PARTICULAR ASPECTS IN THE DESIGN OF COLD FORMED

STEEL MEMBERS AND SHEETING

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Industrial production of cold formed thin gauge sections
1.3. The steel used for cold formed thin gauge members.
1.4. Effect of cold forming
1.5. Maximum Width-to-Thickness Ratios
2.1.Specific Features of the Cross Sections of Cold Formed Thin Gauge Shapes
2.2. Calculation of Sectional Properties

1.1. INTRODUCTION

Cold formed sections are made in various shapes: sheet, strip, plates or flat bars,
fabricated in roll-forming machines or by press brake operations;
The thickness of the steel sheets or strips excluding the coating 0.5 mm to 4 mm
for sheeting and from 1 mm to 8 mm for profiles; also, steel plates and bars as 25
mm may be cold formed into structural shapes
Some important advantages:
a) cold formed light members are manufactured for relatively light loads and/or short
spans;
b) various and intricate sectional configurations are produced economically by cold
forming operations favourable strength-to-weight ratios may be obtained;
c) nestable sections are produced compact packaging and shipping;
d) load carrying panels and decks are able to provide useful surfaces for floors, roofs
and wall constructions, and in other cases they can also provide enclosed cells for
electrical and other conduits;
e) panels and decks not only withstand loads normal to their surfaces, but they can
also act as shear diaphragms to resist force in their own plans if they are adequately
interconnected to each other and to the supporting members.

1.2 INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION OF COLD FORMED THIN GAUGE SECTIONS

A. Continuous process: important series of sections, by continuous forming, in rolling mills. The coil is
unrolled and the steel sheet passes through successive pairs of roles and after that the sections are
cut at the desired length. Stripped steel may be processed with thickness between 0.3 mm and 18
mm and width between 20 mm and 2000 mm.
B.

Discontinuous process: small series of sections, either a leaf press brake (folding) of the steel
sheets or a coin press brake (press braking) are commonly used for pressing the steel strip in a
mould. The thickness of the of the shapes obtained by press folding is relatively small, under 3 mm,
and the length of the elements is between 1.5 m and 4.0 m. The shapes obtained by pressing in
moulds have the thickness under 16 mm and 6 m length.

Types of structural elements:

Cold-formed structural members can be classified into two major types:
a)- individual structural framing members; used in buildings as beams, columns, trusses, and in the
workshop design as purlins, skylights, bracing, structural elements for walls transmission towers, etc
b)- panels and decks (corrugated shells); used in facades as external layer for curtain walls,
diaphragms, roofs, floors and permanent shuttering.

1.2. COLD FORMING OF THIN GAUGE SECTIONS

Discontinuous manufacturing process

Manufacturing by folding

Manufacturing by press braking

Continuous manufacturing process

Cold rolling

Specific shapes made of cold-formed thin gauge

members (Trebilcock, 1994)

1.3. THE STEEL USED FOR COLD FORMED THIN GAUGE MEMBERS

Continuously hot-dip metal coated sheeting with nominal thickness supplied with half of the normal
standard tolerances, the design thickness t may be taken as the nominal core thickness, tc,nom.

In case of continuously hot-dip metal coated steel sheet and strip the core thickness is:

t c t nom0.04
t z mm both sides of the sheet and 275 g/m2.
tz, the thickness of the zinc protection, usually
Standard grades of steel shall have the properties that conform to the required suitability for cold
forming, welding and galvanising. The ratio of the specific minimum ultimate tensile strength fu to the
specific minimum yield strength satisfies:
f u f y 1.2

The nominal (characteristic) values of the yield strength fyb and tensile strength fu for the specified
steels are presented in EN 1993-1-1, 3/2006.
The basic material used for fabrication of the steel sections consists in flat sheet steel stripes
Generally, all these grades of steel will have the elongation at failure, A (%)>20%.
Also, supplementary measures will be adopted for the stripes of 0,28 mm thickness
considering cold forming process and sensibility to brittle fracture.

BASIC
ELEMENTS

SHEETING

ELEMENTS
USED FOR
AXIAL
LOADING

ELEMENTS
USED FOR
BENDING

Examples of profiled sheeting and members (EN 1993-1-3)

1.4. EFFECT OF COLD FORMING. STRAIN HARDENING

The continuous manufacturing process modifies the mechanical
properties of the profiles; the result is the alteration of the stressstrain curve of the steel (see on the diagram).
Strain hardening provides an increase of the yield strength
and sometimes, of the ultimate strength; it is important in the
corners and still appreciable in the flanges.
Press braking lets the characteristics unchanged in these arii.
The increased value of strength is taken into account only if the
gross cross section is equal with the effective cross section:
Influence of the cold forming on the stress-stain curve of steel

A
ef 1
A
Increasing of strength in the strain hardened area on the cross section

knt 2
f f
f ya f yb
A u yb
g

fyb, fu - yield strength, respectively ultimate tensile strength, N/mm2;

t - thickness of the steel plate;
Ag - gross area of the cross section (mm2);
C = 7 for cold rolling and 5 for other methods of cold forming;
N - number of folders at 900 having the internal radius r<5t on the whole perimeter of the cross section; for different
angles from 900 the number n is determined with:

n 2 i
90

where:
N - relevant number of folders that increase the strength;

i - internal angle of the folder, between 900 and 1350; for values under 900, we will use
and for values bigger then 1350 the folder will not be considered anymore.
A limitation is imposed also for the average limit yield strength:

i 900

f ya 0.5 f yb fu

DETERMINATION OF THE NUMBER OF RELEVANT CORNERS

The cross section of a cold formed element may be divided in a number of plane walls and for every wall a separate
value of the increased yield limit, fyi may be determined if the following relationship is respected:

Ag,i is the gross transversal section of the plane element i

Note:
The increased value of the strength is not
considered if welding is placed in the
strain hardened area or thermal treatments
were performed with 0 >520 0 C.
The increased value of the strength is not
considered on the web of a bended
profile.

Stages of cold-forming of an section (Rhodes,1992)

Equippment for continuous process in workshop

THE WALLS OF COLD FORMED SHAPES

Cold formed shapes are obtained from several walls. The walls are internal or external, stiffened
or un-stiffened, according to their end (edge) conditions.
the stiffened walls have their edges bound with another wall or with a folded end stiff enough
as to prevent from its deformation in a direction perpendicular to the plane of the element:
the un-stiffened walls have one edge fee to displace (rotate) in a plane normal to the plane
of the element .

Stiffened walls of the cold formed shapes:

a)- wall with edge stiffener; b) walls with intermediate stiffeners: 1- stiffened wall; 2-un-stiffened wall

Conditions are imposed for the stiffness of the walls:

-for intermediate stiffeners:
-for edg stiffeners:

11
I min

11
min

3,66 t

bp

bp 266000

18,4 t 4
R
t

266000
1,83 t 4 ( ) 2
9,2 t 4
t
R

amin 2,8 t 6 (

ap
t

)2

266000
4,8 t
R

1.5. MAXIMUM WIDTH-TO-THICKNESS RATIOS

Maximum b/t (slenderness) ratios and modelling of the static behaviour

Cold formed shapes with stiffened walls:

a)- intermediate stiffeners; b)- with lip and clip (edge stiffener)

The middle of the median line of the corner or fold

X-the intersection of the median lines
P-middle of the median line of the corner

THE INFLUENCE OF ROUNDED CORNERS

UPON THE DETERMINATION OF BP
The plane width bp is measured from the
midpoint of the corner.
In the case when a cross section is made
from plane elements with sharp corners
with r 5t and r/bp 0.15, rounding of
corners is ignored.
All the sectional properties may be
calculated based on an ideal section and the
following approximations:

(c) Plan width bp for the web of the cross

section
bp = tilted line sw

(b) Plan width of the wall bp for the

flanges and edge stiffeners

(d) Plan width bp for wall attached to

the intermediate stiffeners on the
flanges

SHAPES WITH OR WITHOUT STIFFENERS.

GEOMETRIC CHARACTERISTICS AND MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR,
ACCORDING TO EC 3 (SR EN 1993-1-1.3)

INSTABILITY OF THE COLD-FORMED THIN GAUGE SECTIONS

Cold-formed (thin gauge) sections may buckle under normal stresses smaller than the yield
limit of the steel.
The instability of the thin gauge flat sheets subjected to in-plane loading is due to imperfections.
The following assumptions are demonstrated to be inconsistent:
I. The perfect planarity - the initial deformations of the sheets due to faults of fabrication must be
between certain limits. Still, the real plane elements do have initial geometrical imperfections- initial
deflection w0, which grows with the increase of loading. Due to the effect of membrane behavior, the
ultimate strength of the sheet is bigger than the critical elastic force of buckling, Ncr. This reserve of
strength clearly insures a post-critical behavior.

Plate in compression: conditions of supports and post-critical reserve

II. Reduced deformations out of the plane of the plate this assumption is normally available in
the theory of linear buckling in elastic domain. In reality, the ultimate strength of the plate exceeds
the critical stress, the deformations being rather important;
III. Axial loads - this assumption is impossible from the practical point of view, the planarity of the
plate being an ideal assumption.

Measurement of residual stresses in a cold-rolled C shape: a) residual flower: b)- slicing method; c)- curvature method;

IV. Linear elastic behavior of the material this condition is satisfied up to the yield limit. Still, due to
residual stresses caused by rolling, welding, cutting etc, in some fibers the plastic stresses are reached for
applied stresses lower than fy.

Winters model (grid)

Local buckling in compression and bending

of the thin walled elements

Consecutive stages of stress distribution

in stiffened compressed elements

The two distinct stages in the post-critical domain of the

behavior of a plate are:
Elastic- uniformly distributed stresses, under the critical force;
Post-critic - below the critical force, the plate is deformed
more and more, the stresses are not anymore uniform.

Buckling is reached for a critical value of the normal stress: c cr where the critical stress is ([N/mm2])
2

2 E t
cr k
190k
121 2 bp

t
103
b
p

The coefficient k depends on the nature and the distribution of the stress on the width of the wall, on the
boundary conditions, on the ratio between the dimensions of this wall.
- non - stiffened walls: k =0.425;
- stiffened walls: k=4.0, the supports are considered articulated.
It is important to observe that:
in the case of a wall under compression in its plane, the lost of strength capacity will not happen
as long as the longitudinal edges will remain rectilinear;
the limits of strength capacity are much increased for certain types of walls. This remark leads to
the theory of effective width of the wall.
The design concept the grid model proposed by Winter (1959) for the instability phenomenon. The
cross section for these profiles is made up from flat elements (walls) with constant thickness inter-connected,
generating a grid.
In the post critical stage (post buckling strength) the central grid do not work anymore while the extreme
grids, where the strains are smaller, are able to take over stresses that may reach the design value of
strength. At the moment when the maximum strength value of the material fy, is reached in the extreme
zones, a bigger portion in the internal part of the wall already isnt working anymore (where = 0), the
deformations being very important.
The width of the wall reaches its minimum value, called the effective width beff.
From the point of view of the local buckling:
-the stiffened compressed elements (walls) are flat elements in compression with both edges parallel to
the direction of stress, which are stiffened by web elements, flanges or edge stiffeners of sufficient rigidity;
-the non-stiffened compressed elements (walls) are flat elements in compression which are stiffened only
at one edge parallel to the direction of the stress.

BUCKLING OF THE THIN WALLS-WINTERS GRID MODEL

Consecutive stages of stress distribution

in stiffened compressed elements

Local buckling in compression and bending

of the thin walled elements
Effective width of a plate in compression
Winters model (grid)

Stiffened walls- EDGE and intermediate

Buckling is reached for a critical value of the normal stress: c cr where the critical stress is
determined with the known relationship:
2

2 E t
cr k
190k
121 2 bp

t
103
b
p

[N/mm2]

The coefficient k depends on the nature and the distribution of the stress on the width of the wall, on
the boundary conditions, on the ratio between the dimensions of this wall.

non - stiffened walls: k =0.425;

stiffened walls: k=4.0, the supports are considered articulated.

It is important to observe that:
in the case of a wall under compression in its plane, the lost of strength capacity will not
happen as long as the longitudinal edges will remain rectilinear;
the limits of strength capacity are much increased for certain types of walls. This remark
leads to the theory of effective width of the wall.
The design concept the grid model proposed by Winter (1959) for the instability phenomenon. The
cross section for these profiles is made up from flat elements (walls) with constant thickness interconnected, generating a grid.
In the post critical stage (post buckling strength) the central grid do not work anymore while the
extreme grids,
where the strains are smaller, are able to take over stresses that may reach the design value of
strength.
At the moment when the maximum strength value of the material R, is reached in the extreme zones,
a bigger portion in the internal part of the wall already isnt working anymore (where 0, the
deformations being very important.
The width of the wall reaches its minimum value, called the effective width beff.

CLASSIFICATION OF THE WALLS OF A COLD FORMED SECTION

From the point of view of the local buckling:
-stiffened compressed elements (walls) -flat
elements in compression with both edges parallel to the
direction of stress, which are stiffened by web
elements, flanges or edge stiffeners of sufficient rigidity
-non-stiffened compressed elements (walls) -flat
elements in compression which are stiffened only at
one edge parallel to the direction of the stress.
Considering that in the situation of buckling in elastic of
a wall having its effective width, beff, the stress cr,eff
reaches the maximum stress in the plate in post-critical
domain, that is: max = fy. Then the former relationship
becomes:

cr ,eff

t
2E
k

2
121 beff

b
cr p

eff

From this relationship it results that the effective width of

the wall depends on the ratio cr/max :

beff bp

cr
max

In buckling stage, the averaged stress on the whole width of the wall is u, the equivalence between the
stresses will impose the following equation:

beff f y bp u beff max bp u

Von Karman determined the following relationship for the effective wall:

beff bp k

E
121 2
2

t
1

b
max
p

In the case of the plate articulated all around and uniformly compressed, k = 4.0:

beff 1.9 t

max

in order to simplify the further design specifications EC3 uses the following relationships:
relative slenderness (of the plate) referred to bp:

reduction factor:

influence of the elastic limit:

fy

cr
beff
bp

bp

t
28,4 k

u
fy

It results that:

and 1

240
fy

The slenderness of a wall, p is the ratio between the flat width of the wall, bp and its thickness, t.
Winter proposed a semi - empirical relationship, derived from that of von Karmans that takes into
account the imperfections:

beff

E 0.415
E
1.9 t
1
max b p
max
t

This is used by EC3 in the design of the strength of very slender sections.
The following annotations are used:
For:

p 0.673

For:

p 0.673

1 0.22
1
p
p

Specifications:
The effective width of a flat wall in compression and/or in bending is determined
considering the relative slenderness referred to the width of the flat wall, bp and also, the limit
of yield strength, fyb.
In order to identify the way the cross section of a wall is working we have to compare the
effective slenderness with the limit slenderness.
The recommended values of the maximum slenderness (limit slenderness) for different types of
cold-formed sections are presented in table before. The common experience and the tests in
laboratory impose these values.
The limit slenderness is defined as the ratio between the width and the thickness of the wall in
the case when the normal stresses are uniformly distributed on the whole cross section and equal
with the design strength of the material. The values of the limit slenderness depend on the kind of
the wall and the grade of the steel. The presence of the imperfections reduces the theoretical
values of these limits over which buckling may occur anytime, see table.

DIFFERENCIES BETWEEN BUCKLING OF IDEAL SLENDER MEMBER,

HOT ROLLED SECTION MEMBERS AND COLD FORMED SECTIONS

STRESSES DEVELOPED IN THE WALLS OF A COLD FORMED SECTION

SUBJECTED TO BUCKLING

Buckling ranges depending on slenderness

Thin walled C section in compression

EUROCODE buckling curves

BUCKLING MODES OF COLD FORMED SECTIONS

Local Flexural+ Flexural Torsional

interactive buckling

Simple buckling modes for a C column (thin walled section)

a)

Flexural + Flexural-Torsional
interactive buckling;

b)

b)- Local+Flexural Torsional

interactive buckling

DISTORTION OF OPENED SECTIONES WITH THIN WALLS

Combined modes of buckling leading to distortion of thin walled opened sections

(wavelength is considered as buckling length in the case of a column)

Buckling forms, critical buckling forces and resistances

depending on the length of the element

Buckling forms depending on the buckling half-wave :

a)- local buckling; b)- distorsion; c) overall buckling

THE EFFECTIVE WIDTH OF THE WALLS IN COMPRESSION

DOUBLY SUPPORTED COMPRESSION ELEMENT

OUTSTAND COMPRESSION ELEMENT

THE EFFECTIVE WIDTH AND EFFECTIVE AREA OF THE WALLS IN BUCKLING

BUCKLING BY DISTORSION
Critical elastic stress for a slender element in compression having an elastic support with a stiffness
coefficient K is determined with the relationships of Timoshenko and Gere (1961).

where:
- As, Is area and moment of inertia of
the edge stiffener;
- - slenderness of the stiffener.

Distorsion of a Z shape: (a) in compression; (b) in bending

Reduction factor (buckling coefficient) by distorsion depends on the value of the reduced slenderness is
determined with the following relationships:

where the relative slenderness for distorsional buckling is:

ELEMENTS WITHOUT STIFFENERS (PLANE ELEMENTS)

I step
The reduction factor for the determination of the effective widths for stiffened or un-stiffened walls shall be obtained as
we have already seen. The value of relative slenderness is determined with:

p 1.052

bp
t

com
E k

where:
com effective stress of compression on the extremities of the wall, 1, determined with respect to the effective area of
the transversal section and multiplied with the safety factor, M1;
k buckling coefficient.

II step
The design for the limit state of serviceability, 1-fy: The value of the reduction factor is determined with the
relative slenderness obtained as in the I step, where com = 1 M1 and the effective stress calculated is 1 < fy/M1.
The following relationships are used:
-For : pd 0.673
=1;
1 0.22

pd

0.18 pu pd 1.0

0
.
673
pd
-For:
, 1;
pd
pu 0.6
After determining the values:

pd 1.052

bp
t

com
E k

pu 1.052

bp
t

fy
E k

III step
In the tables the geometrical width of the flat wall is bp. In the case of the lateral webs without intermediate stiffeners
(the folders of the sheeting), the annotation sw is equivalent with bp.

PLANE ELEMENS WITH STIFFENERS- EDGE AND INTERMEDIARY STIFFNERS

Determination of the transversal deformation of the walls
Stiffness to rotation of a stiffener is calculated by applying a unit force on length, u, normal to the wall. The rigidity of
the spring on unit length, K is obtained by the relationship:

where is the deflection of the stiffener as effect of u acting in the centroid of the effective part (placed at the distance b1 )

Real system

Equivalent system

Deflection of the compressed stiffened walls of C and Z cold formed sections

a)

b)

c)

d)

Modeling the deformations as effect of compression and bending:

a) and b) C section subjected to compression and bending; c) and d) Z section subjected to
compression and bending

with lip

with lip and clip

Edge stiffeners

In the case of a intermediary stiffener, C1 and C2 will be conservatory annulled, deflection being thus determined:

u b12 b 22 12 1 2

3(b1 b 2 )
Et 3

The reduction factor due to distorsional buckling is determined considering the relative slenderness of the wall d
, and imperfection coefficient according to the table of classification the cross sections by buckling curves, (curve a 0)

cr,s the critical stress of the stiffener (without imperfections).

f yb

cr ,s

TRANSVERSAL DEFLECTION OF THE WALLS IN COMPRESSION

(IMPERFECTION EFFECTS)

A rectilinear section will have an initial bend shape equal with the deflection u, where :

A curved element in bending (beam) will have a maximum deflection:

where:
u bending of the flange (hogging);
bs- half of the distance between the webs for closed sections or or, the part of the flange extended on the flange
depth;
z distance from N.A. to the flange in compression;
r - radius of the curve;
a mean value of the stress in flange, determined on the gross area

The design is based on the assumption that the stiffener works as a beam on elastic foundation represented by a spring
stiffness, depending on the bending stiffness of adjacent parts of plane elements and on the boundary conditions of the
element.
The determination of the spring stiffness is illustrated separately for intermediate and edge stiffeners respectively.
The significance of the terms are:
- the deflection of the stiffener due to a force equal with 1;
fs and fr are taken as in the figure.
For the rotational stiffness in the supports C, C1 and C2 , the effects of other stiffeners are considered if there is the case, for
any element that forms the cross section in compression.
For an edge stiffener, the deflection is determined with the relationship:

where:

u bp

u b 2p 12 1 2
bp

3
E t3

In the case of C and Z sections with edge stiffeners the rigidity at rotation K 1, the stiffness to rotation of the flange 1 is
determined by placing the unit force u =1 in the position according to figures.

where:
b1 distance between the web and the flange intersection and the centroid of the effective area of the end stiffener of the
flange 1 (including the effective width be2 of the flange);
b2 distance between the web and the flange intersection and the centroid of the effective area of the end stiffener of the
flange 2 (including the effective width be2 of the flange);
hw height of the web;
kf= 0 if the flange 2 is in tension;
Kf=As2/As1 if the flange 2 is in compression;
kf =1 for a cross section symmetrical in compression;
As1, As2 effective section of end stiffeners (including the effective area of the flange b e2 of the flange 1 and 2 respectively.

In order to determine the effective widths that split into several sections a stiffened wall the general method applied
follows 7 successive steps; it also may be simplified in a restrained form by imposing initial conditions.
Both methods may be developed iteratively.
General method:
. An initial effective area of the edge stiffener is determined, based on the fact that it will act as an element infinite
rigidly supported and subjected to a stress:

com, Ed

f yb

M1

. The reduction factor will be determined for this stiffener but this time, the elastic spring will be considered;
. The reduction factor will be improved by iteration. The initial values of the effective widths bef,1 and bef,2 are
obtained from the indications in the table, considering that the wall is an intermediary one;
The initial values of the effective widths cef si def are obtain as it follows:
I. Lip: in the relationship, and are prior determined and the values of the local buckling coefficient, k is determined
as it follows:

ceff b p,c
If:

b p ,c
bp

0,35 k=0,5;

b p ,c
If 0,35 b 0,6
p

k 0,5 0,83 3 p ,c 0,35

b
p

II. Lip and clip: The same relationships except the value of k are determined for a doubly supported wall (table).
Then determine:

d eff b p,d
where is determined as for the lip stiffener before.

Then the characteristics of the effective section of the stiffener will be:

- The area:

As t be 2 cef

As t be 2 ce1 ce 2 d ef

- The moment of inertia with respect to the neutral axis of the effective section, I s
. Critical stress of the edge stiffener is determined with:

. Effective reduced area of the stiffener:

cr ,s

2 KEI s
As

f yb M1
A s,red d A s
As
com,Ed

. The reduced thickness of the wall used for the effective area:

t red t

As ,red
As

Reducing factor , for edge stiffener is determined based on the value of cr,s obtained
priory but its value may be improved via iteration method if <1 through a value of the
factor after determining the compression stress.

d f yb

. com,Ed
M1 as to have:

p,red p

Iteration stops when n+1 n but n+1< n.

Simplified method:
If the following condition is satisfied by the wall of which the width is bp:

h
I s r A 1,5

bp

2
s

f yb b p

E t

where :
- h - depth of the web adjacent to the wall, on the opposite edge to the end stiffener;
- As- effective area of the edge stiffener, that is:
As t be 2 cef d ef
f

yb
determined for an even distributed stress , com, Ed
, with be2, cef, def, determined according to
M1

the general method and p,red p

- r =0,31.
f yb M 1

s
,
red
s
Effective area of the stiffener is obtained with :

com, Ed
but As,red As
and = 0,5.
Effective cross section characteristics are determined based on the reduced thickness of the wall, ts,red.
In the case when =1 and r=4,86, the stiffener plays the role of a support for the adjacent wall.

INTERMEDIARY STIFFENERS
Stiffness to rotation C1 and C2 are conservatively assumed to be equal with 0 and the deflection is obtained with the
following relationship:

cr,s critical elastic stress in buckling of the stiffener

STAGES OF DESIGN OF THE EFFECTIVE SECTION OF A FLANGE WITH EDGE STIFFENER

Stiffness coefficient k and reducing factor according to EN 1993-1-3/2006

COMPOSITE BEAMS
HOT ROLLED SHAPES OR PLATE GIRDERS (BUIL-UP SECTIONS) ARE USED
FOR THE STEEL ELEMENT OF THE SECTIONS

Steel beams and reinforced concrete

slab with constant or variable thickness
of the slab (barrel volt).
Steel beams encased partially in the
concrete and reinforced concrete slab
Steel beams and composite slab

Steel beams encased partially in the

concrete and composite slab

COMPOSITE BEAMS

COMPOSITE
BEAMS
GRINZI
MIXTE OEL-BETON
The composite beams are structural elements in bending made of a steel shape acting
together with a concrete slab. The slab may have just a light mesh reinforcement (fire
reinforcement that reduces severe cracks at the supports) or on the contrary, it may be
a reinforced concrete section or even pre-stressed.

The two materials steel and concrete participate with their characteristic properties,
optimizing the complex behavior.
The concrete has a very good behavior in compression but its resistance for tension may
be ignored. The steel acts evenly in tension and compression still, the slenderness of the
elements affects the parts in compression.
The design calculations are based on the concept that the slab, or almost all of it is in
compression. The top flange of the steel beam is prevented from instability phenomena
and, depending on the position of the Neutral Axis, the steel is almost exclusively
subjected to tension.
CREEP AND SHRINKAGE
The effect of creep may be taken into account by using the modular ratio nL for the
concrete, this ratio depending on the type of loading (L) and is given by:
n L n 0 1 Lt
where:
n0 ratio Ea/Ecm for short term loading;
Ecm- secant modulus for short term loading ;
t creep coefficient (t,to) depending on the age of the concrete at the moment t0 of
loading;
L creep multiplier (0,55 for primary and secondary effects of shrinkage, 1,5 for
prestressing , 1,1 for permanent loads.
3

COMPOSITE
BEAMS
GRINZI
MIXTE OEL-BETON
Based on these observations is may be put into evidence that if there were any bond between
the steel beam and the concrete slab, the two elements will act independently, the part of the
slab in tension cracking and the steel beam limiting its strength capacity because of the overall
buckling phenomenon. If a connection between the two elements is insured, then the
distribution of strains in the two materials will be in equilibrium and the composite section will
behave as a whole.

Stress distribution on
the
depth
of
a
composite beam:
a) no connection in the
interface;
b)- with connectors
placed on the steel
surface

COMPOSITE
BEAMS
GRINZI
MIXTE OEL-BETON
Fundamental criteria for the Limit States Design of the composite beams:
1. The steel beams are mono-symmetric in the plane of the web, the
bending being in this plane;
2. The design bending moment capacity is determined with a plastic
calculus only if the effective cross section is in the class 1 or 2;
f ya a = f yd

The steel beam is subjected to tension or compression

;

The concrete cross section in the compressed area may cope with a
maximum stress level of 0.85fck c = 0.85fcdconstant on the whole depth,
between the Neutral Axis and the most compressed fiber;
The longitudinal reinforcement may be stressed up to a levelfof
sk s = f sd
if the bars are fixed in the supports.
The bars of reinforcements in the compressed area may be neglected
and also the steel decking if it finds itself in the compressed area. The
steel decking in the tensioned area may be subjected to a stressf ypequal
ap
with
if the trough is parallel with the steel beam.
5

COMPOSITE BEAMS
In order to classify the section of the composite beams, along with the verification of the slenderness of the walls,
the following are considered:
If the steel flange in compression is connected to the concrete slab with an adequate number of studs, then the
beam is in class 1;
If the concrete slab is in the compressed area and the steel beam is in the class 1, then the composite beam is in
the class 1 if the Neutral Axis is cutting the reinforced concrete slab or the compressed flange of the steel beam; if
not, then the composite beam is considered in the class 2.
Composite beam section

Neutral axis position

Class of the cross section

Neutral axis cuts the

slab

class 1

Neutral axis cuts the

web

clasas2
(n general)

COMPOSITE
BEAMS
GRINZI
MIXTE OEL-BETON
OBSERVATIONS
In the design of the composite beams the effect of temperature
variations is neglected.
The action of the contraction and expansion of the concrete may also be
neglected in the case of Ultimate State Verifications, excepting the beams
in the class 4.

The transversal section of a composite beam is made of a steel beam and

a concrete slab. Between the slab and the flange of the beam a barrel volt
may be designed in order to insure the anchor length of the connectors.
This part of the cross section is not taken into account during the
computation but it might increase the strength capacity by increasing
the depth of the composite beam.
When the Neutral Axis cuts the slab, the concrete in the tensioned area is
not taken into account.
In the case when the slab is composite, the depth of the trough is not
taken into account.
7

COMPOSITE
BEAMS
GRINZI
MIXTE OEL-BETON
The static system finally adopted may be different from the one used
to describe the preliminary stage of execution, for ex.: removal of the
props used as temporary supports during the drying of the concrete
increase the span of the girder in the final stage; also the flexible
reinforcement in the slab begins to work, changing the stiffness and
the strength of the connections with the steel beam. We may
conclude that:
- if the connections of the steel beam are considered as perfect
articulated during the mounting stage, the participation of the flexible
reinforcement to the growing stiffness will result in a partial restraint
determining a semi-rigid connection and a partial full strength section
in the final stage (of exploitation);
- if the connections of the steel beam are considered as fully restraint
during the mounting stage, the reinforced concrete slab will increase
this stiffness, along with the ultimate strength on the support.
The composite girder obtained from a steel beam statically
determined will become in the final stage a partially restraint girder;
the composite girder obtained from a steel beam fully restraint during
the mounting stage will become a continuous girder.
8

ULTIMATE LIMIT STATE VERIFICATIONS

OF THE COMPOSITE BEAMS

VERIFICATION OF COMPOSITE BEAMS

IN CRITICAL SECTIONS

VERIFICATIONS IN THE CRITICAL SECTIONS

I-I STRENGTH AGAINST BENDING AND SHEAR
II-II STRENGHT AGAINST COMBINED EFFECT OF M-V
III-III LONGITUDINAL SHEAR OF THE CONNECTORS
IV-IV LOCAL PRESENCE OF LONGITUDINAL SHEAR FORCES IN THE CONCRETE SLAB
V-V LONGITUDINAL SHEAR OF THE CONCRETE IN THE TOP OF THE COMPOSITE BEAM
VI-VI FLEXURAL-TORTIONAL BUCKLING OF THE STEEL BEAM
10

SECTIONS FOR VERIFICATION AND TYPES OF VERIFICATIONS

Composite beams shall be checked for:
- Resistance of critical cross sections;
- Resistance to lateral torsional buckling;
- Resistance to shear buckling and transverse forces on webs;
- Resistance to longitudinal shear
Critical cross sections include:
- Sections of maximum bending moment;
- Supports;
- Sections subjected to concentrated loads or reactions;
- Cross sections with sudden geometric variations, others than changes due to cracking of
the concrete;

For checking resistance to longitudinal shear, a critical length consists of a length of the
interface between two critical cross sections. For this purpose the cross section includes:
- free ends of cantilevers;
- tapering members.

METHODS OF ANALYSIS
OF THE COMPOSITE BEAMS
Relationship between analysis method and the determination of the moment capacity
Class of
the steel
section

Method of analysis

Moment capacity

Rigid-plastic or elastic analysis with the

redistribution of the bending moments

M pl,Rd

Elastic analysis with the redistribution of the

bending moments

M pl,Rd

M el,Rd

Elastic analysis with the redistribution of the

bending moments

ef
el,Rd

Local buckling on the cross section

12

ELASTIC DESIGN OF THE COMPOSITE BEAMS

HYPOTHESIS FOR THE ELASTIC ANALYSIS
The composite beams are made of steel beams fixed at the top flange continuously
by the slab; the connection between the two elements is sufficient for preventing the
slip between the steel and the concrete surfaces;
The steel sections remain plane after developing strains inside the material;
Steel and concrete are materials acting linear elastic
( a = ),c ) no matter the stress level might be;
The concrete in the tensioned area is not considered during the verifications nor
the area of increased depth above the beam, whenever it exists. Also, the concrete in
the tensioned area is not taken into account nor in the case when the N.A. cuts the
slab.
Elastic design of a continuous beam with constant moment of inertia is not taking
into account the cracking of the slab in the internal support area and a redistribution
of the bending moment from the support to the middle of the span is not possible.
As redistribution in a certain degree is favorable leading to optimization of the
properties of the component materials and using simplified methods for design, the
effects of concrete cracking and the elastic-plastic behavior of the materials will be
considered.

13

CALCULUL ELASTIC
ELASTIC DESIGN OF THE COMPOSITE BEAMS
AL GRINZILOR MIXTE OEL-BETON

Ea I 1

EEaIa2I 2

Ea I 1

L1/L2>0.6 and L1,cr (L2,cr)>15%L1(L2)

EQUIVALENT SPANS FOR THE ACTIVE EFFECTIVE WIDTH

OF CONCRETE FLANGE OF THE COMPOSITE BEAMS

15

EQUIVALENT SPANS FOR THE ACTIVE EFFECTIVE WIDTH

OF CONCRETE FLANGE OF THE COMPOSITE BEAMS

STRENGTH ON THE CROSS SECTIONS OF THE COMPOSITE BEAMS

Position of N.A.

Aa, Ia, Ac, n, Ab, Ib

On the span
1. In the slab:
A a (h z a h c h bac )

Ac h c

n 2

2. In the steel beam:

Aa (hb za hc )

n Aa
2b eff
h z a
1 1
b eff
n Aa

1 b eff
2
h z b 3
I b I a A a z a z b
12 n
zb h

Ac hc

n 2

On the support

A
h
A z c h c
A c a b n
2
Aa
n
1 Ac 2
2
2
I b I a A a z a z b
h c A b h z b
3 n
zb

zb

1
Aa za As zs
Aa As

I b I a Aa za zb As zb zs
2

CROSS SECTION SUBJECTED TO

ELASTIC HOGGING BENDING MOMENT
1. zb<hc

zb

1
Ab

zdA

A a z a h bac h c
Aa

Ab

I b I a A a z a h bac h c z b

Ac
n

b eff h c h c

n
2

I
b h
h
c eff c z b c
n
n
2

Elastic hogging moment N.A. in the steel beam

Maximum Stresses
M
M
zb
f yd
Ib
Wa

steel

r.c.

M
M 0.85f ck
zb

n Ib
Wc
c

Elastic moduli
Ib
Wai
;
zb h b
Ib
Was
;
z b h bac h c
n Ib
Wci
zb hc
Wcs

n Ib
zb

M el,Rd min M (el1,)Rd , M (el2,)Rd

M (el1,)Rd

f ya

M (el2,)Rd 0.85

I1
1
y max
f ck n I b
2
c y max

CROSS SECTION SUBJECTED TO

ELASTIC HOGGING BENDING MOMENT
2. zb>hc

zb Aa

2 b ef
n
z a h bac h c 1 h c
1
b eff
Aa n

A c b eff h c ;
Ab Aa

Ac
b h
A a eff c
n
n

I b I a A a z a z b
2

Elastic hogging moment N.A. in the concrete slab

1 b eff
h z b 3
12 n

CROSS SECTION SUBJECTED TO

ELASTIC SAGGING BENDING MOMENT
The concrete is cracked
Steel

zb

A m Aa As
A s A si A ss

A a z a h bac h c Ass d s Asi d i

A a As

I b Ia Aa z a h bac h c z b Asi z b di Ass z b ds

2

M el,Rd min M (el1,)Rd , M (el2,)Rd

Wsi

Ib
zb di

Wss

Ib
zb ds

M (el1,)Rd
M (el3,)Rd

f ya

a
f sk

I1
1
y max

Ib
3
y max

STRENGTH ON THE CROSS SECTIONS OF THE COMPOSITE BEAMS

PLASTIC DESIGN

c 1.5
c partial safety factor for concrete,
s 1.15
a partial safety factor for flexible reinforcement,
s partial safety factor for steel section,
a 1.10
v partial safety factor for the steel connectors,
v 1.25
21

STRENGTH ON THE CROSS SECTIONS OF THE COMPOSITE BEAMS

PLASTIC DESIGN

STRENGTH ON THE CROSS SECTIONS OF THE COMPOSITE BEAMS PLASTIC DESIGN

In the case when the steel grade is greater than S420 and the distance xpl between the plastic NA and the extreme fiber
of the concrete slab in compression exceeds 15% of the overall depth of the member, the design moment resistant
shall be Mpl,Rd

PLASTIC RESISTANCE MOMENT OF SECTIONS WITH PARTIAL SHEAR CONNECTION

The ductile shear connectors may determine the calculation of the bending moment with a full plastic theory but the
compression flange will be subjected to a reduced force Nc instead of Ncf.
The ratio = Nc/Ncf represents the degree of shear connection. The cross section will have a new plastic N.A. which shall be
used for the classification of the web.

The relationship between MRd and Nc is given by the convex curve ABC where Mpl,a,Rd and Mpl,Rd are the plastic
resistance to sagging bending of the steel section and of the composite section with full shear connection.
A conservative value of the moment resistant MRd may be determined on the straight line AC:

PLASTIC RESISTANCE MOMENT OF SECTIONS WITH PARTIAL SHEAR CONNECTION

Both for sagging and for hogging moments zones partial shear connection may be used. In hogging moments
sections appropriate shear connection will ensure yielding of the reinforcing bars in tension.

Plastic design and verifications of the composite beam

Position of N.A.

On the span
In the slab:

Aa

n Aa
1 n Aa
zb hb
; Zb Aa hb za

bef
2 bef

Ac
n

In the top flange of the steel beam:

In the web:

Aa 4ct

Aa 4ct

Ac
Aa
n

Aa 4ct

In the web of the beam:

On the support
In the top flange:

Aa, Ia, Ac, n, Ab, Ib

Ac
Aa
n

A
Aa 4ct s
ns

Ac
n

zb ha

1 Ac
A

2
2
Aa ; Zb c zc Aa za 2c ha zb
4c n
n

zb

1 Ac
2ct
ha t
Aa
2d n
d

Zb

Ac
t

2
zc Aa za 4ct ha d ha t d zb2
n
2

zb ha

1 As
A
Aa ; Zb s zs Aa za 2c ha2 zb2
4c ns
ns

zb

2ct
1 As
Aa
ha t
2d ns
d

Zb

As
t

2
zs Aa za 4ct ha d ha t d zb2
ns
2

Cross section subjected to plastic hogging bending moment

Equilibrium Relationships

Aa
zb

zb h b

f ya

b ef 0.85

f ck

Fc b ef z b 0.85

f ck

Fa A a

A
n a
b ef

zb h b

z hic ts hbac hc

fy

Aa
hic

M
pl, Rd

fy

Aa

fy

z Aa

bef hc 0.85 f cd 2 Ats

2ti

fy

fy
z
hs b
a
2

fy

Cross section subjected to plastic sagging bending moment

Equilibrium Relationships

PLASTIC STRENGTH OF THE SECTIONS OF

COMPOSITE BEAMS
VERIFICATION FOR ULTIMATE LIMIT STATES PLASTIC DOMAIN
The methods of obtaining the efforts during a global plastic analysis may be either
rigid plastic or elastic-plastic.
Rigid plastic analysis asks for the following amendments:
Transversal cross section of the steel beam must be symmetric with respect to the
vertical principal axis;
The steel beam must be designed in such a way that to prevent from local buckling the
flange in compression;
Active cross section of the composite beam in the plastic hinges are in class 1 and the
other transversal cross sections are in class 1 or 2, excluding the active part of the
webs;
The adjacent spans must respect the following conditions: L1 < L2 : L2 - L1 0.50L1
L1 > L2 : L1 1.15L2

In all the bays, where more than half of the design load is concentrated on a length
smaller than 1/5 from the bay and also placed in the plastic hinge area, the slab being
in compression, the depth of the area in compression on the cross section of the beam
must not exceed with more than 15% the total depth of the element;
In the case when the plastic hinge is the last that will affect a certain bay, the beam
must not be particularly insured transversally.
29

PLASTIC STRENGTH OF THE COMPOSITE STEEL BEAMS

HYPOTHESES REGARDING THE PLASTIC MOMENT RESISTANCE

The existence of a complete interconnection between the steel beam and the
concrete slab (concrete and reinforcement) in order to reach in the same
time a limit strength;
The whole section of the steel beam is considered plasticized. Tension and
compression in steel will be equal with elastic limit, M pl,Rd
The tensions in the active section of reinforced concrete in compression have
a limited value 0,85( fck c ) , constant on the whole cross section placed
between the plastic N.A. and the most compressed fiber of concrete. The
partial safety factor is f ;
a = 1,0
ya
a
c = 1,5
In the flexible
longitudinal reinforcement the stresses will be equal with limit
elastic design stress f sk s , where s = 1,15 . The flexible reinforcement in
the part of the slab in compression will be neglected in the design.

30

PLASTIC STRENGTH OF THE COMPOSITE STEEL BEAMS

M Ed W pl( el )
STRENGTH VERIFICATIONS

VEd V pl, Rd Av

f ya

a
f ya
3 a

STABILITY VERIFICATIONS

f ya
M Ed

LT W pl
a
LT

M cr

W pl f y
M cr
1,32 b f t f E I y
L h2

Interaction curve shear force-bending moment

DESIGN OF THE CONNECTIONS IN COMPOSITE BEAMS

ELASTIC AND RIGID CONNECTIONS
COMPLETE AND PARTIAL SHEAR CONNECTIONS

Classification of the connectors

Elastic (ductile) - with deformations >6mm
-studs with d=1622 mm and h>4d welded at the top
flange of steel beams or on the steel decking

Rigid (non-ductile) - steel profiles (angles, tees,

thick plates anchor and hoop) welded on the top
flange of beams

Sliding direction of the reinforcing bars

rigid connections

DESIGN OF THE CAPACITY OF SHEAR OF THE CONNECTORS

Elements for the definition of the frontal surfaces Af1 and Af2

Angle connector

CLASSIFICATION OF THE CONNECTION AND THE CONDITIONS

IMPOSED TO A COMPLETE CONNECTION
Complete connection: N> N f
Partial connection:

N<Nf, ; N/N f

Rolled beams equal flanges

Ductile connections: studs dia 16 mm22
mm and a minimum clear length after
welding of minim 4d):

Rolled beams non -equal flanges

Dimensionarea unei conexiuni partiale cu conectori ductili

Ductile connections: for the bottom flange area, Ati

respecting the condition: Ati<3Ats

Supplementary conditions for studs:

minim 76 mm clear height after
welding and dia 1920 mm

DESIGN RESISTANCE OF THE CONNECTORS

Design resistance of studs:

PRd

(1)

( 2)
Rd

0,8

d 2 f u

4 v

PRd min( PRd(1) , PRd( 2) )

Shear strength of a stud

f ck Ecm

0,29 d
2

Shear resistance due to concrete crushing

Rigid connectors
PRd Af1

f ck

Steel thick plates

PRd 10bh3 / 4 f ck

Angles

COMPOSITE ( STEEL-REINFORCED CONCRETE ) STRUCTURES

TYPES OF STRUCTURAL COMPOSITE ELEMENTS

ELEMENTE
MIXTE CONCRETE
OEL-BETON
COMPOSITE
( STEEL-REINFORCED
) STRUCTURES

COMPOSITE STEEL BEAMS

1)-hot rolled universal beams or plate girders
2)-reinforced concrete slabs
COMPOSITE SLABS
1)-hot rolled universal beams or plate girders
2)- steel decking and reinforced concrete

COMPOSITE COLUMNS
1)-hot rolled sections
2)-reinforced concrete

ADVANTAGES OF COMPOSITE STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS

1. The two elements act well (complementary) together

under exploitation loading;
2. The steel consumption is reduced in comparing with
steel beams acting alone and in the same time, the
self-weight reduces in comparing with the reinforced
concrete beams;
3. The deflection diminishes drastically;
4. The depth of the current level is reduced leaving a
wider space for the building services facilities-ducts,
equipments, etc.
3

MATERIALS
USED FOR THE COMPOSITE STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS

MATERIALE
MATERIALS
PENTRU
ELEMENTESTRUCTURAL
MIXTE OEL-BETON
USED
FOR COMPOSITE
ELEMENTS
STEEL GRADES used for composite elements according to EC4
Mechanical characteristics of steel used for composite elements
according to Romanian regulations SR EN 10025-2
Nominal thickness of the element [mm]

t 40mm

Steel grade
fy

S235
S275
S355

[N/mm2]
235
275
355

40mm t 80mm
fu

Characteristics of the structural steel:

Youngs elastic modulus [N/mm2]:
Transversal modulus [N/mm2]:
Poissons ratio:
Density [kg/ m3] :

a ;= 0,3

[N/mm2]
360
430
510

fy

[N/mm2]
215
255
335

fu

[N/mm2]
360
410
470

Ea = 210.000
Ea
Ga =
2 1+ a

a = 7850
5

MATERIALE
MATERIALS
PENTRU
ELEMENTE
OEL-BETON
USED
FOR THE
COMPOSITEMIXTE
STRUCTURAL
ELEMENTS
STEEL DECKING-profiled steel sheeting
Modern deck profiles are in the range of 4580 mm height and 150300
mm trough spacing, like the dovetail profile or the trapezoidal profile
with web indentations. The steel is galvanized 0,9 to 1,5 mm thick; the
thickness of the galvanizing is G275 (275 g/mp), equivalent of 0.02 mm
for each face.
EUROCODE 4 recommends the thickness of the steel sheet to be between
0,75 mm2 mm (usually 1,0 mm 1,25 mm).
The most efficient spans are 6501000 mm but also bigger, like 2,7
m3,6 m and the lengths 1020 m. Steel yield strengths of 280 N/mm2
and 350 N/mm2 are commonly met.
Quality classes JR, JO, J2 i K2 used for these elements, the difference
being in different welding quality criteria and the toughness.

MATERIALE
MATERIALS
PENTRU
ELEMENTE
OEL-BETON
USED
FOR THE
COMPOSITEMIXTE
STRUCTURAL
ELEMENTS
CONCRETE - type and grade
Normal and lightweight concrete are both used. The concrete grade may be
specified in terms of cylinder or cube strength (ex: C25/30 is the grade for
25 N/mm2 cylinder strength and 30 N/mm2 is the cube strength.
Grade of
concrete

NE 012-99

C12/15

C16/20

C20/25

C25/30

C30/37

C35/45

C40/50

C45/55

C50/60

Class: C 140-86

Bc15

Bc20

Bc25

Bc30

Bc35

Bc40

Bc50

Bc60

Bc60

Grade

B200

B250

B300

B400

B450

B500

B600

B700

f ck [MPa]

12

16

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

f ctm [MPa]
f ctk0,05 [MPa]

1.6

1.9

2.2

2.6

2.9

3.2

3.5

3.8

4.1

1.1

1.3

1.5

1.8

2.0

2.2

2.5

2.7

2.9

f ctk0,95 [MPa]
Rd [N/mm2]

2.0

2.5

2.9

3.3

3.8

4.2

4.6

4.9

5.3

0.26

0.30

0.34

0.38

0.42

0.45

0.48

Concrete
Strngth

MATERIALE
MATERIALS
PENTRU
ELEMENTE
OEL-BETON
USED
FOR THE
COMPOSITEMIXTE
STRUCTURAL
ELEMENTS
Equivalence between the cube strength and cylinder strength for the
concrete

> C 20/25; LC 20/25

< C 60/75; LC 60/75

MATERIALE
MATERIALS
PENTRU
ELEMENTE
OEL-BETON
USED
FOR THE
COMPOSITEMIXTE
STRUCTURAL
ELEMENTS
In elastic domain the alteration of the elastic properties of the
concrete due to contraction, expansion and cracking may be
estimated by different values of the elastic modulus, Ec
This estimation is, in the current situations done by replacing the
Ac n
area of the concrete cross section, Ac , with an equivalent steel
area, n , where
is the nominal equivalence coefficient
determined with:
'
n = Ea Ec

where:
E

Ec'

is the elastic longitudinal modulus of the steel,

is the equivalent modulus of the concrete.

'
E
In most common situations a simplified, averaged value c = Ecm 2
is accepted in the equilibrium equations on the cross sections

SYSTEMS FOR ELECTRICITY

TRANSMISSION ON LINES
1. Introduction. General elements
2. Elements of the Electric Transmission Lines - Conductors (Wires) and Insulators
2.1. Specific features. a. Metals used for conductors; b. Classification of the conductors based on
their design; c. Design strength of the conductors
2.2. Requirements for the disposition of the conductors on the towers
2.3. Insulators-types, minimum design distances
2.4. Actions and groups of actions on the conductors and on insulators
2.5. Specific situations for the design of electric transmission lines
3. Towers and cross-arms
3.1. Types of towers
3.2. Actions and groups of actions in the tower design

4. Design of the Electric Transmission Lines

4.1. Specific climatologic and meteorological conditions for the E.T.L.
4.2. Design values of the actions
4.3. Design hypotheses
Design of the steel towers
Single wall columns
Tower with square or rectangular section
Solutions for the internal members and connections
The foundations of the towers

SYSTEMS FOR ELECTRICITY TRANSMISSION ON LINES

S.E.T.L. is an independent system that transmits and distributes the electric energy in the territory. This
system is made of: conductor wires, insulation units, clamps, fittings, towers and their foundations, also
various devices necessary to tie to the earth.
The transportation and distribution of electric energy from the producer (electric plants) to the consumer
(cities, plants, etc.) is a system developed similarly with "a cascade", from higher voltages, of more than 750
kV to lower voltages: 110, 220, 400, 500 kV. The electric current transported may have one phase
(continuous) and two or three phases (alternative).
According to the code for practice PE 104/1993, the structures and systems that sustain nominal voltage of
more than 750kV are the objects of the specific recommendations in PE 151/1993.
The electric transmission lines (E.T.L.) are classified into three categories according to their importance:
I category - electric transmission lines for high voltage that transport high electric power to cities or
important industrial area, with continuous services;
II category - electric transmission lines for high voltage that transport low electric power to small towns or
ordinary factories and also they may be distribution lines for high voltage lines;

III category - electric transmission lines for low voltage.

The elements of these systems are:
conductors;
insulating units and fittings;
towers with cross-arms;
foundations.

GEOMETRIC ELEMENTS OF AN ELECTRICITY SUPPLY TRANSMISSION LINE

The definitions of the geometric elements are:

the alignment, comprising a number of spans in straight line, at both ends being placed end towers and/or
corner towers;
tension panel formed by a number of spans in straight line, at both ends being placed anchor towers;
effective span of the conductor, ai, represents the horizontal projection of the distance between the two
fixing points that form one span (fig. 1);
the sink (out of level of one tower from previous one, hi, which represents the difference of level between
the fixing points of the conductor with the columns that mark the span;
virtual span, ah, between two towers situated at different levels of ground, is the horizontal distance
between one point where the conductor is fixed and the intersection with the effective curve of the cable or
with its extension, depending whether this last point is placed lower or upper to the fixing point;
nominal span, an, is the conventional distance where the fixing points are in the same plane, In the nominal
span, the terrain is plane and for the maximum deflection, the clearance gauge to the ground has the
minimum value. The nominal span is obtained according to technical and economical evaluations and for
this value, the nominal height of the towers is determined.
the span afferent to wind pressure, aw,, represents the average between the effective spans placed both
sides of one single tower;
vertical (gravitational) span due to the weight of the cable, ag, representing the average of the virtual
spans afferent to a single tower.

GEOMETRIC ELEMENTS OF AN ELECTRICITY SUPPLY TRANSMISSION LINE

virtual span, ah, between two towers situated at different levels of ground, is the horizontal distance
between one point where the conductor is fixed and the intersection with the effective curve of the cable
or with its extension, depending whether this last point is placed lower or upper to the fixing point;
nominal span, an, is the conventional distance where the fixing points are in the same plane, In the nominal
span, the terrain is plane and for the maximum deflection, the clearance gauge to the ground has the
minimum value. The nominal span is obtained according to technical and economical evaluations and for
this value, the nominal height of the towers is determined.
the span afferent to wind pressure, aw,, represents the average between the effective spans placed both
sides of one single tower;
vertical (gravitational) span due to the weight of the cable, ag, representing the average of the virtual
spans afferent to a single tower;
deflection, f, represents the distance between any point on the cable in its curved shape and the straight
line that link the two towers marking one span; it may have maximum, minimum and average values and fn
is the nominal deflection;
suspension (or fixing) height of the conductor, the height from the points where the cable is fixed on the
tower, or it is suspended from the chains of insulators to the ground level
clearance gauge, hg , is the minimum distance from the conductor to the terrain.

Fig. 1. Graphical representation of the basic elements of the electric transmission lines- 19 towers

Specifications
alignment: part: of the line between the towers 13 and 39;
panel: part of the line between the towers 13; 36; 69 where towers 1, 3, 6, 9
are anchor towers;
an nominal span;
ai(i=1n)=ar -effective spans;
av span afferent to wind pressure on the conductors;
ag- vertical span corresponding to gravitational actions from the conductors;
ah virtual span;
hi(i=1n) out of level between two current towers;
fn the deflection of the cable corresponding to nominal span;
hc height from the ground to the point of fixing (or suspension) of the cable;
hg clearance gauge from the ground level.

TYPES OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS AND TOWERS

Wires for E.T.L. with one single phase: a- simple circuit; b, c- double circuit

Different solutions for the E.T.L. with alternative current in two circuits
Different constructive solutions of E.T.L. for alternative current with one circuit

METALS USED FOR CONDUCTORS

They may be active conductors that transfer the electricity from a tower to the next one and passive or protection
conductors that prevent the electric system from the direct thunderbolt.
The conductors are made of different materials that insure their electric and mechanical properties: copper and its
alloys, aluminum and its alloys, steel and steel wires combined with one of the materials mentioned especially
with aluminum.
Copper conductors - very good conductivity, mechanical strength (small stresses , small spans ),big specific weight
.
Bronze conductors alloys of copper, tin and silicium , big mechanical strength, smaller conductivity .
Aluminum conductors basic type of conductors, mainly in Europe; good, conductivity, small specific weight,
important mechanical strength. Its highest performance lies in its high purity, the alloying elements (Fe, Cu, Si, Zn)
not exceeding 0.5%.
Aldrey conductors alloy based on Al, with 0.63%Si, 0.4%Mn and 0.3%Fe; good conductivity and specific weight
almost equal with Al while the strength is 100% bigger than the strength of Al. Both aluminum conductors and
Aldrey conductors form on their surface a thin layer of oxide that protects the wire against corrosion.
Steel conductors reduced conductivity, good mechanical strength (increased carbon percentage) and they are
galvanized on their surface (corrosion conditions).
Steel- aluminum conductors combination between two metals, which influences the mechanical strength and
the electric conductivity of the conductor. Although the two metals have different elastic linear deformations and
different specific elongation, they act homogeneously due to their inter reaction at the interface because of
friction.

METALS USED FOR CONDUCTORS

Ratio between aluminum and steel section

Aal

Specific weight of the combination

Aal al Aol ol n al ol

A
n 1

Aol

A al Aal ol Aol

The equilibrium of efforts in the whole conductor

Ideal (theoretic) elastic modulus

al ol

Ideal (theoretic) coefficient of linear dilatation

Single and multi-threaded

conductors

al
Eal

ol
Eol

Aal Eal Aol Eol n Eal Eol

Aal Aol
n 1

al Aal Eal ol Aol Eol

Aal Eal Aol Eol

n al Eal ol Eol
n Eal Eol

Conductors with tubular section:

-With more layers;
-With one layer.

Classification of the conductors based on their design

Single threaded conductors small cross sections, small lengths:
- spans smaller than 70 m;
- aluminum and its alloys are not allowed;
- steel is not allowed also for line in the categories I and II;
- copper and its alloys are admitted only when the cross sections are > 16 mm2;
- minimum cross section of the conductor: 25 mm2 for aluminum, steel-aluminum and steel with aluminum
alloys conductors, 16 mm2 for steel.

Multi-threaded conductors cross section like rope, a material with good conductivity or steel
wires; may be mono- metallic or bimetallic.

Conductors with tubular section - electric current with more than 220 kV, bigger diameter,
2530 mm and two types of sections:
- two or more layers of wires or special shapes of sections are twisted together in opposite
direction and they represent the wall of the tube; another element that sustain them is made of coiled
steel stripe or a steel spiral thin wire;
- one single layer of special steel shapes without any support, the shapes being assembled one
by one in tongue and groove system.
The steel-aluminum conductors are designed according to STAS 3000/1,2-1986 and their
protection against corrosion is made with the a zinc layer, thicker or thinner according to the
prescriptions of STAS 3732/1,2-1985.

Design strength of the conductors

1.
2.
3.

The design strength of the wire = percentage from the ultimate tensile strength of the cable, prc, (ratio
between the ultimate force and the effective section of the cable);
Minimum tensile strength -the physical and mechanical characteristics of the wires used for the electric
transmission lines are presented in tables.
The design values of the mechanical strengths of the wires must not be exceeded by more than 5% in the
fixing points for any of the groups of actions in the serviceability state. The following situations will be
checked:
maximum stress due to the self-weight, wind and ice altogether, the maximum design strength being 0.7
prc ;
minimum temperature, the self-weight acting on the conductor, maximum design strength being 0.5 prc ;
serviceability stress, due to the self-weight of the cable for which the design strength is 0.18prc, for spans
>120 m and 0.25 prc , respectively when the spans <120 m.

Physical and mechanical characteristics of the wires in threaded cables for S.E.T.L.

Material of
the Wire

Electric Resistivity in
Continuous Current

Temperature
Coefficient of the
Electric
Resistance

Specific
Weight

Linear
Dilatation
Factor

Elastic
Modulus

Ultimate (Tensile)
Strength

mm2/m

0C-1

daN/dm3

0C-1

daN/mm2

daN/mm2

Aluminum
STAS
12486-86

0.028264

0.004

2.649

2.310-5

5500

-19.017.6 pt.1.758.5
mm;
-17.315.8 pt.2.755
mm

Alcora
(aluminum
alloy)

0.0328

0.0036

2.649

2.310-5

5600

29.40

Steel
category*
A

0.18180.1885
pt. =1.153.0 mm

0.0045

7.701

1.1510-5

18800

37.22

Steel
category*
B

0.25100.2493
pt. =1.453.2 mm

0.0045

7.701

1.1510-5

19600

117.6

Steel
category*
C

0.25100.2493
pt. =1.453.2 mm

0.0045

7.701

1.1510-5

19600

137.3

*- According to STAS 3732/1,2-1985

Requirements for the disposition of the conductors on the towers

A.
B.

Smaller voltage (under 35 kV), rigid fixing to the cross-arms, placed on supports;
Higher voltage- chains of several units of insulators (79 units), the number depending on the
voltage level of the line.

Rigid insulators (support);

chain of insulators (suspension)

Geometrical significance
of the parameters a and b

Distances: a- between the conductor and the

axis of the tower;
b- between the conductors

Requirements for the disposition of the conductors on the towers

hg (hter) the distance between the lowest point of the conductor in its chain shape and the tangent
to the ground level, tables.
The following distances correspond to the situations (Code for practice PE 105/ 1996):
t=+400 C;
t=-50 C and ice;
t=-50 C and ice with an increased value with 25% for terrain of category I.
The specificity of the terrain

Not populated, vehicles have access

Minimum distances hg

Populated (cities, towns, villages)

Difficult access for people, vehicles have
not access

U<1kV

1kV<U35kV

35kVU110 kV

a and b

5.5

6.5

5.5

6.5

4.5

4.5

Nature of the obstacles in terrain

Nominal tension of the line, Un

1 kV<Un<20 KV

110 kV

220 kV

400 kV

Minimum distance [m]

Minimum distances between the

conductors under wind pressure and
obstacles in accidental terrain

Non-populated areas, accessible only for

transportation and agricultural engines,
with the exception of the roads of
categories I-IV

Areas accessed only by pedestrians

4.5

Non-accessible areas like cliffs, rocks,

ridges

2.5

Requirements for the disposition of the conductors on the towers

Crossing and maximum (limit) distances from the elements of the ETL and:
a)- buildings; b)- railroads

Requirements for the disposition of the conductors on the towers

d - the minimum distance between two active conductors or one active and the other passive, in the
normal position measured at the suspension point: d k f li

U
150

f - maximum deflection of the conductor, in m, determined in the situation of maximum positive

temperature, or -50C and the white frost on the cable ;
li length of the chain of insulators, in m; in the case of anchor insulators or sustaining insulators, in V
shape, lI;
U - nominal voltage of the electric line, in kV;
k - coefficient considering the nominal voltage of the electric line and the characteristics of the
conductors(*)
* kh for horizontal disposition of the conductors, and kv for vertical disposition are taken2 from the table
b
below; for the other cases, k is obtained with the following formulae: k kh kv kh a 2 b2
The material of the cable
Steel

Aluminum and
aluminum alloys

Tension in the line Un,kv

Section of the conductors (mm2)

Values of coefficients kv, kh

<110

110

Coefficient

Coefficient

Steel-Aluminum

kv

kh

kv

kh

10.16

16150

1670

0.85

0.65

0.95

0.70

2535

>150

95150

0.75

0.62

0.85

0.65

7095

185300

0.70

0.60

0.75

0.62

>95

>300

0.70

0.60

0.70

0.60

Requirements for the disposition of the conductors on the towers

Conductors with different cross sections the distance d between the conductors will be verified for
the case when the first conductor is subjected to a maximum wind pressure and the second to
a wind pressure diminished with 20% from the maximum value. The distance between the
conductors in this case must be greater than Un/150 but not smaller than 0.20 m.
The case when specific extreme wind manifestations may appear, like galloping, bounding of the
cables and a-synchronic oscillation will determine the adoption of some specific distances:
0.20 m for E.T.L. of 20 kV;
0.45 m for ETL of 110 kV;
0.95 m for ETL of 220 kV;
1.65 m for ETL of 400 kV.
Minimum distances must be kept also between the parts of the tower under tension and the ones
that are tied up to earth.

- the angle of inclination between the chains of insulators that sustain the conductors will be determined
with the relationship:

arctg 0.75
arctg 0.5

av gvc
ag gvc

a v g vc
a g g vc

for Un 110 kV
for Un= 220400 kV.

where av, ag - see fig. 1;

gc, gvc weight of the conductor itself and in the
combination with wind and ice.

Requirements for the disposition of the conductors on the towers

cmin - the minimum distance between the conductors and the tower, in cm, may be determined starting from the
relationship and the geometry in the figure:
without wind action: c 10 0.65U

with wind action:

c 0.65U

these minimum values are also tabulated in standard specifications, ex. table.
Meteorological conditions

Minimum distances admitted between

the conductors and the tower, cmin, in
cm

Voltage of E.T.L., in kV
110

220

400

Averaged temperature (100C150 C) and wind

with speeds of 010 m/s

90

180

290

Averaged temperature (100C150 C)

maximum wind speed 2636 m/s

40

60

100

and

d eca 2
where:
a- the width of the tower;
c- distance from the leg of the tower to the
balanced position of the reaction R;

Distances: a- between the conductor and the axis of the tower;

b- between the conductors

Requirements for the disposition of the conductors on the towers

h the height of the tower above the ground, measured from the cross-arm placed at the lowest level and the
h h1 f li r
ground level, is determined with the relationship:
where:
f the maximum deflection of the conductor;
li the length of the chain of insulators;
r the length of the rigid part of the fixing device of the chain of insulators to the bottom part of the
cross-arm.
Special situations:
anchor towers - the chain follows the curved line of the conductor and then:
rigid insulators :

h ht f hiz r

where:
hiz height of the rigid insulator; r - the same significance as above.

Height of the tower from the level of the cross-arm to the ground

h ht f r

Requirements for the disposition of the conductors on the towers

tg - maximum balancing position of the conductor under the presence of the actions-both vertical and
horizontal:
where:
Hv
tg
Hv reaction from wind action (fig. 16);
Gci
V
V vertical reaction on the tower coming from both sides of the line;
2
Gci weight of the chain of insulators;

The balanced position in its maximum geometric value:

e li sin

ACTIONS AND GROUPS OF ACTIONS ON THE CONDUCTORS AND ON THE

INSULATORS
ACTIONS ON CABLES
self-weight of the conductor:

g1 g c

3
weight of the deposit of ice on the conductor: g2 b b dc ice 10

[daN/m]

[daN/m]

where:
- b, do - the thickness of the ice layer, depending on the climatologic area and the diameter of
the cable, respectively;
-ice - the specific weight of ice, in daN/dm3;
weight of the cable including the ice deposit:

g 3 g1 g 2

wind pressure on the cable :

g vc ctc c pv d 10 3

[daN/m]
[daN/m]

temperature effects for t=-50 C (the temperature of developing ice): a linear variation of the
length of the cable;

ACTIONS AND GROUPS OF ACTIONS ON THE CONDUCTORS AND ON THE

INSULATORS

Combined value from self-weight, ice and wind on the cable:

Combined load of self-weight and wind pressure:

q g 3 g vc2
2

q g1 g vc2

[daN/m]
[daN/m]

ACTIONS FROM THE CHAINS OF INSULATORS

Weight of the chains of insulators:
- without ice deposit: Giz;
- with ice deposit:1.1Giz

GROUPS OF ACTIONS
minimum temperature, t= -300C (wind and ice are missing);
mean temperature (wind and ice are missing);
mean temperature, wind speed of 10 km/s (without ice);
mean temperature, maximum wind speed (no ice);
maximum temperature, t= 400C (wind and ice are missing);
temperature of ice (t=-50C) and ice deposits on all the elements of the line (cables, insulators,
cross-arms and towers); the wind is not considered at all;
temperature of ice (t =-50C) and wind simultaneously on all the elements of the line
Note: The relationships used to determine the characteristic and design values of the actions on the
conductors are presented in the table

Actions (daN)
Characteristic
values of actions

g 76ca gg132132cggg54245252ac

Normal Exploitation (Fundamental

Group of Actions)

g1=gc

Weight of the cable

g2=b(dc+b) ch10-3

Ice on the cable

g3=gc+b(dc+b) ch10-3

Total weight of the cable loaded with ice

Wind pressure on the cable without ice

g4=ctc c p(v) dc 10-3

Wind pressure on the cable loaded with ice

g5=ctc c p(v+ch) (dc+2b) 10-3

Total weight of the cable with maximum wind

speed

g 6 g12 g 42

Total weight of the cable with ice and wind

simultaneously
Design Values of
Actions

Accidental Group of Actions

g5a=a/n ctc c p(v+ch) (dc+2b)10-3

-

g 7 g 32 g 52

g 7 a g 32 g 52a
g1=1.1gc ; g1=0.9gc*

Weight of the cable

Ice on the cable

g2=1.8b(dc+b) ch10-3; g2c=1.0b(dc+b) ch10-3*

Total weight of the cable loaded with ice

g3c=1.1gc+1.8b(dc+b)ch10-3; g3c=0.9gc+b(dc+b) ch10-3*

Wind pressure on the cable without ice

g4c=nctc c p(v) dc 10-3

Wind frost on the cable loaded with ice

g5c=nctc c p(v+ch) (dc+2b) 10-

Total weight of the cable with maximum wind

speed

g 6c g12 g 42

Total weight of the cable with ice and wind

simultaneously

g5ac=actc c p(v+ch) (dc+2b)10-3

-

g 7 c g 32c g 52c

Actions and groups of actions for the design of the conductors

SPECIFIC SITUATIONS IN THE DESIGN OF E.T.L.

The value of the maximum stress in the conductor: big spans the maximum stress from the most
unfavorable combination of actions must be determined not in the lowest point of the curve, but in the
section situated in the point of hanging, close to the tower.
S cos H
or : 1 A cos A

The influence of the chains of insulators upon the amplitude of the deflection: uneven spans the
alteration of the loading conditions and of the temperature in the conductors induces different efforts

a 3 cos 2
24
A

max z f

1 z

cos

cos

2 2 a
0 0 t a t 0 t a 0
0 E

2 a 3 cos 2
24

a 0 a 3 cos 2
B

E
24

a
a A 2
B

E
1

0 t a t0 t
0

a1
B1

E
1 a
.an An 2 n
Bn

E
a1 A1

a
r 1

SPECIFIC SITUATIONS IN THE DESIGN OF E.T.L.

The critical span of the bimetallic conductors

RADIO AERIAL GUYED

MASTS

1. Introduction
2. General Provisions for Design
2.1. Actions.
2.2. Combinations of Actions
3. Structural computation of the
masts

RADIO AERIAL GUYED MASTS

Lattice spatial systems obtained from hot rolled open sections or cold formed hollow

sections supported (articulated) on foundations and guyed at different levels with wires.
The number of guying levels may be from 16, depending on the technological
necessities, the height of the mast and the dimensions of the transversal cross section.
The wires are fixed with the help of insulators to anchor systems encased in concrete
foundations. Masts are structures exclusively used for radio aerial transmission.

Central Florida broadcast stations: Broadcast Tower,WFTT-TV Tampa

Bay. Broadcasts on UHF channel 50 (the 442.550 m). The tower has a 7
foot wide face, which creates a null behind the antenna

CONDITIONS IMPOSED BY EXPLOITATION CRITERIA

1.
2.
3.

4.
a)
b)
5.

The height must correspond to the criteria imposed by a perfect transmission;

A perfect insulation must be insured at the foundations level. In the case when the
mast is radiating, the following complementary conditions must be considered:
the cross section must be the smallest possible;
the cross section must also be constant on the height;
the cross section must be the smallest possible at the supporting level
(foundation level);
the length of the guying wires must be divided into several units by means of
insulators; these units of length must not exceed the following limits:
in the case of short waves emissions;
in the case of long and medium waves emissions.
the number of wires must be the minimum possible, the triangular sections being
the most advantageous; for the same reason, the number of guying levels must be
also the smallest, this being in contradiction with the other conditions imposed.

As all these conditions are not possible to be rigorously respected, a compromise

between all these must be searched during the design process

60

H
200
D

15D l 30D

l < 34 b - triangular section;

l < 42 b - rectangular sections.

Masts: a) with constant cross section;

b)- with variable cross section guyed at the same level with several wires

Reducing the height by placing a horizontal ring at the top.

The efficiency lays in the fact that the height is fictively
enhanced with twice the diameter of this horizontal ring,

SPECIAL DESIGN DETAILS

Masts are in carbon steel or low alloy steel; guying system is made of steel wires with
diameters <76 mm and porcelain insulators;
Exploitation conditions decide whether the mast is placed on an insulated support, or on
the contrary, it is connected to the earth;
Initial pre-loading force induced in the wires of the cable is half of the ultimate tensile strength
(0,5fu); this is a necessity because the elastic modulus is about 1.6105 N/mm2. Pre-loading
eliminates the permanent deformations and the elastic deformations in exploitation are
diminished;
The extremities on the bottom of the wires are fixed in steel cups made of a hard zinc
alloy having the ultimate tensile strength of about 250 N/mm2 for tension and 600 N/mm2 for
compression;
Masts are designed as several prefabricated units with lengths between 58 m
transported and assembled at the building site.
Diagonals in X shape are thermally pre-loaded by fixing them at place at high
temperatures and cooling afterwards;
The connections are with or without gussets. Horizontal elements are made of circular
hollow sections, directly connected to legs or, with flanges or I sections in the case of the
connections in the platform area.
The tubular sections are inter-connected in factory with welded seams and joints at the
building site are provided with bolted connections.
The details of anchorage systems and of foundations support allow the rotation. The legs
may also be separately anchored in the foundation (as in the case of towers) and in this case
the mast is encased in the foundation.

Masts-common details in the design of the connections of different elements:

a, b, c- connection between leg, horizontal element (strut) and diagonals (pre-stressed rods), welded;
d-flange connection between two units of the leg and diagonals bolted in site;
e- cable anchored in separate foundation

1. Central articulation:
1)-vertical insulator; 2)- horizontal insulators; 3)- brackets; 4)-fixing frame; 5)- insulator;
2. Solutions for the central articulation:
a)- with plane base plate; b)- with spherical support

Structural computation of the masts

3.1. Efforts in the guying wire; wire length variation
3.2. Masts anchored at a single level;
3.3. Multi-level guying masts
ACTIONS
Self-weight - in addition the vertical components of the pre-stressing forces in the cables
Temperature effects have to be considered also as traction forces applied to the mast.
Wind is the most important action, 90% of the maximum efforts ; on the mast and on the cables in the most
unfavorable situation and combination of actions.
Wind on the cables - a constant value and equal with the pressure at 2/3 of the height of top edge of the wire. Wind
pressure on the mast is considered with a constant value on the distance between two anchorage points and it is
determined as the moderated value of mean pressures acting on this distance; the most unfavorable situation for the
mast is when wind pressure is considered at the maximum value, the outside temperature being +20 oC.
The dynamic design must take into account the period of vibration of the anchored masts is: T0 0.01H
( sec), (H in
m)
This relationship is sufficiently correct provided the mast is not charged with important concentrated masses that may
alter the static scheme.
Ice is also taken into account, both on the internal steel elements of the mast and on the cables. Here we remind that
the density of the ice is 900 daN/cm3 and the thickness of the ice deposit, t, in cm depends on the region the
construction is situated, according to the regulations of STAS 10101/21-92.
Uneven settlements of the supports may have an important influence depending on the nature of the soil and must
be considered in the case of redundant systems (masts anchored with cables at different levels).
Special (accidental) combination of actions, the effects of earthquake are considered in the situation of breaking of
one wire.

GROUPS OF ACTIONS
Permanent actions + wind action + temperature effects, t=200C;
Permanent actions + ice + wind, moderated value, g w=0.3 kN/m2;
Permanent actions + effects of maximum temperature, t max= 400C , no wind;
Permanent actions + effects of minimum temperature, t min=-300C, no wind, no ice.

Special (accidental) groups of actions - either: earthquake effects + moderated wind

action + breaking of one cable, or, during the mounting stage: wind, maximum
value, alternatively wind, moderated value + ice.
Generally, it is presumed that the first combination is capital for the dimensions of the cross
sections of the structural elements. The second and the fourth combination are
important for the accidental case of breaking of one cable or cables on one side, and
the third is important for the computation of the maximum deflection.

STRUCTURAL COMPUTATION OF THE MASTS

WITH ONE LEVEL GUYING WIRES

g l2
g l2
g l2
l2
S
;f

8 f
8 S 8 A 8
8 2 cos 2
L l (1 f 2 )
3
l

f2
y 2
x
l
2

8
cos 2
1 2 3
a1 L l f 2

2 l cos 2
3
l
24
a 2

l
l
t t
E cos
cos

a a1 a2

l
E cos

1 2 3
l
2 l cos 2 t t
24
cos

( 0 ) l 1 3
2 2
l
l cos 2 ( 2 02 ) t (t t 0 )
E cos
24
cos

l
E cos

0 l

1 2 3
l
2 l cos 2 t t
C
24
cos

1 02 3
l
C (
2 l cos 2 t t 0
)
E cos 24 0
cos

GENERAL RELATIONSHIPS OF COMPUTATION OF THE

STRESSES IN THE WIRES
a) Wind normal to the wall of a square section mast
b) Wind on the diagonal of a square section mast
c) Wind normal to the wall of a triangular section mast
d) Wind along one guying wire of a triangular section mast
e) Wind parallel to one wall of a triangular section mast (normal to one wire)

 Wires are pre-loaded initially with 0 so even if the wind action unloads the

cable, it is still in tension.

The value of 0 is considered as 0.350.5 from the design value of strength.
Steel used for cables has usually the tensile strength Rt =12001600 daN/cm2
and the elastic modulus E=1,51,8x105 daN/cm2.

S1 1 A; S 2 2 A; S 0 0 A

1, 2

cos

1, 2 l
1 2
l
3
2

cos

C
t
E cos 24 1, 2 2
cos

1 2 0
S1 cos S 2 cos H

1 2

H
A cos

GRAPHICAL METHOD

The method is presented in the figure. Running

steps:
1. The curve 1 is represented as a function of
the abscise and ordinate , considering for
the first stage that C=0; the value of C is then
expressed shifting up the horizontal axis (a);
2. The curve representing 2 is the curve 1
mirrored, depending only on the position of the
horizontal axis of abscise C;
3. In (b) the dimension of the segment a-b
measures directly the value of the horizontal
displacement of the top point of intersection of
the wires 1 and 2.
The spatial analysis caused by the different
directions of the wind action on the mast is
discarded into the corresponding situations:

SPECIFIC DESIGN SITUATIONS

Square section
a) Wind normal to the wall

cos 450

(1 , 2 )
2 cos

1 2 1; 2 2 2

2 1 2 2

2S1 cos cos 450 2S2 cos cos 450 H

1 2

H
2 A cos

b) Wind on the diagonal

In the case of wind in one corner, the situation is identical

to the plane (see fig. 8) and the whole displacement is in the plane of
the two active cables 1 and 2, cable 1 being tensioned the other two,
3 and 4 suffering no efforts from wind action.

SPECIFIC DESIGN SITUATIONS

Triangular sections
a) Wind normal to the wall
1 2

1
2 1
2
cos 60 0
2 1 ; 2
2
cos
cos
cos
21 2

1 2 0

2S1 cos cos 600 S2 cos H

S1 cos S2 cos H

1 2

H
A cos

MULTI-LEVELED GUYING POINTS

(HYPER-STATIC STRUCTURES)
I STAGE- STATIC BEHAVIOUR
Masts are guyed at different levels being considered as beams on elastic
supports subjected to wind actions that will induce bending moments and shear
forces into their structure;
The vertical elements of the masts, the legs of this lattice space structure, are
subjected to compression produced by permanent and quasi-permanent actions
and the vertical components from pre-loading forces applied on the ends of the
cables.

In the first stage of the design the dimensions of the legs are imposed, a
preliminary value of the moments of inertia, (table 1) and the slenderness limits
being also set.
The design of the elements of the mast must respect limit gauge to allow the
transportation on railway.

Based on the dimensions set previously, the mast is calculated as a continuous

beam on rigid supports, the bending moments, shear forces and axial efforts
being determined on the basis of this scheme. This hypothesis leads usually to
results close to the reality.
The reactions in the anchor points and the pre-stressing forces are used for a
preliminary design of the cables. Some guiding elements are presented in table 2.

Efforts for the preliminary design

Cable
H
NT K
0.5 N r
cos

Mast
M 0.1 q ln2
N 0.5 n NT cos N G Nu

NT the effort in the cable in-wind direction;

q; ln horizontal uniform distributed load on the
H - the horizontal reaction at the level N;
panel ln;
0
= 90 - the angle between the cable and the n the number of cables above the panel where
vertical axis of the mast;
the computation is done;
K coefficient that depend on the number of the NG; Nn weight of the mast and of the equipment
from above the panel where the
cables; for 3-4 cables K=1.2;
Nr - tensile limit strength in the cable
computation is done.

The top guying point is determined for the cables using the
relationships from the different cases of wind action and the number of
guying points (three or four).
1. The difference of stress is set previously and knowing also the
value of the horizontal action H we will determine the necessary cross
section A: 1 2
A

1 2
H

cos ; A

1 2
H

2 cos

2. The initial stress in the cable 0 is also set, depending on the

strength of the material.
3. Based on all these data, the curves 1 and 2 will be plotted,
checking in the mean time that the stress in the cable to be under the
limit values of its strength. If 1>R, A will be increased or 0
diminished. The translation of the top point, c is determined on the
graphic.
4. Once we know the translation at the top, the translations of the
other points, a and b of guying cables will be determined on a
diagram with linear variation based on the assumption that the mast
is a continuous beam on rigid supports

f 1 2 a 1 2 b
i ai H i bi

II STAGE DYNAMIC BEHAVIOUR

Static scheme
Beam with elastic restraints
translations

Computation of the translations and moments on the primary system; actions considered

Reactions and bending

moments on the redundant
system subjected to axial
loads, uniform distributed
transversal loads and moments
on the internal supports

CALCULUS OF THE EFFORTS IN THE MEMBERS OF THE MAST

Dr

Mc
Ma
; Dn 1
2 dr
2 d n 1

Dn

Qn
2 cos

N i N 0 N i ,n M n N i ,n1 M n1
NT K

H
0.5 N r
cos

Masts with square section and those with triangular section may be calculated with more precision
using Clapeyrons equation. Knowing the displacement of the support n as yn, the stresses in the
cables are determined with the help of the equation of the three moments.
The equation of the three moments takes into account also the secondary effects, in fact the
influence of the axial stress upon the deformations and the angles of rotation on the supports:
M n 1

ln
l
l
l
n 2 M n M ne n n M n 1 n 1 n 1 M n 1 M ne1 n 1 (n 1 )
In
In
I n 1
I n 1

2
p w n 1 l n21 l n 1
y n 1
y n 1 p w n l n l n
1
1
6 E
yn (
)
(n )

(n 1 )

l n l n 1
l n 1
4
In
4
I n 1
ln

where:
M - the moments on the supports coming from the loading schemes;
Me -the moments due to the resultant of the vertical components of the stresses in the cables:
M ne Vn1 Vn2

b
b
Vn
2
2

b -the distance between the axes of the legs;

Mn-1, Mn, Mn+1 moments on the supports;
,,- functions showing the influence of the axial stress upon the rotation of the section; they are
expressed as:
3
1
1
( n )
(

)
n sin 2n 2n
( n )

3
1
1
(

)
2n 2n tg 2n

( n )

3 (tg n n )
n3

The parameter is determined as a function of the total axial load N and the mechanical characteristics of the mast:

ln
Nn
l
N n 1

; n 1 n1
2
E In
2
E I n1

where:
Nn, Nn+1- axial efforts in the vertical elements of the mast between two guying points;
In, In+1 moments of inertia of the mast between two guying points;
ln, ln+1 lengths of the mast between two guying points
The moments are needed for the reactions to be computed:

Rn H c , n

pw n ln
2

p w n 1 l n 1
2

M n M ne M n 1

ln

M n 1 M ne1 M n
y y n 1
y yn
Nn n
N n 1 n 1
l n 1
ln
l n 1

Hc,n reactions from wind pressure acting directly on the cable:

H c ,n

m
1 cos 2 90 0 p w l
4

where:
m -the number of the cables in plane;
pw-the pressure of the wind on the unit length of the cable;
l -the length of the cable;
900- - the angle of inclination of the cable from the vertical axis of the mast.

The stress in the cable results from the reaction Rn: S=Rn/sin .
The total stress will be: St=S+So (the last stress is the pre-stressing force).

Structures with one, two or three layers-spatial lattice systems obtained from steel members
interconnected;
Used in plan dimensions of the building close to square,; economy of 10...12% in comparison with
lattice structures;
May have a flat shape (rigid plane rectangular structure) or in the shape of a cupola for buildings that
have circular, polygonal or ovoid plane. In particular, big structures that sustain radio telescopes;
Modern structures; numerous constructive systems in the last 50 years;
The spatial behavior determines a light weight and consequently, a reduction in steel consumption and
small heights of the roofs;
Wide spans of the roofs;
Great stiffness in the plane of the roof, small general deformations;
Short time of mounting due to prefabrication in great extend;
Low costs due to fast execution but also due to the fact that transportation and depositing of the
prefabricated units are not expensive.

Plane (flat) grids;

Curved grids (with single or double curvature): cupola, cylindrical, or rotational surfaces
obtained from hyperbolical parables;
Towers with grids;
Other combined structural shapes.
The maximum spans for the grids with one layer do not exceed 10 m.
When the necessities exceed these limits a two layers system is used as the solution or three
layers system placed at the edges and two layers placed in the middle of the plane surface.
The spatial planar grids combine the effect of a lattice girder with the effect of shell. The planar
grids with have limited spans of around 6065 m imposed by the stiffness of the whole system
(the maximum deflection).
The mesh of the grid may be triangular, square or hexagonal their stiffness decreasing from the
first to the last.

VARIOUS DESTINATIONS OF GRIDS

Structure of
the roof

VARIOUS
DESTINATIONS OF
GRIDS

Structure
of the
envelope

VARIOUS
DESTINATIONS OF
GRIDS

Domes

WIDE SPANNED STRUCTURES

Spatial frames are the result of

optimization of wide spanned
structures with special destinations;
In order to improve the behaviour
of planar trusses we have to insure
a spatial collaboration with other
structural systems; the result is a
spatial grid

BASIC CONCEPT
The chords of the truss must
change the shape in order to
cope with increasing spans
The new spatial system is
made of two planar systems
that take together the loads
and the deformations

Pix + Pi y = Pi
f ix = f i y

ASSUMPTIONS
I.
The connections are perfect spherical articulations, only axial efforts may result at the end of the
convergent bars (no bending and no torsion);
II. The bars converge axially (perfect) in the connection;
III. Actions are forces acting only in joints.

CLASSIFICATION OF THE STRUCTURES WITH GRIDS

Spatial grinds are obtained from nb members interconnected in nc joints
TRIANGULAR MODULES are efficient in transferring stresses. With little to no bending moments,
they are more stable and stronger than 90 degree frames.
3-D LATTICE STRUCTURES can cover larger areas at a lower weight. The many lightweight
members in a lattice structure distribute loads evenly and efficiently through the structure in
three dimensions, making it more efficient and lighter than a conventional two-dimensional
frame.
DOUBLY CURVED GEOMETRIES have the ability to span long distances. Their curvature transfers
stresses more efficiently with little to no bending moments, making them stiffer than
conventional flat surfaces. Doubly curved geometries now offer infinite possibilities of freestyle designs

Domes-double curvature in
one direction on circular plan

Parabolic-compound or
elliptical inverted surfaces

Shells made of one layer grids: a)- cupola; b)- cylindrical; c)- hyperbolical parable

double curvature in
opposite directions

Single layer membrane

maximum spans <10 m

Double layer with diagonals

Double layer with posts

(Vierendeel)

Three layer systems

Limited spans of 6065 m imposed by the stiffness of the whole system (the maximum deflection is
1/3001/400 of the span);
The grids may be: triangular, square or hexagonal, their stiffness decreasing from the first to the last;
Triangular planar grids: two layers translated relative one to the other; 3 diagonals emerge from
every joint and link the two surfaces;
Square planar grids: simple, oblique diagonal etc. In the case of the simple and oblique grid, 8
members are interconnected in a joint, 4 from the face and another 4 being the diagonals placed at
450; in the case of the diagonal grid a number of 6 members meet in the joints placed in the top face
from these 2 being diagonals

Planar grids with two layers and different arrangements of the internal members

Spatial planar
square simple

Spatial
planar
square
diagonal
structure

Planar square systems with

internal members eliminated

The in-deformability of the system must be maintained

Hexagonal systems of spatial planar structures: a)- simple; b) double

Some of the constructive systems adopted are:

TRIODETIC (Canada): the members are CHS (circular hollow sections) flattened at the ends. They are fixed in the
joint with two washers and a bolt and may be easily dismounted;
SPACE-DECK (U.K.): a square base pyramid made of hot rolled sections (angles) is place at the top of the grid
upside down; the bars are filleted in the joint at the top part of the pyramid;
MERO (Germany and other European countries) a sphere in metal with up to 18 holes with filets inside which CHS
or RHS (rectangular hollow sections) are fixed with HSFG Bolts;
UNISTRUT (SUA): the connection is made of a gusset spatially shaped with holes in which up to 8 bars may be
fixed with bolts. The bars are channels (C) and can be hot rolled or cold formed. Sections;
Other systems like: PYRAMITEC, TRIDIMATEC, TUBACCORD, SDC (France), UNIBAT and NODUS (UK), OKTAPLATTE
(Germany) are also used.

Constructive solutions for the connections between the internal members of a grid:
a)- TRIODETIC; b)- SPACE-DECK; c)- MERO; d)- UNISTRUT; e)- TRIDIMATEC

Welded spherical connections

CHS (bottom face) welded on a disc

ACTIONS
a. Permanent actions
b. Variable actions - in particular:
uneven sink at the foundations, variation of temperature due tot technological causes;
settlements at the supports;
important snow deposits in the case of skylights, gables, attic placed on perimeter or
higher buildings placed in the close neighborhoods;
wind;
effect of temperature variations;
all kind of loads or forces due to mounting stage that modify the static scheme
designed for the service life.
c. Combinations of actions -exploitation state and the mounting stage.

GEOMETRIC INVARIANCE AND STATIC EQUILIBRIUM

Basic assumptions:
The connections are perfect spherical articulations;
The joints maintain their position relative to each other as long as we consider that the
length of the bars is constant.
The condition of geometric invariance - in two alternatives:
A - the internal constraints in the connections and the external restraints at the supports act as
a single rigid system;
B - geometric invariance and static equilibrium of the grid insured only by the constraints in the
structural system

A. The condition of geometrical invariance is expressed with:

nb + nr 3nn 0

where:
nb, nn - the total number of bars and internal joints, respectively;
nr - number of bars that connect the grid to the supports.
B. A minimum number of bars (nb=6) is necessary in order to insure the connection between the
rigid plane (considered as a free body in space) and the ground. A common type of grid is the two
layer grid and it contains a total number of bars:

nb = nbs + nbi + nbd

nbs, nbi and nbd are the number of bars in the top layer, in the bottom layer and in the diagonals.

EXEMPLE

nb = 8mn
nn = 2mn + m + n + 1
nr = 2(m + n ) + 4

The redundancy is determined with the following relationship:

i = m(n 1) + n(m 1) + 1

Computation of the grids may be done with the following methods:

slope-deflection method we develop the matrix analysis by the direct stiffness
method;
a finite element method may be applied with computer aids;
assimilation of the structure with an equivalent shell.

Spacing between two running joints: 1.5 3.0 m;

Height (h): 1/151/20 of the minimum span;
= 450600;
Square spatial planar grids:
Simple grid:

tg =

2h
l
h
; ld =
=
l
2 cos sin

Diagonal grid:

tg =

h 2
; ld =
l

l
h
=
2 cos sin

Optimum steel consumption

the cross section of the internal members differentiated according
to distinct areas (maximum three) on the surface of the mesh
Recommended surfaces for different sections of the steel elements
Area
Member

Central

Intermediary

Marginal

Inside the top face

As

2/3As

1/3As

Inside the bottom face

Ai

2/3Ai

1/3Ai

In diagonals

0.4As or 0.4Ai

Verified for limit situations:

a- sections of failure;
b- crushing under compression efforts;
c- shear of the walls of the elements, gussets or spheres;
d- local buckling of the walls in compression.
The dimensions of spherical connections: diagram,
depending on the values of the critical efforts Pl based on
the maximum effort in the members converging in a
specific joint multiplied with a safety factor of 2.5;
Diameter of the sphere: de aprox. 1.82.0 dCHS.

Ext.diam.CHS
Thick .wall
(sphere )
; =
Ext.diam.sphere
Ext.diam.

The specific steel consumption:

C=k A

k= 1.1 - span < 24m;

k= 1.51.68 - span > 24m.
Minimum thickness of the wall is 4 mm;
Bolted connections: bolts in 6.6 category and slip resistance bolts

The connections are perfect spherical articulations, only axial efforts may result at the end of
the convergent bars (no bending and no torsion);
The bars converge axially (perfect) in the connection;
Actions are forces acting only in joints.
General methods:
slope-deflection method we develop the matrix analysis by the direct stiffness method;
a finite element method may be applied with computer aids;
assimilation of the structure with an equivalent shell.
DIRECT STIFFNESS METHOD
we write the joint equilibrium equations in terms of unknown joint displacements and stiffness
coefficients, respectively. The stiffness coefficients are in fact the forces due to unit displacements).
x

= 0 k11 x + k12 y = 0;

= 0 k 21 x + k 22 y = P

F
F

k11 =
k 21 =

Ai Ei
cos 2 x
Li
Ai Ei
cos x sin x
Li

k 22 =

Ai Ei
sin 2 x
Li

k12 =

Ai Ei
sin x cos x
Li

= k
k=

k11k12

k 21k 22

F=

0
P

x
y

F1 = x F11 + y F12
F2 = x F21 + y F22
AE
AE
cos x ; F12 =
sin x
L
L
AE
F21 = F22 = F =
sin x
L

F11 =

System of two bars (truss system) subjected to a force

acting in the joint 2: a)- actual forces acting on the original
structure; b)- case I-displacements under horizontal
component of force; c)- case II- displacements under
vertical component of force.

Stiffness coefficients for an axially loaded bar: a)- forces created by a unit
horizontal displacement; b)- forces created by a unit vertical displacement

An important degree of redundancy implies a great number of equations of equilibrium so in

fact the slope-deflection method will also be using the computer aids, basically starting with
[K ] [] = [F ]
Then:

[ ] = [K ]1 [F ]
Knowing the translations of the joints i and j in the global system of coordinates ix, iy,
iz, and jx, jy, jz, the elongation of the member ij will be determined:
lij = ( jx ix ) cos x + ( jy iy ) cos y + ( jz iz ) cos z

specific elongation:

forces in the member ij:

ij

l ij
l ij

Nij = ij E Aij = ij =

lij
lij

Aij

Forces in the internal members vary with the 1/h and in

particular the efforts in the diagonals vary with 1/sin. The
deflection varies with 1/h2
N=

p a3 P a 2

The translations and rotations of the joints i, j in

the loaded structure

Tabel. 2. Values of the coefficient

a/b
0.5
0.55
0.6
0.65
0.7
0.75
0.8
0.85
0.9
0.95
1.0

0.1935
0.1702
0.1500
0.1322
0.1162
0.1018
0.0888
0.0771
0.0666
0.0573
0.0491

a/b
1.05
1.1
1.15
1.2
1.25
1.3
1.35
1.4
1.45
1.5
1.55

0.0419
0.0357
0.0303
0.0257
0.0218
0.0185
0.0156
0.0132
0.0112
0.00948
0.00803

Table 3. Values of the coefficient

0.00680
0.00576
0.00487
0.00412
0.00349
0.00295
0.00249
0.00210
0.00176
-

a/b
1.6
1.65
1.7
1.75
1.8
1.85
1.9
1.95
2.0
-

n
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13

3.333
3.889
4.667
5.250
6.000
6.600
7.333
7.944
8.667

n
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22

Slenderness ratios rectified for CHS

OLT 35

lf

OL 44 and OLT 45

rectified

lf
i

rectified

OL 52

lf

rectified

20
80

-12

2075

-11

2070

-10

80
100

-7

7590

-7

7080

-6

>100

>90

>80

9.286
10.000
10.625
11.333
11.963
12.667
13.300
14.000
14.636

n
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
-

15.333
15.972
16.667
17.308
18.000
18.643
19.333
19.978
-

The first type of analysis consists in modeling a discrete structure and study
the stresses and strains in the internal members by using mathematical
discrete variables.
For reticular structures much more intricate and non symmetric the explicit
solutions are not acceptable and numerical methods along with
approximate analysis techniques are adopted. In 1927 F. Bleich and E Melan
developed the discrete structural computation methods but only after 1960
these methods were applied for reticulated structures.
The second type of analysis is adopted for structures with a very big number
of element; the basic concept replaces the reticular space with a continuous
equivalent space, the methods of equivalence being either with
interdependent solutions between the two spaces, or by conversion of the
finite difference equations into approximate differentials.
Wright developed the method of interdependent equations for unistrat
systems based on the shell theory.

x =
x =

x
Ex '

x '

Ey '

; y =

2 AE
t 'L 3

3 AE
4 t 'L

x '= y '= ' =

1
3

P1 =
P2 =
P3 =

2 3
L

(3N

(
N
3

(
N
3

+ N xy 3 ;

N xy 3

x
Ex '

; xy =

xy
G'

E 't '3
D=
12 1 ' 2

t' =

2d
3

t' = 2 3 i
3 AE
(3 x + y );
4 t 'L
3 AE
(3 y + x );
y =
4 t 'L
3 AE
xy =
xy
4 t 'L

x =

N y );

Ey '

y '

t x ' = t y ' = t'

Static equilibrium: a)- in the triangular spatial grid; b)- in

the equivalent continuous space

Ny
N xy
Nx
; y =
; xy =
tx '
ty '
t'

Ex ' = E y ' = E' =

G' =

SUSPENDED STRUCTURES

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

GENERAL FEATURES
IN PLANE SUSPENDED STRUCTURES
TRUSSES-CONSTRUCTIVE DETAILS
DESIGN CONCEPTS-PRELIMINARY DESIGN
SPATIAL SUSPENDED STRUCTURES

GENERAL FEATURES
Years 1800-1900: Development of
some cable suspended structures:
bridges and roofs, based on the
principles of a tent.
Advantages: high efficiency,
slenderness, diversity thin elements
giving transparency for the whole
structure, especially for L> 70 m.
Special functionalities: expocenters, malls, stadiums, malls,
circus, pools etc.
The best solution: to preload the
cables to sustain the heavy weight of
big roofs: Rayleigh Arena, 1952.
Mainly two cables: one for bearing
the weight and one for tension

Palatul Culturii si Sporturilor din Bucuresti

CLASSIFICATION OF SUSTAINING CABLES

A- depending on the initial effort Ni0: free cables, Ni0=0; preloaded cables, Ni0=p;
B-depending on preloading methods: with permanent loads; with tensioned cables;
C- depending on the planes containing the inverted curves: in the same plane; in
separate planes; combined

D- depending on the way the external loads act: in plane, spatial.

Circular in plane trusses:

concave and convex

Plane suspended trusses

- Concave plane trusses: all elements are in tension;

- Convex plane trusses: struts are all in compression
- Combined.
Jawerth systems: the connection between the carrying cables and tensioned cables is made by
the diagonals.
The cables are in fact groups of cables, for ex. two at the top and one at the bottom (Skating
Pool, Galati).
Fixing the cables together with specific devices and systems-the cables may be tangent or not.

Tangent cables

Anchor systems for cables: hoops, bracelets, cast in systems with cones and special fixing materials

Individual systems for fixing the cables

Fixing the cables together with

rigid elements: clamps (band
colars tightened with bolts; steel
plates pressing the cables;
(aluminium colar placed inside the
join increase the adherence)

SPATIAL SUSPENDED STRUCTURES

Shapes for polygonal roofs

Systems for roofs

Spatial suspended roofs: intersection of trusses; superposed systems with diagonal

Design concept ( Romanian code for practice GP018-1997): spatial displacementstranslations+ rotations due to the reduced stiffness of the elements impose second order
analysis.
Both methods adopted for static equilibrium: flexibility and rigidity methods.
The preliminary design method: consider a continuous space described by a vectorial
translation, under external concentrated actions

Typical suspended structure for a sport centrum

Fixing the convergent cables

SPECIAL STEEL
STRUCTURES MADE
IN STEEL SHEET

Tanks for fluids or gases;

Bunkers and silos for powders;

Gas or fluid pipelines with big

diameters;

Other structures (kilns) used for

iron production, cement industry,
chemical and petrochemical
industries.

TANKS
Tanks are used for the deposit fluids at low or high pressure - petroleum, chemical
substances, water and gases. the conditions of stress and exploitation are extremely
different - from very low to very high temperatures, static and dynamic loading under
different conditions of pressure (very low or very high, for e. from 2 to 20 barr),
aggressive environmental conditions, etc.
The destinations of the deposit inside the tanks are various so the volume varies a lot:
5 and 10.000 mc.
The steel used for the body of the tank is protected against corrosion, often doubly hot
dip galvanised at 450C.
Modern tanks are made from stripped steel sheets with a minimum thickness of 3 mm,
asambled with bolts at site. Tanks made of stripped steel sheets must have special
stiffening elements that take horizontal actions from wind, seismic forces or
temperature effects.

MODERN DESTINATIONS AND DESIGN

Water tanks: transportation and erection

Sealant of the modern tanks is insured by plastic special membranes which prevent from leakage the
liquid deposited inside (water, petroleum, other substances).
The thermal and hydro-insulation of the roof are insured by sandwich panels (60 mm) and the insulation
of the wall is made in extruded polystyrene with increased density (double layer of 30 mm).
The foundation is insulated from the other elements of the tank in order to prevent from thermal transfer.
Examples of materials in modern design:
- stainless steel;
- aluminum;
- Galvanized steel S355NCZ350

MODERN DESTINATIONS AND DESIGN

Buried horizontal tank
for wastewater
treatment from
residential areas

Horizontal tank for

fuel (gasoline)

SBR sequencing batch

reactor- wastewater
treatment system
incorporated inside the
horizontal buried tank.

MODERN DESTINATIONS AND DESIGN

Industria
petrolului

Industria
gazelor
Put

Put

Platforma

Tratarea gazului / Uscarea

gazului

Transport (retea de
conducte,
autocisterna)

Transport (retea de conducte,

autocisterna)

Rafinarie

Rezervor de stocare a gazului

Petrochimie

Distributie locala / Odorizare

Statii de imbuteliere

MODERN DESTINATIONS
AND DESIGN

MODERN SYSTEMS
FOR EXPLOITATION

The main destinations are for the

petrol and gases industry and for
agricultural industry:
bateries of tanks (volumes:
6002000 cm3 , 5.10.000 m3)

TANKS

Severe working conditions impose the use of special steels, for ex. in the case of tanks
for liquids with very low temperature and under pressure high strength and
hardness steels are used. In the case of high stresses steel with fine granulation is
adequatly chosen with superior characteristics.
The wall of tanks is designed mainly to tension stresses and consequently, it results
rather thin from design resistance conditions. In the same time, special measures, like
stiffening the walls, for the cases of local buckling are always taken into account,
considering that compression occurs due to the actions during the service life.
Notches, concentrated stresses, and at low temperatures, even cracks are likely to
appear as tension stresses act biaxial. The steel must be prevented against brittle
fracture phenomenon. Brittle fracture may appear when bending moments affect the
joining area between two or more elements. In static exploitation conditions, a local plastic
behavior of the cross section in bending is allowed, but not if the stresses are of a dynamic
(cyclic) pattern, because in this case fatigue induce cracks in the material, brittle fracture
being possible.
In these conditions both the design concept and the material used have to be carefully
chosen and checked. Steel thick sheets are checked with ultrasonic, if they are thicker
than 15...20 mm and the welding is checked with X-rays. Tests are run for the tank filled
up and under pressure conditions in order to check the strength of the joining lines.

TYPES OF TANKS

Tanks are classified considering the following aspects:

shape: cylindrical vertical, cylindrical horizontal, spherical or in the shape of a drop;
volume: with constant or variable volume;
position: above the ground or buried.

VERTICAL CYLINDRIC TANKS

They may have a flat bottom and are used mainly for storage of petroleum products and they are
designed for a pressure of 0.02 at and a vacuum of 0.0025 at having safety valves for the evacuation of
the vapors that might exceed during the summer, the design values of pressure.
Cylindrical vertical tanks with curved bottom are used mainly for liquids at normal pressure like water
supplies and they are usually placed at higher levels than the ground, on special structures that sustain
the body of the tank.

HORIZONTAL CYLINDRIC TANKS

They have smaller capacities and are used both for petroleum products and for water. Since they are
small, they are entirely made in workshop, they are transported assembled at the construction site and
hence they are used as a supplying deposit for various situations: centers for mechanizing the
agricultural technology, as parts of irrigation systems, aviation units, gas stations for regular motor
vehicles.

SPHERICAL TANKS
Ideal shape of tank in the case of depositing gases with uniform internal pressures. They are used in
chemical field, for the deposit of liquefied gases. They are normally designed for a pressure of 46 at.

VERTICAL CYLINDRICAL TANKS

They are the most representative as dimensions and general concept for the
design.
The main parts of the tanks are:
Cylindrical walls of the tank, in fact the envelope of the construction; the most
important part in the design because it takes directly the external climatic
actions and also the internal live load in the exploitation.
In the classic solution the walls are obtained from horizontal rings interconnected
with welds or rivets; the thickness of the walls grows with the depth towards the
bottom of the tank, due to the growing static pressure in the liquid.
The lid of the tank which may have different shapes: cone, sphere, flat circular.
The lid s in fact the roof of the structure and consequently, it takes either water
from rain or snow deposit or, may be subjected to wind pressure or suction.
The lid is also subjected to special actions from inside from pressure or vacuum
variable values.
The bottom of the tank is made also from steel thick plates, assembled by
welding on a sand covered surface. The bottom is stiffened all around with
steel rolled profiles.
The structure of the walls depend on the technology adopted in execution but it is
a common fact that groove and fillet welds are the most common systems for
assembling steel prefabricated sheets made in workshop.

Tanks with fixed lid

1 wall;
2 bottom;
3 structural sytems of the lid;
4 roofing;
5 foundation;
6 exit;
7 ventilation;
8 14 - different coupling inlets for the
exploitation

Radial concrete footage and elastic

bed under the steel bottom:
1 the tank;
2 insulation layer;
3 sand;
4 - soil;
5 compact clay fence;
6 ring made in concrete

14

The fix lid is specific for the tanks used for deposits at normal pressure , for which the safety
distance at the top is designed as minimum.
The lids may have a conic, spherical shape or may b flat.

1
2

Fix lid
1. radial support;
2. steel sheeting;
3. radial trusses;
4. purlins;
5. braces;
6. rafters;
7. wall.

4
5
6
7

Roof trusses used for the structure of the lid made in hot rolled
steel sections:
a) with end post; b) triangular

a)

b)

Floating lid is used in order to diminish the lost of gas by evaporation. Some advantages are to be
put in evidence:
-insure a tight connection between the wall and the roof during filling up or evacuation;
- thermal insulation due to the air layer between the liquid and the lid;
- minimize the free space between the surface of the liquid and lid.

Tank with floating lid

1 - foundation;
2 - bottom;
3 - wall;
4 floating lid;
5 sliding ladder for acces inside;
6 external ladder

Tank with floating lid

Spherical tanks are used for under pressure deposits of oil and petroleum which evaporate with
high pressure, volatile liquids, compressed gasses, liqquified gasses obtained from oil distillation.
They may have:
-continuous support on a ring;
-discontinuous support on vertical piles;
- discontinuous support on tangent piles;

Continuous support of the tank on a

ring sustained by vertical piles

Geodesic tanks (equal pressure), their shape being of a drop on a horizontal rigid plane. They are
used for the deposits of petroleum and oil products for longer periods of time because they insure
a minimum lost by respiration (evaporation).

DETERMINAREA TENSIUNILOR IN MANTA PE BAZA TEORIEI MEMBRANEI

The wall of the tank is generally a surface obtained from the rotation of a plan curve
around an axis situated in its plan. It is in fact a plate (shell) whose shape is

determined by its median surface.

The normal stress on the median surface and the bending moments may be
neglected in the initial phase. Hence the strains may also be neglected being small
considering the thickness of the walls.
The equilibrium expressions of stresses may be written for the un-deformed status of
the plate
A point on the surface will be defined by:
r1 radius of the meridian curve;
r2 length of the normal to the surface, measured from the point to the rotation axis;
r0 radius of the parallel circle.

DETERMINATION OF DESIGN VALUES OF STRESSES WITH SHELL THEORY

Infinitesimal element
, + d - , + d

Coordinates system of the shell:

C1- centre of rotation of the meridian plan; C2 center of rotation in the parallel plan to the vertical axis;
- rotation angle in the meridian plan; - rotation angle in the parallel plan

DETERMINATION OF DESIGN VALUES OF STRESSES WITH SHELL THEORY

Normal and tangential stresses on the surface of the element are replaced by forces and
moments related to the unit length in the theory of plane plates
t
2

z
n 1
t
r2

dz

t
2

t
2

z
z dz
m 1
r
t
2

z
n 1 dz
t
r1

t
2

z
m 1 z dz
r1
t

t
2

z
n 1
t
r2

t
2

dz

t
2

z
1 dz
t
r1

z
m 1
t
r2

t
2

z
q z 1
t
r2

t
2

z
q z 1 dz
t
r1

z dz

t
2

z
m 1 z dz
t
r1

Normal forces

Moments

dz

Shear forces

DETERMINATION OF DESIGN
VALUES OF STRESSES WITH SHELL
THEORY

Stresses in the volume of element a-b-c-d:

a-identification of the type of stresses; b- stage of shell;
c- bending moments and shear forces in the plate in bending stage

DETERMINATION OF DESIGN VALUES OF STRESSES

WITH SHELL THEORY

First thin shell stage (membrane)

A further simplification of the relationships from above is obtained based on the assumption that the
infinitesimal element has a rectangular shape and also, that the terms z/r1 and z/r2 are indeed,
extremely small. It means that the stresses and are linear variable on the thickness of the wall.
Observation: In certain specific situations we will consider that the stresses are uniformly
distributed on the thickness of the wall that is they do not depend on z.
n t
n t

n n t

m m m m 0

The equilibrium conditions impose also that the shear stresses q and q are null so in the end three
forces are determined from the equilibrium conditions (X = 0;Y = 0; Z = 0): n , n and n.
n r0
n
r1
n r1 cos X r0 r1 0;

n
n r0
r1 n r1 cos
Y r0 r1 0

n n

Z
r2
r1

This simplified situation corresponds to the membrane (shell) stage and is valid in the case of infinite thin
shells, with no bending resistance. The results are also valid with certain approximation when the following
conditions are fulfilled:
median surface is continuously curved;
loading is applied continuously;
the shell thickness is constant or uniform variable;
external actions or reactions are applied tangent to the median surface.

FIRST STAGE NO BENDING MOMENTS AND SHEAR FORCES

Stresses in the infinitesimal volume in the shell stage

FIRST STAGE NO BENDING MOMENTS AND SHEAR FORCES

n r0
n
r1
n r1 cos X r0 r1 0;

n
n r0
r1 n r1 cos
Y r0 r1 0

n n

Z
r2
r1

The three equation of projection will be then written:

Loading is symmetric about the rotation axis, it means that the differentials (variation) with respect to
are 0.
In the case of tanks differentials about x axis are also 0 and it results a simplification of the equations
for the determination of the elementary tension stresses:

1 : n r1 cos

n r0

Y r0 r1 0

n
2 : n Z
r2
r1

Solving the system

I- replace the value of n in (1):

II:

1 : n r1 cos

n r0

n r 2 cos

d n r 0
d

Y r 0 r1 Z r1 r 2 cos

r2
r1

and:

r0 r2 sin

d
n r2 sin 2 r1 r2 Y sin Z cos sin
d

Y r0 r1 0 sin

n Z r2 n

n n 0

and:

1
r2 sin 2

r r Y sin Z cos sin d C

1 2

FIRST STAGE NO BENDING MOMENTS AND SHEAR FORCES

r0 r2 sin

with the amplification with sin in the left side of the equation we will find the
differential with respect to of the function
n r sin 2

d
n r2 sin 2 r1 r2 Y sin Z cos sin
d

1
r2 sin 2

r r Y sin Z cos sin d C

1

The constant C is deduced from the edge conditions.

The force n may be determined directly from the equilibrium condition written for a horizontal section cut at the
bottom of the tank. The vertical component of the unitary force n cumulated all around the length of the
parallel circle must equalize the total weight of this part of the bottom:

sin 2 r0 G
n

G
2 r0 sin

Direct determination of force n

SECOND STAGE OF BENDING OF THE PLATE

The conditions imposed for the validity of the equilibrium equations are not strictly respected,
important deviations being observed mostly in the areas at the edges of the shell, where the
supports influence with their stiffness the efforts in the membrane. If it is the bottom of the tank or it is
the annular supporting girder, the reaction is no longer tangent to the median surface or two
adjacent shells are in contact but the curvature is not continuous (the case of the walls of the tank in
contact with the bottom).
All these situations determine a disturbance of the thin shell stage, bending moments and shear
forces appear and although they diminish rapidly as the distance from the edge is increasing, their
influence must not be neglected when it comes to the efforts in the shell.
As we already have seen, the infinitesimal element is subjected to two forces, n and n. In addition,
the bending moments m and m and shear force qy= q will appear.
The equations of projection must be accompanied by the influence of the shear force q about the
directions y and z and a third equation is obtained from the condition that the sum of moments about
the tangent to the parallel must be written. We obtain then:
n r1 cos

d n r0
d

q r0 Y r0 r1 0;

d q r0
Z r0 r1 0
d
d m r0
m r1 cos
q r0 r1 0
d
n r1 sin n r0

In the case of tanks the pressure of the fluid is symmetric to the axis of rotation of the shell. For the
five unknown forces and translations three equations of static equilibrium may be written, so
the system has two degrees of redundancy. We must then write another two equations for the
elastic conditions applied to the status of the system.
The relationships express the translations u, v and w of the current point on the shell about
the three directions x, y and z.

SECOND STAGE OF BENDING OF THE PLATE

Starea de placa incovoiata si eforturile unitare corespunzatoare incovoierii

SIMPLIFIED DETERMINATION OF THE STRESSES IN THE CURVED PLATE

The simplified status of equilibrium in the membrane (the curved surface a-b-c-d) and their projections
may be determined following the sketched below. The projections of the vectors representing stresses on
the directions of parallel and meridian help us writing the following relationship in which there is no shear
stresses (and we neglect the second order terms):
2 t ds1 2 sin d

sin d

2
2

d 1

ds1
r1

d 2

ds2
r2

2
r2

2 t ds 2 1

ds1 ds2 t

1
r1

pn ds1 ds 2

ds1 ds2 pn ds1 ds2

1
r1

2
r2

pn
t

The second relationship may be obained from cuting a normal section on the axis of rotation and
considering that 2 is in equilibrium with the weight of the inferior part of the membrane.
2 r0 t 2 sin 2 G

G
2 r0 t sin 2

Cylindrical vertical tank

Computation scheme

DISTURBING THE STATUS OF EQULIBRIUM IN THE MEMBRANE

(TWO DIFFERENT CURVED SURFACES IN CONTACT)
Bottom and the walls of the tank are made of steel coils fixed together by welding.
In the case of vertical tanks the coils are rolled on a pole which is erected at site becoming the axis of
the tank. The coils are un-rolled and welded from bottom to top. At the bottom hot rolled section are
used to stiffen insuring against the important forces and moments that are the result of the perturbation.
Inside the tank vertical stiffeners are placed to insure against local buckling of the walls.
The solution with central pole is used for tanks with big diameters covered by lids sustained by radial
arches.
The disturbed status happens because of the restraining to free deformation and the result are
additional local stresses from bending and shear.
The deformations from the wall shall be imposed equal with those in the bottom of the tank
and the bending moment and shear forces are considered as uniform distributed in the bottom part of
the tank.

The wall shall be considered perfectly rigid on the direction of the radius.

EFFECT OF THE CONNECTION BETWEEN TWO SURFACES OF STEEL SHEET

Vertical tanks with flat bottom

Determination of the stresses in the last ring from

the bottom of the vertical tank

EFFECT OF THE CONNECTION BETWEEN TWO SURFACES OF STEEL SHEET

First we have to consider a bending moment M and a shear stress T, both of them being uniform
distributed at the inferior part of the wall. The bottom is considered rigid (free from strain) on the radial
direction.
Isolating an element with a unitary width and the height dx which is stressed we can express the
projection upon the normal axis:
N 1 dT

px
r1
dx

The specific elongation of the ring as a function of the displacement along radius w and the stress N1 is:
N
w
1
r1 E t

N1 E t

w
r1

The relationship between the bending moment M and the strain w is:
Then it results that shear force is

dM dT d 2 M
d 4w
;

D
dx dx
dx 2
dx 4

M D

d 2w
E t3
;
D

dx 2
12 (1 2 )

p
d 4w E t

w x
4
2
D
dx
D r1

The solution w has two parts, one from the homogeneous equation and the other a particular one.
Derivatives of I and II order express M and N1.
In the case of fully restraint edge, x=0 and the moment becomes:

M 0,3 h r1 t

becoming 0 at the distance x0:

x0 0,6 r1 t

Because the deformations are elastic and rotations in the restrained area are possible, the bending
moment is reduced to:

M 0,1 h r1 t

Steel coils placed in

parallel

Steel coils placed on a

marginal ring

Bottom of the tank: a- system of placing the steel coils;

b- an external ring borders the steel coils

VERIFICATIONS OF THE VERTICAL TANKS

Strength of the steel walls

1
r1

2
r2

pn
t

1 pn

p1 h r1

t
t

r2=

Buckling of the walls when the tank is empty because of disturbing of the equilibrium (tension) and
under compression from pressure on the lid (snow, vacuum or wind effects). The result are
longitudinal critical stresses

2 2.35
cr

t E t

r r

In case of verifications of the vacuum effects a averaged thickness of the walls may be used :

te

1
ti
n

Critical circular stresses determined by the radial pressure are:

1 0.55E
cr

Buckling de to bi-axial compression is verified with:

te te

h
r

2 1
1
2
cr

cr

VERIFICATIONS OF THE VERTICAL TANKS

Measures of prevention of buckling:

Increased thickness of the steel sheets;
Placing welded stiffeners to the internal face of the wall.

The connection from the wall and the bottom is verified to the unit stress:
M 0,6 p1 r1
1 t 2

;W
W
t
6

Stresses and deformations in the

bottom area in case of rigid
connection

Radial forces and moments

ACTIUNI ASUPRA REZERVOARELOR

PERMANENT ACTIONS
Weight of the components

VARIABLE ACTIONS
Live loads: material deposited in the tank; pressure and vacuum.
Climatic actions:
Snow on the lid
Wind on the lid and on the walls internal and external
Temperature

SEISM

Coeficienti de presiune aerodinamici (conf . Euronorme) la un rezervor cu si fara bazin de retentie

LOADING TYPES AND FUNCTIONS FOR

UNSTIFFENED CURVED THIN PLATES
1. Uniform axial load

2. Axial load from global bending

3. Friction on the walls

LOADING TYPES AND FUNCTIONS FOR

UNSTIFFENED CURVED THIN PLATES
4. Uniform internal pressure

6. Uniform shear (torsion)

5. Variable internal pressure

7. Sinusoidal shear from transversal loading

DETAILS OF EXECUTION AND PLACING AT SITE THE VERTICAL TANKS

Base of the cylindrical vertical tank: a-on flat ground; 1-tank; 2-insulation; 3- sand; 4refilled ground; b and c stepped base

Fundul rezervorului:
detalii constructive

Fundul rezervorului- detalii constructive

Zona comprimat a acoperiului.

Inelul marginal la mbinarea dintre manta i
acoperi

Inelul de rigidizare la vnt

REZERVOARE CILINDRICE CU
AX ORIZONTAL

REZERVOARE SFERICE

TOWERS AND MASTS

Radio transmissions system use special constructions that may be situated into two categories:
either antenna sustained at big heights by slender towers or by guyed masts, in this last case, in
some situations the steel structure of the mast being a radiating element, not a receiver.

Radio transmissions are made with different wave lengths:

long waves (wave lengths of 300025000 m);
medium waves (wave lengths of 2003000 m);
short waves (10200 m lengths);
ultra-short waves ( wave lengths of some centimeters long).
According to different wave lengths, the systems adopted for the transmission are:

towers of at most 300 m height or masts with the antennas placed at their top for transmissions of long waves;
masts with antennas or self-radiating masts at most 370 m height, for medium waves;
antenna placed on towers or masts at medium 125 m height for short waves transmission.
For television towers, bigger heights are required (for ex. Oklahoma City Tower of 480 m)

WORLDWIDE TOP

Asia: Burj Dubai 818 m 2009 United Arab Emirates

Africa: OMEGA transmitter Chabrier 428 m 1976 Runion (France)
North America: KVLY-TV mast 629 m 1963 (U. S. A.)
South America: Omega Tower Trelew 366 m 1971 Argentina
Europe: Warsaw radio mast 646 m 1974 Poland
Oceania: VLF transmitter Lualualei 458 m 1972 Hawai'I (U. S. A.)

Ostankino Tower 540.1 m finished in 1967;

the tallest free-standing structure in Europe for 42 years

Burj Dubai year: 2009; 818 m;

United Arab Emirates

Warsaw radio mast year: 1974; 646 m

KVLY-TV year: 1963; guyed mast 629 m

Blanchard, N. Dakota, S.U.A.

Because a voltage potential of 120 kV was desired

between the mast and ground, it stood on a 2-metre-high
insulator. It operated as a mast radiator (half wave
radiator) so its height was chosen in order to function as a
half-wave length antenna at its broadcasting frequency.
The signals from its 2 megawatt transmitters could be
received across all of Europe, North Africa and as far away
as North America. Its weight is debated: 380 tonnes (Polish
sources claim 420 tonnes)

C.N. Tower Toronto, year: 1976, 553 m, 1976

Willis Tower, ( Sears Tower) (442 m) Chicago, Illinois

TOWERS WITH INTEGRAL STEEL STRUCTURE

Spatial lattice structure with a simple, regular
cross sections, square or triangular;
circular constant hollow section or in the
shape of a conic frustum; (cylindrical or conic
shells -membranes are a flexible solution).

Significant big value of the ratio

between the height and the cross
section.
Towers may have more than four faces sections with six or eight faces are common
enough. Still the three or four-faced tower is
simpler, more economic and easy to be split
into prefabricated units.
The base of towers is imposed by two
considerations:
1. The overturning moment determined by
horizontal actions ( wind or seismic actions)
must be exceeded by the stabilising forces
(vertical actions)
2. The deflection at the top of the tower due to
both static and dynamic actions must be kept
into limit values.
They can have different types of structures:

TOWERS WITH INTEGRAL STEEL STRUCTURE

Different solutions for towers: a - reduced heights;

b - big heights; c - bracing systems adopted to reduce the
effective lengths of the internal members; d- diaphragms

Tower with combined structure- steel and reinforced concrete

(Romanian broadcast television Tower, Bucharest)

MOST FAMOUS TOWERS AND MASTS WORLDWIDE

Tower, city Year Height (m) Height (ft)

Canadian National (CN) Tower, Toronto 1975 553 1,815

Ostankino Tower, Moscow 1967 537 1,762
KFVS TV Tower, Missouri 1960 511 1,677
Oriental Pearl Tower, Shanghai 1995 468 1,535
Milad Tower,Tehran 2005 4351,427
Menara Kuala Lumpur, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 1996 421 1,403
Tianjin TV Tower,Tianjin, China 1991 415 1,362
Central Radio & TV Tower, Beijing 1992 405 1,329
Kiev TV Tower,Kiev, Ukraine 1973 385 1,263
Tashkent Tower, Tashkent, Uzbekistan 1985 375 1,230
Liberation Tower,Kuwait City 1996 3721,221
Alma-Ata Tower, Almaty, Kazakhstan 1983 3711,217
Riga TV Tower, Riga, Latvia 1987 3681,209
Fernsehturm Tower, Berlin, Germany 1969 3681,207
Stratosphere Tower, Las Vegas, United States 1996 3501,149
Macau Tower, Macau, China 2001 3381,109

SHAPES AND SECTIONS USED FOR STEEL TOWERS

The shape of the tower follows the shape of the equal strength solid -shape of
frustum of a pyramid.
The width of the base 1/8 and 1/15 of the total height; the bottom side of
1...2 m and the slope of the faces from 2.5 to 5%.

A. Ultimate Limit States

Ed , dst Ed , stb

Limit states of failure or excessive deformation on the cross section of the elements

Sd Rd

The most unfavourable effort is evaluated according to the specific combination rules of the design values of the actions.
The fundamental group of actions is obtained considering the most unfavourable situation between the following groups:

Design Situation

Permanent
Actions

Permanent (lasting)
and Transient
(temporary)

G G
k
G Gk

Accidental

GA
Gk k
A A

G, j

Gk , j Q,1 Qk ,1

Variable Actions Qd
Principal Variable
Actions

Combinations of Variable
Actions(quasi-permanent)

Q Q Q
Q
k k

00 QQ Q
Qkk

1
Qk2 Qk

k
1 2Q Q
k

G, j

Gk , j 0.9 Q,i Qk ,i

Accidental
Actions Ad

Ad

A Ak

or d
specifically
determined value

Gk,j characteristic value of the permanent

action;
Qk,1 characteristic value of the principal
variable action;
Qk,I characteristic value of the
secondary variable action (accompanying
value);
Ad design value or specific value of the
accidental action;
G,j partial safety factor applied to the
permanent action, Gk,j;
GA,j partial safety factor applied to the
permanent action associated with the
accidental situations;
Q,j partial safety factor applied to all the
variable actions, Qk,i.

B. Serviceability Limit States

Ed Cd

Ed Rd

LIMIT STATES OF SERVICEABILITY

Groups of Actions

Design Relationships

Rare Combination

k, j

Frequent Combination

k, j

Quasi-permanent
Combination

Qk ,1 0,iQk ,i
i 1i

1,1 Qk ,1 2,iQk , j
i 1

k, j

Observations
The values of the coefficients 0, 1, 2
accompanying the variable actions
depend on the effect of the specific
action considered upon the structure and
on the phenomenon that must be
avoided

2,iQk ,i
i 1

ULTIMATE LIMIT STATES

Groups of Actions

Design relationship

Fundamental Group for

Permanent and Transient
Design Situations

G, j

Gk , j Q,1 0, j Qk , j

Observations

G ,inf 1.0

favorable

G ,sup 1.35

unfavorable

Q,1 1.5;Q, i 1.5

Special Group of Actions for
Accidental Design Situations

GA, j Gk , j Ad 1,1 Qk ,1 2,i Qk ,i

j

GA 1.0
If one permanent action
may have both favourable and
un-favourable effect in the
same time, then we consider:

GA,inf 1.1; GA,sup 1.35

ACTIONS AND COMBINATIONS ON TOWERS AND MASTS

Actions
Towers are spatial structures, fixed in the foundations and free at the top and all the loading
cases are submitted to the static scheme of cantilevered beam.
The actions are determined by:
dead loads;
live loads - the weight of the equipment and personnel, also loads coming from different
functional necessities;
variable actions - wind action taken with the maximum intensity, ice and their
combinations at different temperatures, in which the wind is taken with the reduced value;
seismic loads must also be taken into account when checking the structure.
Combinations of Actions: usually, the combinations of the variable actions considered for
design are:
A. Limit states of strength and stability:
Wind with maximum intensity, for a temperature of 10150 C;
Ice and reduced intensity of the wind speed, for a temperature of 50 C;
No wind, no ice, extreme temperatures according to specific climatic conditions; in our
country
t max,summer=+400C and t min, winter=300C.
All the actions are affected by their partial safety factor and also, the factor of grouping the
variable actions is imposed, according to STAS 10101/0A-78
B. Serviceability limit states: the same combinations, only the partial safety factors
either are missing, or are altered according to this state

PARTICULARITIES IN THE DESIGN OF HIGH STRUCTURES:

TOWERS, MASTS, CHIMNEYS
Evaluation of wind pressure on the surface of high structures

w( z) qref c p ce ( z )
- qref reference wind dynamic pressure, measured at 10 m above the ground in open, flat terrain and averaged on 10
min.;
cp aerodynamic (pressure) coefficient on the surface i, according to table 3;
ce(z) exposure coefficient that puts into evidence the variation of the wind dynamic pressure with the height of the
construction and with the particular type of terrain on which the construction lays on, also the environmental conditions;
High structures with special destinations- constructions with one dimension (height) dominating by far the other two. It is
rational to determine the resultant of the wind pressure on the whole structure or, on unit length measured on its axis of
symmetry.
The intensity of the resultant of wind action is a force determined with the following relationship:
Fw qref cd c f ce ( z ) Aref

cd dynamic factor corresponding to a global evaluation of the peak (maximum) response of the structures sensible to wind
action; its values is determined based on the peak factor, cg(z), turbulence intensity on height, Iv(z) and spectral characteristics
of the dynamic response of a particular structure (see Annex B of the code)
cf aerodynamic coefficient of the resultant force;
Aref reference area, taken as the area of the projection of the construction (or of the surface afferent to the resultant
considered) in the plane normal to the wind direction.

The force coefficient cf depends on the nature of the contact surface, on the slenderness of the structure (tower) and on
the type of the cross section (sharp edges act differently that the rounded corners). The angle of wind attack is relevant
also for the determination of the pressure coefficients and also of their sign (positive-pressure, negative-suction). In
particular for structures with rectangular section:
c f c f ,0 r

Reynolds number represents the ratio between the forces of inertia that are responsible of the flow itself and the
forces that determines the internal friction because of the molecular viscosity. It constitutes a very important criterion
on which the flow is classified as laminar or turbulent. The Reynolds number is determined with the following
relationship:

Re

b vm ( z e )

b - diameter of the circular cross section of the structure, m (or relevant dimension of the tower
normal to the direction of wind action);
vm mean wind speed at the reference height, ze;
cinematic viscosity of the air (at 150 C temperature and normal pressure, 760mm col. Hg, = 1510-6 m2/s).
If the tower has a circular section than the aerodynamic pressure coefficient cpe and force coefficient, cf are
determined with the following relationships:
c pe c p ,0
c f c f ,0

The force coefficient, cf determined with the last relationship presented above will depend on the factor representing
the ratio between the projections of the laces and the connections in the plane of the exposed area to the total exposed
area (the projection in a plane of the perimeter dimensions):
A

Ac

A bi li Agi

Wind dynamic response is based on the determination of the period of vibration of the tower itself and this may be
done with Rayleigh's first formulae (CECM Recommendations):
n

T 2

i 1
n

yi2

First modal shape (Rayleigh)

g M i yi
i 1

Recommended relationship for the determination of the period of vibration of high, isolated and flexible structures is:

T 0.2 H
If the masses are considered uniformly distributed along the height of the structure, then we may use the following
relationships:
;

T 0.63 103

5 kg
H2
Kf
ri rs
3 kg

kg - ratio between the weight of the tower / ml at the bottom and the top, respectively:

kg

Gi
Gs

H- the height of the tower;

ri, rs - the radii of circles that circumscribe the surface determined by the legs of the tower, at the bottom and at the top,
respectively (m);
Kf - coefficient determined with the help of the graphics below, as functions of KA and Kr , or with the formulae:

3K A x1 x13 dx
1
2
0 K A x1 K r x1

Kf

where
x1

x
H

KA

As
Ai As

Kr

rs
ri rs

-As and Ai - areas of the cross sections of the legs of the tower at the top and at the bottom.
Verifications for the resonance effects dynamic instability considering excessive vibrations in the plane normal to the wind
direction. Resonance may appear for a Reynolds number, Re between 40 and 300. The frequency of detaching of the shear
layers is determined with the relationship:
f

V Sh
d

V- the speed of the flow of wind;

d- diameter or the width of the building;
Sh- Strouhal's number, for square sections being 0.15 and for circular sections 0.20.3.

Snow Action
The ice load is, from the design point of view, an ice layer of 1030 mm thick, uniformly covering the perimeter of the
steel members and cables. Its density is taken 90 daN/m3.
We determine the weight of the ice layer:
D 2t f 2 D 2 D

q f Af f f

D t f f
4
4 4

Seismic Action
Earthquakes are not seriously affecting the design efforts of the towers, due to the reduced self-weight of these
structures is normally reduced. In the same time, the design criteria are already extremely severe for the fundamental
group of actions because it includes the dynamic response to wind action, and this imposes on other design loading
cases.
Two consequences are obvious:
the distribution of the vibrating masses along the axis of symmetry may be uniform but also concentrated at certain level,
more representative; the dynamic behaviour is easy to be simulated;
the seismic action is not supposed to change the dimensions of the elements imposed by other design criteria.
According to P 100-2006, the towers, masts and other similar high slender structures are considered as subjected
to a horizontal static action acting on any direction. The behaviour of the structure is considered linear elastic. Usually,
when the design is conducted in the preliminary stage, the masses are concentrated along its vertical axis, provided that
this does not alter the real behaviour of the structure. These masses correspond to the gravitational loading in the special
group of actions to which the seismic force is added.
The fundamental period of vibration for both principal directions in the horizontal plane, in the case of flexible
structures is considered:

T 0.3 0.05n

when n< 5 stories and

T 0.1n

when n= 610 stories;

Internal forces in the structure are determined separately for

every mode of vibration "r", the total effort in the current section being:

N
1

2
r

Modal shapes (I, II and III)

for high slender (linear) structures

Overturning moment at the base of the structure is determined, M1 in the first mode of vibration and the
diagram is traced. This diagram, being rather conservative, includes the effect of the modes of vibration II and III.

DESIGN INTERNAL FORCES

The towers are spatial systems of planar trusses assembled together. The legs of the tower collect the internal forces
from two adjacent trusses and transfer them to the foundations .
The general equilibrium relationships under vertical and horizontal actions result in the following recurrence relationship

P
( M H M P ) cos
2
n cos
n ri cos

N- vertical force in the leg;

P-the weight of the tower, equipment and devices; loads on the platforms etc.;
- MP-moments coming from vertical loads acting eccentric as against the vertical axis of the tower;
- MH-the bending moments determined by the horizontal loads (wind, earthquake, etc.) at a certain level where we check;
- n-number of faces of the polygon at the tower base;
ri-distance between the gravity centre of the tower and the strut i which has to be checked;
-the angle in the horizontal plan determined by the line that goes through the centre of the cross section of the tower and the
strut the most compressed, on the direction of the wind action;
-the angle between the axis of the strut and the vertical line.

Internal forces in the legs and diagonals of the tower

If the tower having n faces is subjected to a torsion moment Mr, the ties will suffer an additional shear stress:

Tr

Mr
n ri cos

The diaphragms in the horizontal plane are designed for a conventional stress on the direction of the tie:

H1 0.1T 0.00267 N

where:
T- the difference of shear stress that acts on the panel between two running diaphragms;
N - axial stress in the leg corresponding to the zone the diaphragm is positioned.
When the legs change their slope at the lower part, the diaphragm s will be dimensioned with the stress

H 2 0.1T 0.00267 N 0.5H

Torsion induces forces in the elements of the diaphragm (braces):
Ha

Mr
Mr
; Hb
2a
2b

Rectangular section of a tower stiffened with a diaphragm (braces)

Verifications in the limit state of serviceability- maximum deflections of towers

H

max k
0

M0 m
dx H / 100
EI

M o, m - moments determined in the Mohr-Maxwell method;

K 1.2, taking into account the capacity of deformation of the ties.
Similar with the computation of the deflection of trusses:

ik

n
N ik lik
n N ik lik
1 nik ik nik ik lik nik
lik nik
ik
fa
E
Aik E i ,k 1 E Aik
i , k 1
i , k 1
i , k 1
i , k 1
n

SIZING THE LEGS AND THE TIES OF THE TOWER

PARTICULAR DESIGN CASES

1) M A 0;
2) M B 0

SQUARE TOWER
1. Wind normal to the face
b
W h2
b
W
1) N cos cos h 2 0 N
2
2b cos
2
2
W
W h1
2)2D h cos h1 0 D
2
4h cos

2. Wind parallel to diagonal

W
W

0
cos 45
2 2
b
W h2
b
W
1) N cos cos
h2 0 N
2
2 b cos
2
2 2
W
W h1
2)2D h cos
h1 0 D
2 2
4 2 h cos
W 4W * cos 450 W *

TRIANGULAR TOWER
1. Wind parallel to one face
b
2W h 2
b
2W
1) N cos cos
h2 0 N
2
3 b cos
2
3
2W
2 W h1
2)2D h cos
h1 0 D
3
3 h cos

2. Wind parallel with bisetrix

W
3
b
2W h 2
b
2W
1) N cos cos
h2 0 N
2
3
3 b cos
2

W
W h1
2)2D h cos
h1 0 D
3
2 3 h cos
W 2W * cos 300 W *

DESIGN DETAILS

Tower with triangular section from circular hollow sectionsgeneral view, cross section and details of joints between the legs, struts and diagonals
and details of connections between two diagonals, directly and with gussets

DESIGN DETAILS

Towers with rectangular section made of hollow circular sections:

general view and details of connections between the internal members; the
isolated foundation of the leg

Electric insulation of the leg of the tower at the

foundation level