Measurements and Instrumentation

ECCE3036

Potentiometer
Rotary Potentiometer
Optical Potentiometer

Rectilinear/Rotary Potentiometer: The

transducer output signal is a dc voltage
which is proportional to the potentiometer
resistance that is proportional to the slider
displacement.
Optical Potentiometer: It has a photoresistive layer which acts as an electrical

insulator if no light is projected on it. The

displacement of moving object a moving
light beam which cause a change in voltage
accordingly.
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They are relatively inexpensive.

Potentiometers provide high-voltage
(low-impedance) output signals, requiring
no amplification in most applications.
They are simple voltage dividers and don't
need any special conditioning electronics
They monitor in real-time, without any
signal lag from electronics, to give an
accurate results

The force needed to move the slider is provided

by the displacement source. This mechanical
loading distorts the measured signal itself.
High-frequency (or highly transient)
measurements are not feasible
Variations in the supply voltage cause error.
Resolution is limited by the number of turns in
the coil and by the coil uniformity.
Wear out and heating up in the coil or film, and
slider contact cause accelerated degradation.

The majority of suspension position

monitoring on saloon cars, single seat race
cars and motorbikes use hybrid linear
potentiometers.
In servo technology applications.
All applications that requires simple
displacement transducer
For real time applications since there is no
signal lag.

Linear-Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)

Motion of a magnetic core changes

the mutual inductance of two
secondary coils relative to a primary
coil.
Primary coil voltage: VSsin(wt)
Secondary coil induced emf:
V1=k1sin(wt) and V2=k2sin(wt)
Where k1 and k2 depend on the
amount of coupling between the
primary and the secondary coils,
which is proportional to the position
of the coil.
When the coil is in the central
position, k1=k2 VOUT=V1-V2=0
When the coil is displaced x units,
k1k2 VOUT=(k1-k2)sin(wt)
Positive or negative displacements
are determined from the phase of
VOUT.
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It is essentially a non-contacting device

with no frictional resistance. Near-ideal
electromechanical energy conversion and
light-weight core will result in very small
resistive forces
It has low output impedance, typically on
the order of 100 . (Signal amplification is
usually not needed beyond what is
provided by the conditioning circuit.)
Directional measurements

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Inductive sensors require sophisticated signal

conditioning electronics to condition and
linearize the coil signal.

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In making tablets from medicinal

powder, dual LVDTs control pill weight &
thickness.
Portable Friction Welder: LVDT measures
the distance between the approaching
metals.
Manufacturing process controls, valve
and flow controls, pneumatic cylinder
controls, head box (papers and pulp)

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Proximity sensors (either capacitive or

inductive) can be used to sense distance.
Proximity sensors are usually used as
switches to provide a clear indication when
a certain, preset distance is reached.
Inductive sensors can produce an electric
output such as voltage based on the change
in their impedance

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An "E core" carries the primary windings in its

middle limb and the secondary windings on
the other two limbs. The two voltages
induced in the secondary windings are
additive.

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The capacitance between two plates is

determined by three things:

Size of the plates: capacitance increases as the

plate size increases
Gap Size: capacitance decreases as the gap
increases
Material between the plates (the dielectric):
Dielectric material will cause the capacitance to
increase or decrease depending on the material

Area Dielectric
C=
Gap
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Capacitive-Displacement Sensors
One of the capacitor plates is attached to
the moving object and the other is kept
stationary. Therefore the capacitance is
proportional to the object displacement.

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Capacitive-Displacement Sensors
One plate of the capacitor rotates with a rotating
object (shaft) and the other plate is kept
stationary. Since the common area is proportional
to the angle of rotation then the capacitance is
proportional to the angle of rotation.

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Liquid level sensor

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Low cost and power usage,

Good stability, resolution, and speed.
They also are easy to be integrated into
ICs or onto printed-circuit boards (pc
boards).
Capacitive sensors can detect motion,
acceleration, flow, and many other
variables, and are used in a wide range of
applications.
Mechanical loading effects are negligible,
because they are non-contacting device
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They are affected by temperature and

humidity
Sensitivity to noise,
Difficulties in designing,
Capacitive sensors do need some
specialized design know-how to avoid
some hazards,
Capacitance sensors need to be adjusted
for sensitivity. This adjustment also needs
to include variations due to moisture or
other environmental factors.

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Capacitive sensors can be used to

determine the presence or absence of
liquids or solids through non-conductive
containers, tubes or pipes.
A capacitance type sensor can be an ideal
solution where cost is a critical factor.
Capacitive gauges and capacitive sensors
are used to measure structural vibration.
Capacitance sensors are ideal for
providing servo system feedback in piezo
motor driven nanopositioning
applications.
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DC Tachometer
Similar to a dc generator. The rotor is directly connected to
the rotating object. The output signal that is induced in the
rotating coil is picked up as a dc voltage using a suitable
commutator device. According to Faraday's law, the induced

voltage is proportional to the rate of change in magnetic flux

linkage. The proportionality between the output voltage and

the angular velocity is used to measure the angular velocity,

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For a coil of height h and width 2r that has n

turns, moving at an angular speed wc in a
uniform magnetic field of flux this is given by:

vo = (2nhr ) wc = Kwc
This proportionality between vo and wc is used
to measure the angular speed wc. The
proportionality constant K is known as back-emf
constant.
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Permanent-Magnate AC Tachometer
One set of the windings is energized using an ac
reference voltage. When the rotor is stationary ,
the output voltage is a constant amplitude signal
much like the reference voltage. As the rotor
moves in a finite speed an additional induced
voltage in the other set of windings, is generated
in the secondary windings. This voltage is
proportional to the rotor speed

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AC Induction Tachometer
Similar to a 2-phase induction motor. It is also
same as the Permanent-Magnate AC Tachometer
except that the rotor has windings, which are
shorted and not energized by an external source.
The induced voltage is proportional to the speed
of the rotor rotation. The output voltage is a
result of both the stator (primary) windings and
the rotor winding.

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The absence of slip-ring and brush devices,

since the output is obtained from the stator.
Relatively accurate speed readings

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The noise components will dominate at low levels

of output signal. In particular, since the output of
a tachometer is proportional to the measured
speed, at low speeds, the level of noise, as a
fraction of the output signal, can be large.
Signal demodulation is necessary, particularly for
measuring transient speeds.
The output signal level depends on the supply
voltage; hence, a stabilized voltage source, which
has very small output impedance is necessary for
accurate measurements.
At high speeds the output from an ac tachometer
is somewhat nonlinear (primarily due to the
saturation effect)

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AC and DC motors speed control.

Automotive speed gauge

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