Chapter-7: Hydropower Engineering

Chapter 7.0 Hydro-Electrical Machines

7.1

Hydro-mechanical installation: turbines- peloton Francis, Kaplan and their performance

characteristics
Turbines: are mechanical machines to transform the water potential energy of flowing fluid into
mechanical rotational energy. Turbines are called runners. The rotational energy is transformed to the
generators through the power shaft (connecting rod and fly wheel) to run the generator smoothly for
electricity production.
Turbines are developed form of water wheels in water mills used for ore crushing and flour mills
(developed 400-500 years ago)

Schematic diagram of turbines in powerhouse

1

Chapter-7: Hydropower Engineering

Types of Turbines:
Basis
Types
Pressure
Impulse Turbine: pressure less, energy of water is converted to kinetic in the form
of water jet issuing from nozzle/s and hitting the wheel vanes, runners.
Reactive Turbine: High pressure
Head
Low head 2-15 m propeller, Kaplan, High discharge low head turbines
Medium head: 16-70 m Kaplan/Francis Turbine
High head: 71-500 m Francis/pelton Turbine
Very high head>500 m Pelton Turbine, low discharge high head

Chapter-7: Hydropower Engineering

Interesting facts about turbine: Maximum output power from a single unit
a) Pelton 330000 hP,
b) Francis 960000 hP,
c)Kaplan 300000 hp
Performance Characteristics
Performance characteristics curves indicates the performance of the turbine over the full range of the
turbine running
The curves of discharge and efficiency verses speed at a constant head are called main characteristics
curves of the turbines.

Discharge Q

Kaplan
Pelton

)
Efficiency (

Francis

Speed of Turbine (rpm)

The performance curves are given by the turbine maker/manufacturer based on the design of the
turbine runner, its shape, used materials and shape of the blades. Universal characteristics curves are
generally used to compare the performance of the turbine under different heads. The parameters of the

Chapter-7: Hydropower Engineering

universal characteristics curves are Unit Discharge (Qu =

Power (Pu=

Q
N
), Unit Speed (Nu =
) and Unit
H
H

P
)
H

Typical small hydro turbines efficiencies at different values of Q

7.2

selection of turbines and their specific speed

The type, geometry and dimensions of the turbine will be fundamentally conditioned by the following
criteria:

Chapter-7: Hydropower Engineering

Net head, Range of discharges through the turbine,, Rotational speed, Cavitations problems , Cost
Specific Speed of a Turbine:
Since the generator and turbines are directly coupled, the rated speed of the turbine is same as that of the
synchronous speed of the generators.
60 * f
The speed of the generator is given by N =
where f = 50 HZ and P = number of pairs of magnetic
P
poles (fixed 8 to 10 pairs) and N is constant irrespective of the power output.

N P
H 5/4
Where Ns = Specific speed of the turbine i.e. it is the speed of the turbine in rpm which produce 1 metric
Horse power (1 hP) under the head of 1 m.
gQ H
P = Power produced from the turbine (hP) = P =
735.5
Types of Runner based on Specific Speed of Turbines (Ns in rpm)
Runner
Slow
Medium
High
Pelton
4-15
16-30
31-70
Francis
60-150
151-250
251-400
Kaplan
300-450
451-700
701-1100
Pelton Turbine with single nozzle jet, The Max Ns = 30 and the Ns value for the multiple nozzle jet n
= Nmj = n 30 and the maximum number of jet for a pelton turbine = 6 Hence the maximum speed
The Specific Speed of the Turbine Ns is given by Ns =

of the Pelton wheel Ns max = 6 30 = 73 70 . The use of single jet for large discharge is limited
and not convenient. The efficiency of the turbine can be increased with the introduction of multiple jet
(max 6) as it increase the specific speed Ns of the turbine. The jets interference should be avoided and
the water jet should strike the buckets tangentially. The Bucket deflection angle is to be about 1650.
Turbines and their maximum range of the Specific speed Ns used in the world
Type of Runner

Max head (m)

Max power (hP)

Pelton
Francis
Kaplan

300-2000
30-500
2-70

330000
960000
300000

Maximum wheel Specific Speed Ns

dia (m)
(rpm)
5.5
4-70
10
60-400
10
300-1100

Selection Guidelines of Turbines

Range of operating heads for each type of turbines (ESHA Guide line Part II)

Chapter-7: Hydropower Engineering

Numerical Examples: #1] the quantity of water available for a hydroelectric station is 275 m3/s under
the head of 18 m. assuming the speed of the turbine (N) to be 150 rpm and their efficiency to be 82%.
Determine the least number of machines, all of the same size, that will be needed if i) Francis turbine
whose Ns must not exceed 395, ii) Kaplan turbine whose Ns must not exceed 690 are chosen. What
would be the individual output of the units in two cases?
Solution: Power to be developed from the project
6

Chapter-7: Hydropower Engineering

Pout =

QH

Now Ns =

1000 9.81 275 18 0.82

= 54120 hP
735

N P
H 5/ 4

150 P
or P = 9530.75 hP
185 / 4
P
54120
= 5.678 6 nos so
Number of units to be installed for the Francis turbine = n = out =
P
9530.75
the power output from each unit = 54120/6 = 9020 hP
Hence the specific speed of the Francis turbine to be used in the power plant will be Ns =
N P 150 9020
=
= 384.24 384 rpm.
H 5/4
18 5 / 4

Case i) for Francis Turbine the limiting value of Ns = 395 =

150 P
or P = 29082.473 hP
185 / 4
Number of units =54120/2 = 27060 hP and the Specific speed of the Kaplan turbine will be Ns
N P 150 27060
=
= 665.5 666 rpm
=
H 5/4
185 / 4

Case ii) for Kaplan Turbine, the limited Ns = 690 =

Numerical Examples: #2] the quantity of water available for a hydroelectric station is 275
m3/s under the head of 18 m. assuming the speed of the turbine (N) to be 150 rpm and their
efficiency to be 82%. Determine the least number of machines, all of the same size, that will be
needed if i) Francis turbine whose Ns must not exceed 395, ii) Kaplan turbine whose Ns must
not exceed 690 are chosen. What would be the individual output of the units in two cases?
A powerhouse is equipped with 4 units of vertical shaft pelton turbines to be coupled with
70000 KVA 3 phase 50 hertz generators. The generators are provided with 10 pairs of poles.
The gross design head is 505 m and transmission efficiency of headrace tunnel and penstock
together is to be 94%. The four units together will provide total power of 348000 hP at the
guaranteed efficiency of 91% and the nozzle efficiency is 0.98 then find
a) jet diameter and numbers of jets
b) the nozzle tip diameter
c) the pitch circle diameter of the wheel
d) the specific speed of the turbine
e) number of buckets on the wheel
60 f 60 * 50
=
= 300 rpm
P
10
Water transmission efficiency = 94%, So, net head H = 505*0.94= 475 m
The total power output from all 4 units = 348000 hP so, Power output from each unit P =
87000 hP at overall efficiency of 91%.
QH
87000 735
So, for each turbine unit P =
or Q =
= 15.1 m3/s
735
9.81 1000 475 0.91
N P 300 87000
a) Specific speed of the turbine Ns =
=
= 39.90 40>Nsj max = 30 so multi
H 5/ 4
4755 / 4
Solution: Synchronous speed of the generators N =

Nmj 40
jet runners is required. Number of jet =
= = 4 nos taking Nsj 20
Nsj 20
7

Chapter-7: Hydropower Engineering

So, Discharge through each nozzle jet = 15.1/4 = 3.775 m3/s and the velocity of the nozzle jet
V = K 2 gH = 0.98 2 9.81 475 = 94.5m / s

4Q
For jet diameter Q =AV or d =
= 0.225481m = 22.55cm
V
b) Nozzle pipe diameter = 25% bigger than the diameter of the jet flow = 1.25*22.55=28.19 cm
c) For pitch circle diameter of the wheel: for maximum efficiency, linear velocity of moving
wheel u is kept 48% of the nozzle jet velocity i.e u = 0.48 V = 0.48*94.5 = 45.3 m/s. (Modi
and sethi, Hydraulics and fluid mechanics and hydraulic machines chapter 20-22)
DN
So, For the mean bucket circle diameter u =
60
so Diameter of the wheel = D = (45.3*60) /(300*22/7) = 2.88 m
D
2.88
d) Number of buckets or striking plates = Z = 15 + 0.5 = 15 + 0.5
= 21.39 22nos
d
0.2255
The term D/d is also called as jet ratio
7.3

Introduction to bulb draft tube, tailrace canal and their importance

Bulb units are derived from Kaplan turbines, with the generator contained in a waterproofed bulb
submerged in the flow. Figure 6.13 illustrates a turbine where the generator (and gearbox if
required), cooled by pressurized air, is lodged in the bulb. Only the electric cables, duly protected,
leave the bulb. The bulb unit are specially designed for low head (<10 m) power project. The draft
tube provided for the bulb turbine is called as bulb draft tube which connects the outlet of the
reactive turbine runner to the tail race. The draft tube recovers the velocity head creating negative
suction pressure at the runner outlet. The draft tube also permits to set up the turbine above the
tailrace which might be critical for very low head power plants.

Tail race canal is the canal in which water is discharged after passing through the turbine. If the
power house is close to the stream, the out flow may be discharged directly in to the stream.
The tail race canal should be designed in such a way to have non silting and non scouring and
the minimum head loss.

7.4

Electromechanical installation: Generators and their types

8

Chapter-7: Hydropower Engineering

Generators transform mechanical energy into electrical energy. Although most early hydroelectric
systems were of the direct current variety to match early commercial electrical systems, nowadays
only three-phase alternating current generators are used in normal practice. Depending on the
characteristics of the network supplied, the producer can choose between:

Synchronous generators: They are equipped with a DC electric or permanent magnet

excitation system (rotating or static) associated with a voltage regulator to control the output
voltage before the generator is connected to the grid. They supply the reactive energy required
by the power system when the generator is connected to the grid. Synchronous generators can
run isolated from the grid and produce power since excitation is not grid-dependent.
The synchronous generator is started before connecting it to the mains by the turbine rotation.
By gradually accelerating the turbine, the generator must be synchronized with the mains,
regulating the voltage, frequency, phase angle and rotating sense. When all these values are
controlled correctly, the generator can be switched to the grid. In the case of an isolated or off
grid operation, the voltage controller maintains a predefined constant voltage, independent of
the load. In case of the mains supply, the controller maintains the predefined power factor or
reactive power.

7.5

Asynchronous generators: They are simple squirrel-cage induction motors with no possibility
of voltage regulation and running at a speed directly related to system frequency. They draw
their excitation current from the grid, absorbing reactive energy by their own magnetism.
Adding a bank of capacitors can compensate for the absorbed reactive energy. They cannot
generate when disconnected from the grid because they are incapable of providing their own
excitation current. However, they are used in very small stand-alone applications as a cheap
solution when the required quality of the electricity supply is not very high.

Purpose and working principles of Governors

Turbines are designed for a certain net head and discharge. Any deviation from these parameters
must be compensated for by opening or closing the control devices, such as the wicket-gates,
vanes, spear nozzles or valves, to keep either the outlet power frequency constant.
In schemes connected to an isolated network, the parameter that needs to be controlled is the
turbine speed, which controls the frequency. if the generator becomes overloaded the turbine
slows-down therefore an increase of the flow of water is needed to ensure the turbine does not stall.

Chapter-7: Hydropower Engineering

If there is not enough water to do this then either some of the load must be removed or the turbine
will have to be shut down. Conversely if the load decreases then the flow to the turbine is to be
decreased.
A governor is a combination of devices and mechanisms, which detect speed deviation and convert
it into a change in servomotor position. A speed-sensing element detects the deviation from the set
point; this deviation signal is converted and amplified to excite an actuator, hydraulic or electric,
that controls the water flow to the turbine. In a Francis turbine, where there is a reduction in water
flow you need to rotate the wicket-gates. For this, a powerful governor is required to overcome the
hydraulic and frictional forces and to maintain the wicket-gates in a partially closed position or to
close them completely.
In a modern electrical-hydraulic governor a sensor located on the generator shaft continuously
senses the turbine speed. The input is fed into a summing junction, where it is compared to a speed
reference. If the speed sensor signal differs from the reference signal, it emits an error signal
(positive or negative) that, once amplified, is sent to the servomotor so this can act in the required
sense.

Schematic Diagram of a Mechanical Governor

7.6
Classifications and dimensions of powerhouses
Classification of powerhouse based on ground level: a) surface powerhouse, b) underground
powerhouse and c) semi underground powerhouse
a. Surface powerhouse
Surface powerhouse is made above the natural ground level and mostly used in small RoR to
PROR projects having low head and at the wide river valleys for powerhouse area. The surface
powerhouse generally does not have space limitations and need sound rock in foundation and
10

Chapter-7: Hydropower Engineering

some architectural design. Proper River training works is important to protect the powerhouse
from flood damage. Generally the surface powerhouse are economical and ease of construction
if the river valley is wide and free from land and rock slide having stable river banks free from
the flood hazard and bank erosion.
b. Underground powerhouse: under special circumstances such as when gorge or valley forms
is narrow providing not enough space for surface powerhouse, underground powerhouses are
worth. Underground powerhouse would be an appropriate proposition when there are more
surface hazards like rock slides, land slide, floods etc. the basic requirements of the
underground power house is the availability of good sound rocks at the desired location and
depth. Underground power houses are safe from air attack during war time. Important
characteristics of underground power house station are its flexibility of layout. The shortest
possible layout through various feasible alignments can be drawn up with minimum size of
pressure conduits and omissions of anchor and valves. The first fully underground power
station was constructed in 1911 in Sweden and operated under a head of 24 m. Khimti (69
MW) hydropower project is the underground powerhouse of Nepal.
Powerhouse Structures
The hydropower station can be broadly classified into three parts: i) Substructure ii) Intermediate
structure and iii) Super structures

The sub structure of the power house is that part of the structures which is situated below the turbine
level. This part is almost universally below the ground level and it includes the draft tube, tail water
11

Chapter-7: Hydropower Engineering

channel in case of impulse wheels, the other natural drainage pipes of waste water from the power
house, drainage galleries. The sub structure transmits the load of the structure above it to the
foundation strata and is usually a massive concrete construction.
The intermediate structures extend from the top of the draft tube to the top of the generator
foundation. The turbine including its casing, the galleries for the auxiliary machines and governor
servo-motor system are housed in this part. The turbine floor is generally provided immediately above
the turbine level and it can be used to have an access to the turbine runner and the regulating ring. The
turbine floor is below the generator floor and is accessible through stairs. For horizontal shaft
arrangement, the intermediate structures may be absent as the turbine and generators are housed in
adjacent halls at the same floor.
The superstructure of the powerhouse is the portion extending from the generating floor, called the
main floor, up to the roof top. It consists of the generators and governors, control room, the exciters
and the auxiliary equipment such as needed for ventilation and cooling. The generators themselves are
either entirely above the floor level or partially above the floor level. The super structure consists of
walls and the roof with a main travelling gantry crane at the roof level. The control room is often
provided with the large glass panel which looks down upon the generator floor. The super structure
also consists of one wing having the office and stores.
Powerhouse Dimensions
The superstructure of the power house has the following three bays: a) machine hall or the unit bay b)
erection or the loading bay, c) control bay.
Machine hall: Length of the machine hall depends upon the number of units, the distance between the
units, and size of the machines. For the vertical alignment unit, the centre to centre distance between
the units is controlled by the total width of the scroll casing layout. The standard distance of scroll
casing is about 4.5 D to 5 D with the turbine outlet diameter as D. The minimum clearance of about 2
to 3 m. so the centre to centre distance between the units is taken as (5D+2.5) m. for higher specific
speeds, this requirements can be reduced to (4D+2.5)m. knowing the total number of units, the total
length of the machine hall can be worked out. The additional fore for the erection//loading is generally
equal to minimum one unit length by size.
Width of the machine hall is also determined by the size and the clearance space from the walls needed
as a gangway. Since the gangway requirements are of the order of 2.5 m, as a first approximation, the
width of the machine hall can be presumed to be (5D+2.5)m. the width is kept as less as possible to
keep small span of the girder and roof structures. In machine halls, the generator placing is not exactly
on the centre line of the hall but shifted to one side so as to provide adequate operating space for the
crane operations on the other side.
Height: the height of the machine hall is fixed up by the head room requirements (about 2.0 m to 2.5
m) of the crane operations. The hall must have a height which will enable the cranes to lift the rotor of
the generator or the runner of the turbine clear off the floor without any other machine sets forming
obstruction. To this clearance space is to be added the depth of crane girder and head room for the
operating cabin.
Loading bay: the loading bay, also known as erection or service bay, is a space where the heavy
vehicles can be loaded and unloaded, the dismantled parts of the machines can be placed and where
small assembling of the equipments can be done. The loading bay should be of sufficient to receive the
large parts like the rotor and runner. The loading bay floor will be having a width at least equal to the
centre to centre distance between the machines.
Control bay: is the main room and control other equipments like runner, gate valves, generator etc. it
may be adjacent to the unit bay i.e. machine halls as it sends instructions to the operation bay from
where the operation control is achieved.
12

Chapter-7: Hydropower Engineering

7.7

Pumps: Centrifugal, reciprocating and their performance characteristics, selection

and starting speed
Pumps are mechanical devices which converts mechanical energy supplied to it from the external
source in to hydraulic energy. Almost all the pumps increase the pressure energy of the liquid which is
subsequently converted into potential energy as the liquid is lifted from a lower level to higher level.
The pumps can be broadly classified into two groups: a) reciprocating (positive displacement) pumps,
b) Centrifugal (Rotodynamic) pumps
Reciprocating Pump: A reciprocating pump are also called positive displacement pumps in which the
liquid is sucked and then it is actually pushed or displaced due to thrust exerted on it by moving
member which results in lifting the liquid to the required height. These pumps usually have one or
more chambers which are alternately filled with the liquid to be pumped and then emptied again. As
such the discharge of liquid pumped by these pumps almost wholly depends on the speed of the pump.
A reciprocating pump essentially consists of a piston or plunger which moves to and fro in close
fitting cylinder. The cylinder is connected to suction and delivery pipes, each of which is provided
with a non return or one way valve called suction valve and delivery valve respectively. The suction
valve allows the liquid only to enter the cylinder and the delivery valve permits only its discharge
from the cylinder. The piston or plunger is connected to a crank by means of connecting rod.
If the liquid is in contact with one side of the piston or plunger only, it is known as single acting pump.
If the liquid is in contact with both the sides of piston or plunger, it is known as double acting pump.
Double acting pump has two suction and two delivery pipes with appropriate valves, so that during
each stroke when suction takes place on one side of the piston, the other side delivers the liquid.

Discharge
Discharge

Efficiency

Input Power

Discharge Q

Efficiency

Head (m)
Typical characteristics curves of reciprocating curve
The operating characteristics curves are plotting of discharge, power input and overall efficiency
against the head developed by the pump when it is operating at a constant speed. Under the ideal
condition, the discharge of the reciprocating pump operating at constant speed is independent of the
13

Chapter-7: Hydropower Engineering

head developed by the pump. However, in actual practice it is observed that the discharge of a
reciprocating pump decreases as the head developed by the pump increases.

(See Modi and seth books on Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic machines chapter 23
for details)
Centrifugal pump: also called as rotodynamic type of pumps in which dynamic pressure is developed
by rotating the fluid by a rotor. The basic principle on which centrifugal pump works is that when a
certain mass of fluid is made to rotate by an external force, it is thrown away from the central axis of
rotation and centrifugal head is impressed due to centrifugal action which enables it to rise to the
higher level. If more liquid is made available at the centre of rotation, a continuous supply of liquid at
higher level may be ensured.
Based on the direction of flow of liquid within the passage of the rotating wheel or impeller, the
rotodynamic pumps are classified as: i) centrifugal, ii) mixed flow and iii) axial flow or propeller
pumps
In centrifugal pump the liquid flows in the outward radial direction while the flow of liquid in a
propeller is in the axial direction parallel to the rotating shaft. The mixed flow pump, impeller has an
intermediate form so that the flow of liquid is in between the radial and axial directions. However
there are no rigid boundaries for separating these three types of pumps and often all the three types of
pumps are called centrifugal pumps. All these pumps are in close to the reverse of reactive turbine.
The main advantages of the centrifugal pump is that its discharging capacity is very much greater than
that of the reciprocating pump which can handle relatively small quantity of liquid only.
Reciprocating pumps may be in trouble due to clogging of valves in pumping muddy, viscous fluid etc
compared to that of the centrifugal pump. The maintenance cost of centrifugal pump is low and
reciprocating pumps are low speed pumps compared to that of the centrifugal pumps.

(See Modi and seth books on Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic machines chapter 24
for details)
Head

Output Power

Input Power

Efficiency

Head

Efficiency

Input power

Output power

Discharge
Typical operating characteristics curves of the centrifugal pumps
14