

the

whole,

revert

alternatives

first of the two

island-hypothesis
upheld scientifically,

be

hs^thesis.

Einstein

we

such

this

repudiate

to

cannot

Such

found.

mentioned

space

that

be said that the

it cannot

shall

we

the

it is true

after trillions of years

universe

of the

Hence

it

RELATIVITY

Now

calculation.

by

instinctivelydriven

are

but

OF

physical proof against the possibilityof

no

dissolution
we

THEORY

pared
com-

hence

those

neighbouring
upon

as

imagine

almost
a

two-

matical

in

is

possible

spherical

"

Mach-Einstein
beheve

if

the

we

point
the

universe

of

bodies

this

universal
Hence
view
to

be

completely

of

mathe

the

greatest
be

must

Now

preted
inter-

Einstein
is

interpretation
space

if

the

be

accepted,

unbounded,

merely

not

facts

that

of

truth

indicated.

way

assume

world."

in

be
and

inertia

mathematically

showed

to

RELATIVITY

astronomical

the

it

it

relativity,
of

accuracy,

by

to

of

theory
description

possible

only

If

nucleus.

conceptual
consistent

OF

THEORY

GENERAL

162

to

radical

be

closed

relativistic

we

but

shall
finite.

have

CONCLUDING

THE

between

the

of

theory
if

has

the

of

the

mist

of

for

to

were

shall

add

with

which

been

critics

do

with

be

can

of

ideas

the

point
being

from
its

ranking

structure

the

take
far

is

nothing

to

as

theory

bearings

of

of

of

in

this

himself

as

relativity.
it

might

the

endowed

to

the

If

the

StiU,
the

its

to

than

we

criticisms

thanks

relativity,

book

perhaps

mistrust.

concerning

richly

what

difficulties.

for

cause

words

more

their

167,

p.

serve

general

opinion,

own

of

on

any

putation,
re-

other

theory.

physical

our

theory

and

detail

after

discussions

judge

and

objective

the

the

theory

his

in

to

geometrical

the

express

few

has

theory

of

intended

lost

may

exuberant

too

appear

have

following

otherwise

or

If

who

reader

the

is

logical
genea-

discussed
table

of

useful,

of

explanation

special

and

faithfully

throughout,

author

those

be

form

the

the

ideas

wiU

the

in

further

the

mathematical

After

value

of

It

ideas

done

It

elucidate

to

fundamental

in

the

been

said.

regions

relativity,

of

any

been

already

map

has

needs

hardly

is

the

together

genesis

This

book

relativity.

collect

we

text.

which

this

connections

table
the

of

purpose

therefore,

in

REMARKS

said

reality

view

against
be
of

"

The

truth

sufficiently proved
alongside

creator

can

of

admirable

things.
163

Galileo

it, unless
even

or

it

of

to

the

merit

Newton,"
be

if it has

that

nothing

GENERAL

164

But

there

are

theory

who

These

people either

all,or they

at

"

the concept of
"

The

that

with

velocity c

declare

of

reference

to

whole

do not

been

It has
ray

the

clear

not

are

logic."

statement

RELATIVITY

many

logicalnonsense.
the

OF

THEORY

understand

to the

as

limits of

said, for instance

lightpossesses

two

be

to

the

same

recti-

moving

systems

linearly and uniformly with respect to each other is

In this case
the critic,though understanding
logically
wrong."
what
the theory of relativityis intended
to
of

realm

belongs to the
point of fact, the statement
quoted
to do with
logic ; it merely ujKets

is nevertheless

convey,

In

logic.

has

nothing

the

traditional

all

at

of what

unaware

of space

ideas

and

time.

That

cannot

be denied.
A

dif"cult

to

theory
The

of

theory

other

to

judge

is far

differential geometry
form
is

these

is

not

are

the

basis

verilyno

as

suppliesus

and

absolute

of Einstein's
child's

quite happy
to

new

theory
view

standing
under-

an

becomes

Of

surprised
course

greater than

theory

tangled
en-

he

in any

of numbers,

those

differential

calculations.

many

parts of
calculus
matics
Mathe-

play

the

much

not

is then

difficult than

more

regards
with

The

explained

of functions, etc., contain

the other hand, the

overrated,
It

has

baffled.

of mathematics.

branch

chapter which

On

he

be

relativity,he

becomes

that

algebra, the theory

that

and

problems, he

difficulties and

is unable

is to

generally

layman

in mathematical
the

That

up.

relativity

mathematically

If,in attempting to find the way

of the

at

and

higher mathematics,

it.

about

set

ever

of

theory

confused

most

average

with

do

the

reproaches

the

being

with

thus

critic

third

of

is frequently
relativity
of its importance.
extent
of the

world

in respect of

SUPPLEMENTARY

physics,

geometry,
science.
"

But

the

it has

from

word.

this

nothing
"

be mixed

The

The

point

aim

do

with

what

general

human

to

the

Einstein

man

; his

be

may

has

sense

interesting
must

theory is solelyto approach

descriptionof physical processes
far

as

been

as

be

can

not

judged

at

the

ideal

nearly

as

present, that

fulfilled.

NOTES

NOTE

accordance

call

we

theory, however,

SUPPLEMENTARY

In

philosophical

of

this.

and

possible;

purpose

also

165

of the

of the rational
as

in

of view

with

up

perhaps

and

World-conception

of

NOTES

with

the

TO

PAGE

method

of

here

treatment

used,

and

guided by the desire for brevity and simplicity, we have already

^ongside of each other,
statements
unhesitatingly ranged two
criticism
of philosophically
which
the
arouse
perhaps
may
feel the
trained
minds.
For
those
(and only for those) who
need

of

stricter

of

formulation

the

ideas

involved,

shall

we

of
the
note
:
following supplementary
By
not
only in the above-mentioned
a
body
(in general, and
of its position,
understand
the
alteration
restricted
sense) we
is only given by its distance
since
and
the position of a body
is in its essence
a
from
other
bodies, the concept of motion
add

motion

the

relative

Thus

one.

the

of

first

the

above

does

statements

not

analytical expression of opinion

property already belonging to the idea
This
of its definition.
of motion
in virtue
significance of the
called
the
has
been
word
"motion"
(kinematic)
phoronomic
idea
of motion
the
of
motion.
But
we
can
regard
conception
understand
motion
in that
we
by the
in yet another
way,
of.
which
the
might
of a body
condition,
a
physical
presence
anything
express
characterises
that

; it is

new

an

"

certain

under

bodies.

For

existence

of

other

to

the

rotation,

surroundings.
is

mechanics
second

thus

statement

limitation

established

instance,
this

state

if

may

also

without

ence
refer-

body is in a state of
be recognised by the

of the
consideration
centrifugal forces, without
in
Newtonian
of
motion
This
-physical idea

of

occurrence

be

circumstances

"

there

not

of

the

above

mentioned

made)

to

nature

the

of
has

relative
reference

physical conception

The

one.

(with
of

the

motion.

THEORY

GENERAL

166

is therefore

and
fact.

self-evident, but

not

the

From

OF

discussion

of

the

RELATIVITY
of

statement

second

of

half

physical

this

book

it

will be

recognised that the tendency of the theory of relativity

the phoronomic
and the physical conceptions of motion
in such
into one,
that we
a
manner
can
only speak of a physical
of a body when
of motion
it also carries out a phoronomical
state
motion
relative
other
to
(i.".
bodies).

is to weld

NOTE

We
the
to

take

must

results

of

to

non-uniform

conclusions

draw

On

whole.

the

top disc

will

circle

the

on

about

other

the

hand,

small

disc ;

circumference
concentric

any
with

coincide

always
lower

if very

motion,

world

elements

infer, therefore, that a contraction

may
takes
measuring-rods
place ; but it is
basis
of the
special theory of relativity,

the

on

as

We

individual

possible,

not

account,

considered.

being

are

IIQ

previously emphasised, that

special theory of relativity can
only be applied

of the
of

case

into

PAGE

TO

the

of
circle

along
the

disc

drawn

corresponding

circumference

run
instance, will permanently
wiU
lower
i.e.
one
disc,
cover

the

of the

the

as

the

on

concentric

top disc, for

circumference

of

the

other

But
it is
completely.
each
regard two
cover
figures which
other
of measuring-rods,
as
being equal.
(Cf. the transference
the
of
situated
direction
motion. Chap. VII, p. 53.)
normally to
In this sense
it is thus
to say
that each
quite reasonable
single
but
that
the
circumference
contracts,
of
the
measuring-rod
disc
reasonable

obviously

as

does

whole

not

to

contract.

NOTE

fulfillingthe

By

requirements

PAGE

of

147
Mach

Einstein's

XV,
of

were,

TO

the

represents
meory
Ptolemaic
and
Copemican

mentioned
a

in

ter
Chap-

reconciliation,
world-systems

it

as

(the

pointed out by Mach, will

practical purposes). We

useful
always be the most
that
can
the earth
one
only say
of fixed
out
the
stars
firmament
and
a
rotatory motion
carry
relatively to each other, and there is no
point in maintaining
of
in
is
in
truth
the two
that
motion, and the other
only one

latter,

as

for

all

"

"

at

rest.

It

believed

that

theory of relativity had

argument
been
found,

above-mentioned

assertions

one

earth

was

of the

rotates

and

the

one

firmament

explained in Chapter XI,

theory of relativity that

it
no

derived
which
can

of fixed

from

indicated
be
stars

the

special
only

that

correct, viz.
is at

necessarily follows from

material
move
body can

"

rest."
the

the
As

special
with

SUPPLEMENTARY
of

greater velocity than that

theory of relativity thus
rest, and
the
it, even

the

at

than

The

light.

argue
of fixed

fixed

stars

would

stars

167

If

the

general

earth

were

revolving
velocity greater
must
be
revolving
round

were

attain

light, and

distant
ones
very
times
million
greater than

velocities

of the

opponents

follows

as

firmament

nearest

of

that

with

NOTES

c, in

many
their

order

that

orbits
round
earth
the
in a
cover
enormous
they may
To
this we
reply that the theory of relativity deals
single day.
According to the special theory of
only with relative motions.
relativity it is quite out of the question, for instance, that at
cosmic
the solar system
time
outside
an
body could traverse
any
of
than
that
On
the other
with
hand,
a
light.
greater velocity
of
from
reference
a
nothing
imagining
system
prevents us
of the
earth's
axis from
north
to
moving, say, in the direction
of
km.
second.
The
with
earth
south
a
velocity
400,000
per
bodies
would
then
have
all heavenly
and
velocities, relative to

this

of

system

which

reference,

would

be

than

greater

the

thereby violating the above-mentioned

velocity of light, without
be no
of the
law
special theory of relativity ^for there would
These
than
velocities
relative
c.
only with
greater
appear
of
the
axes
fictitious co-ordinate
to
reference
our
peculiarly
The
of
co-ordinate
of
reference.
case
a
chosen
system
system
"

with

earth

the

at

rotating relatively
no

or

than

greater
to

the

earth
a

i.e.

"

violation

these

of

axes

firmament

of

Here,
quite analogous.
than
The
distances
c.
greater

point of

other

any

the

it is

other,

each

from

stars

to

velocities

relative

it and

in

rest

well

as

globe, do
higher velocities
the

co-ordinate

that

from

as

the

we

of

the

of

stars
have

fixed

the

with

earth

velocities

only relatively

appear
which

system

too,

centre
alter

not

fixed

is fixed

to

the

and
is no
that
more
conceptual structures
of
than
the
relativity
example
special theory

purely

"

of the

aforementioned.

NOTE

Quite recently doubts

this result,
in the
on

work

fundamental
orbital

the

had

statement

been

raised

numerical

of the

error

American
Four

by
has

astronomers
been

cerning
con-

discovered
Newcomb

astronomer

Inner

Planets, whence
It is possible, therefore, that

of the

Elements
been

have

because

152

PAGE

TO

taken.

this
the

between
the
value
of
the
striking coincidence
wonderfully
out
and
the
worked
Einstein
of
motion
by
Mercury
perihelion
caused
in
the
error
by an
value
accidentally
was
observed
Be
that
it may,
as
of observations
by Newcomb.
reduction
orbit
of
of
the
to
calculations
seem
Mercury
Einstein's
agree
than
those
observations
current
performed according
with
better
A
full explanation of this question wiU
law.
to the Newtonian

only be
of the

possible, after Newcomb's

Four

Inner

Planets

has

been

great work
revised.

on

the

Elements

S
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