Chapter 4 : FLOW MEASUREMENT

4.1 Background
A control structure measures discharge by establishing a relationship between the flow depth and
discharge in its vicinity. Once the relationship is known, discharge can be calculated from the
measured depth of flow. The depth-discharge relationship is obtained by changing the flow regime
from subcritical to supercritical. When flow changes from subcritical to supercritical, it passes
through critical flow conditions. At critical flow conditions, there is a unique relationship between
the discharge and flow depth which for rectangular channels can be expressed as follows for a
rectangular channel section,
q 2 = gy 3 C

(4.1)

where q is the discharge per unit width of the channel, g is the gravity constant, and y is the flow
depth. All discharge measuring structures in open channels, such as flumes and weirs, employ the
principle of change in flow regime to obtain hydraulic control. We have analyzed the concepts of
hydraulic control in Chapter 2.
A concept of particular importance in discharge measurement by weirs and flumes is that of
modular flow. The flow over a weir is modular when it is independent of variations in downstream
water level. For this to occur, the downstream head h2 must not rise beyond a certain percentage of
upstream head over the weir crest h1. For weirs and flumes, the minimum required differential head
( H ) to operate in the modular flow range can be expressed as a fraction of the upstream energy
head h1 as

H =

h1 h2
h
=1 2
h1
h1

(4.2)

h2
is the submergence ratio for the weir crest which is used to
h1
define the modular limit. The modular limit is the value of submergence ratio at which the real
discharge deviates by one percent from the discharge calculated by the depth-discharge equation.
The last term of equation (4.2),

The modular limit of weirs and flumes depends basically on the degree of streamline curvature at the
control section. Broad-crested weirs and long-throated flumes, which have straight and parallel
streamlines at their control section, can obtain a modular limit as high as 0.95. That is, the
broad-crested weirs and long-throated flumes maintain their accuracy even at high submergence
ratios. Modular limit of a sharp- crested weir and zero throat flume will be lower as the streamlines
are more strongly curved under normal operation. The sharp-crested weir is an extreme example
where the downstream water level must remain at least seven centimeters below crest level for
modular conditions and accuracy of discharge measurement.

4.2 Types and Management Implications

There are three types of control structures for measuring flow discharge in open channels: weirs,
orifices and flumes. Weirs and orifices produce hydraulic control by contracting the flow in vertical
plane, and flumes obtain the control conditions by contracting the flow in horizontal plane. Weirs
can be sharp-crested or broad-crested. A sharp-crested weir consists of a vertical plate with a sharp
edge that is placed normal to the flow direction. The flow contracts as it passes over the plate, and
as a result the flow regime is changed from subcritical (upstream of the weir) to supercritical
(downstream of the weir).
The depth-discharge equation for a sharp-crested weir is derived by assuming atmospheric pressure
around the overflow jet. Care must be taken to insure that the underside of the jet is properly
aerated. For this purpose, the underside of the falling jet is connected to the atmosphere by means of
a vent pipe. However, these vent pipes are usually vandalized and removed. When the vent pipe is
removed, vacuum is created under the jet which increases discharge over the weir and the
depth-discharge relationship will no longer be accurate.
Weirs require larger energy head to pass a given discharge as compared to flumes, and as such the
flow depth upstream of a weir is significantly increased. For this reason, weirs should not be
installed very close to turnout or turnout structures as the "pile-up" effect may extend back up to the
turnout and reduce its discharge. Because of many improperly installed weirs, these structures tend
to be less popular with farmers. Another reason why sharp-crested weirs may not be favored by
farmers is that they require substantial labor for cleaning the sediment that accumulates upstream of
the weir structure. Because of the increased depth, flow velocity upstream of a weir is reduced
causing the suspended silt to settle in the channel. With all these potential drawbacks, however, a
properly designed and installed weir is an accurate discharge measuring device for open channels.
A broad-crested weir has a crest length (in the direction of flow) so that the streamlines can be
straight and parallel before the free overfall. Therefore, the broad-crested weir does not have the
disadvantages associated with sharp streamline curvature. Critical flow occurs at the weir crest and
this property is used to derive the depth-discharge relationships.
In orifice flow, the streamline curvature is less and as such the upstream water surface does not rise
as much as in sharp-crested weirs. When orifices are designed to be submerged by the downstream
water surface, then the head differential required to pass a given discharge is further reduced.
Submerged pipe turnouts function satisfactorily at head differential as low as 5 cm. Because of these
advantages, orifice-based regulation structures are very commonly used in irrigation canals.
Flumes obtain hydraulic control by contracting the flow in horizontal plane, and as such all flumes
have a converging section followed by a diverging section. In addition, some flumes have a straight
"throat" section in between the two sections. Some widely used examples are the Parshall flume, the
Cutthroat flume, and the Long-Throated flume. In the Cutthroat and Long-throated flumes the bed
is horizontal, and as such these flumes are easier to make. In the Parshall flume, the bed drops and
then rises again at the control section. The Cutthroat flume has a zero throat width compared to the
Parshall and the Long-Throated flumes. Flumes are placed parallel to the direction of flow in an
2

open channel; that is, they are "in-line" structures. Therefore, flumes cannot be used for discharge
regulation; they can be used only for discharge measurement. Since weirs and orifices are placed
normal to the flow direction, they can be used both for discharge measurement and regulation.
4.3 Broad-Crested Weirs
Classified under the term broad-crested weirs are those structures over which the streamlines are
straight and parallel to each other, at least for a short distance. As such, hydrostatic pressure
distribution may be assumed at the control section. To obtain this condition, the crest length in the
flow direction, L, is defined in relation to the upstream energy head over the crest h1.
4.3 a. Round-Nosed Broad-Crested Weir
Description
The weir comprises a truly level and horizontal crest between vertical abutments. The upstream
corner is rounded to avoid flow separation. Downstream of the horizontal crest there may be a
vertical face, a downward slope or a rounded corner, depending on the submergence ratio under
which the weir should operate at modular flow. The weir structure should be at right angles to the
flow direction. The dimensions of the weir and its abutments should comply with the requirements
indicated in Figure 4.1. The minimum radius of the upstream rounded nose (r) is 0.11 h1, although
for economic design of field structures a value r = 0.2 h1 is recommended. The length of the
horizontal portion of the weir crest should not be less than 1.75 h1 to obtain a favorable discharge
coefficient Cd. The head measurement section should be located a distance of between two to three
times h1 upstream of the weir block.

Figure 4.1: Round-nosed Broad-crested Weir.

3

Measurement of discharge
The depth-discharge relationship for a broad-crested weir can be derived from fundamental
hydraulic principles. This is possible because of the streamline flow that exists at the crest which
enables us to assume hydrostatic pressure distribution at the crest (Figure 4.2)

Section 1
Section 2

Broad-Crested Weir
Figure 4.2: Streamline Flow at the Crest of Broad-crested Weir
Applying energy equation between upstream (section 1) and the control section (section 2) with crest
as the datum and assuming no energy loss, we get
2

v
v
h1 + 1 = y 2 + 2
2g
2g

v
or H 1 = y 2 + 2
2g

which gives velocity at the crest,

v2 = 2 g ( H 1 y 2 )

and discharge Q as
Q = A 2g (H1 y2 )

For rectangular crest section of width b,

Q = by 2 2 g ( H 1 y 2 )
At the crest section, flow is critical and therefore,

2
2
EC = H 1
3
3
The discharge equation can therefore be written as
y 2 = yC =

2
2
Q = b H1 2g (H1 H1 )
3
3

or

Q=

3
2 2
g bH 1 2
3 3

(4.3)

In practice, we can measure h1 which is the flow depth over the weir crest. If we replace energy
head H1 with flow depth h1, we must use a coefficient of velocity Cv to account for the approach
velocity head. Equation (4.3) can then be written as
Q=

3
2
2
Cv
g bh1 2
3
3

(4.4)

Another coefficient to be introduced is the coefficient of discharge Cd to account for the streamline
convergence at the entrance to the crest.
Q=

3
2
2
Cd Cv
g bh1 2
3
3

(4.5)

Equation (4.5) gives the depth-discharge relationship for broad-crested weirs with rectangular
control section. Similar relationships can be developed for other common shapes of the control
section such as the triangular and trapezoidal. Since these shapes are more commonly used in
flumes, we will present them in the section on flumes.
The discharge coefficient Cd corrects for the energy loss between the gauging and control sections
and for the streamline curvature. These phenomena are closely related to the value of the ratio H1.
Figure 4.3 gives the value of Cd as a function of the ratioH1. The range of application is
0.1

H1
1.0
L

(4.6)

H1
< 0.1, minor changes in the boundary roughness of the weir crest cause large variation in
L
H
the Cd value. For values of 1 > 1.0, pressure distribution at the control section is no longer
L
hydrostatic, because of the large streamline curvature.

For

Figures 4.3: Cd as a function of ratio H1/L

The approach velocity coefficient Cv corrects for the use of flow depth (h1) instead of total energy
2
v
head (H1) and thus neglecting 1 . In general, Cv therefore equals
2g

H
C v = 1
h1

(4.7)

where equals the power of h1 in the head-discharge equation; that is for rectangular control
section, = 1.5. Because the discharge is determined by the area of flow at the control section and
approach velocity is mainly determined by the area of flow at the gauging station, Cv can be
A*
(Figure 4.4). In the area ratio, the value A* equals the imaginary
correlated to the area ratio
A1
flow area at the control section if the water depth would equal h1, and A1 is the area of flow at the
gauging station.

Modular limit

The flow over a weir is modular when it is independent of variations in the upstream water level.
The weir height above the bottom of the channel, p2, in relation to upstream energy head, H1,
H
determines the modular limit. The modular limit can be read from Figure 4.5 as a function of 1
p2
and the back face slope of the weir. The design value of p2 is established by trial and error.

Limits of application

The practical lower limit of

height of water surface over
the crest, h1, is related to the
magnitude of the influence
of fluid properties, to the
boundary roughness, and to
the accuracy with which h1
can be determined. The
recommended lower limit is
0.06 m or 0.05 L, whichever
is greater.
Figure 4.4: Cv as a Function of the Area Ratio
The limitations on H 1 p arise from difficulties experienced when the
Froude number in the approach channel exceeds 0.5. The
recommended upper limit is H 1 p = 1.5, where p should be greater
than or equal to 0.15 m.
The limitation on H 1 L arise from the necessity of ensuring a
hydrostatic pressure distribution at the critical section of the crest, and
of preventing the formation of undulations above the weir crest.
Values of the ratio H 1 L should therefore range between 0.05 and
0.50. The width b of the weir crest should not be less than 0.30 m, nor
less than maximum upstream energy head, H1.

Figure 4.5: Modular Limit as a Function of H1/p2.

7

4.3 b. Broad-Crested Weir with Upstream Ramp

Description

In recent applied research by Bos, M.G., Replogle, J.A. Clemmens, A.J. and Tony Wahl, a sloping
approach ramp has been added to the horizontal broad crest (Figure 4.6). The upstream approach
channel with the ramp is necessary for the development of parallel streamline flow and stable water
surface at the crest. The streamline flow, in which water enters the control section without flow
separation, is most important. It enables the application of available hydraulic theory to accurately
predict the hydraulic performance of the control structure. Also, the smooth transition results in low
head loss for passing a given discharge under modular flow conditions.

Figure 4.6: Broad-crested Weir with Ramp in Lined Canal.

The modified broad-crested weirs can be used both in concrete-lined canals and in earthen canals.
In concrete-lined canals, a simple upstream ramp is required with no additional provisions in the
upstream approach. Also, no downstream ramp is necessary for protection against bed erosion
(Figure 4.6). For the weirs in earthen channels, a upstream approach section and a downstream
ramp are added. The broad-crested weirs for earthen channels will be described in the next section.
Measurement of Discharge

The hydraulic control relationship for the weir is the same as given in Equation 4.5. Based on this
relationship, rating tables have been prepared for a number of standard weirs with different crest
widths. The standard weirs with necessary design information are given in Tables 4.1 and 4.2. The
discharge rating tables for these standard weirs are given in Tables 4.3 and 4.4.

Design and Selection

Estimate or determine the tail-water depth y2 for the maximum discharge. The depth y2
is the normal flow depth in the canal at the design discharge.
Know the existing canal shape and dimensions.
Using Table 4.1 or Table 4.2, locate the canal shape that best fits the existing canal.
Select a weir such that the design discharge Q falls within the range of discharge that can
be measured by the weir.
Determine the sill-referenced head (h1) from the rating tables for the weir (Tables 4.3 and
4.4).
Determine the required headloss H for maintaining modular flow at the weir.
Check whether h1 + p > y2 + H . If not, go back and choose another weir.
Check the canal depth d. See if d 1.2 h1max + p1 (this will provide a free board = 0.2
h1).
Determine appropriate dimensions as follows:
L = length of crest 1.5 H1max
La = approach length 1.0 H1max
Lb = horizontal length of ramp = 2 to 3 times p1
Ramp slope = 3 Horizontal :1 Vertical

The USBR Hydraulics Lab staff in Denver have developed a computer program WinFlume, which
allows the user to conveniently design a flume for required conditions. It also provides the control
equation and/or rating tables for the designed flume. The web address for downloading the software
is: www.usbr.gov/pmts/hydraulics_lab

Table 4.1: Choices of Weir Sizes and Rating Tables for Lined Canals in Metric Units

10

Table 4.2: Choices of Weir Sizes and Rating Tables for Lined Canals in English Units

11

Table 4.3: Rating Table for Weirs in Trapezoidal Lined Canals in Metric Units

12

Table 4.3 continued: Rating Table for Weirs in Trapezoidal Lined Canals in Metric Units

13

Table 4.4: Rating Tables for Weirs in Trapezoidal Canals in English Units

14

Table 4.4 continued: Rating Tables for Weirs in Trapezoidal Canals in English Units

15

Table 4.4 continued: Rating Tables for Weirs in Trapezoidal Canals in English Units

16

Design Example

Given a existing canal with bottom width b1 = 0.3 m, side slope 1:1 and a total canal depth d = 0.55
m. For a design discharge of 150 L/s, normal flow depth y2 = 0.43 m.
Required: Select a broad-crested weir
Solution: From Table 4.1, weir types that can be suitable are Bm through Em1.
Trial 1. Choose Bm since it has minimum sill height, p1 = 0.15 m. Using Table 4.3, for weir Bm to
pass Q = 150 L/s, required upstream head h1 = 0.219 m. Using Table 4.1, find H (required head
loss) = 0.017 m. Also, H = 0.1 h1, = 0.022 m. Use H = 0.022 m
Check: h1 + p1 > y2 + H
.219 + .15 > .43 + .022
.369 m is not greater than .452 m. Try next weir type.
Trial 2. Try weir Dm1
h1 = .197 m, p1 = 0.25 (Table 4.1)
H = 0.1 h1 = .02 so use H = .025 m
h1 + p1 = .447 m
y2 + H = .455 m
Since h1 + p1 not greater than y2 + H , try again
Trial 3. Try weir Em1
p1 = 0.3 m, h1 = 0.187, H = 0.029m
h1 + p1 = .487 m and y2 + H = .459 m
Since H1 + p1 > y2+ H , the weir is desirable. The flow will be modular for the range of discharges
0.12 m3/s to 0.52 m3/s. The weir sill will be 0.3 m above the upstream bed level. Other design
dimensions are calculated as follows.
La = Length of the gauge to the end of the ramp = 1.0 H1.
Therefore, La = 0.2 m.
Lb = Upstream ramp = 3p1 = 3.0*3 = 0.9 m.
L = Sill Length = 1.5 h1 = 1.5 * 0.187 = 0.27 = 0.3 m.
However, from Table 4.3, sill length for Em1 weir must be between 0.38 m to 0.56 m. So, choose L =
0.38 m.
Crest width bc = 0.9 m.
17

4.3.c Broad-Crested Weirs for Earthen Canals

Components and dimensions

Weirs for earthen canals require the following basic parts: approach channel, converging section,
throat, diverging section and downstream protection in the form of a stilling basin and riprap (Figure
4.7). The structure is longer and, therefore, more expensive for earthen canals as compared to one in
lined canals. In lined canals, the approach channel and structure sides are already available and no
downstream protection is needed. Approach channel provides a known flow and velocity of
approach. Rating tables assume rectangular approach section of same width as throat.

Figure 4.7: Broad-crested Weir in Earthen Canal

The structure shown in Figure 4.7 can be shortened by deleting the downstream diverging section
as illustrated in Figure 4.8.

18

Figure 4.8: Shortened Weir in Earthen Canal

In constructing the weirs and flumes shown above, the designer may select any locally available
construction materials. For example, wings and sidewalls can be brickwork containing a
mortar-plastered sill; or the entire structure can be made of reinforced concrete.
Discharge Rating Tables

Tables 4.5 and 4.6 give rating tables for rectangular broad-crested weirs in earthen canals.
Discharges in these tables are limited to keep the approach channel Froude Number below 0.45.
Total discharge Q = qbc where q is the discharge per unit width from Tables 4.5 and 4.6, and bc is
the weir crest width.
Design Procedure

Obtain data on the flow conditions in the existing channel.

Estimate head required to maintain modular flow for a design discharge and still not
overtop the channel.
Enter Tables 4.5 and 4.6 with value of head h1. Read one of the columns and select unit
discharge q.
Determine required head loss.
Select a sill height such that flow is modular and the canal is not overtopped.

19

Table 4.5: Rating Table for Rectangular Weirs with Discharge per Meter Width

20

Table 4.5 (continued): Rating Table for Rectangular Weirs

21

Table 4.6: Rating Table for Rectangular Weirs in English Units

22

Table 4.6 (continued): Rating Table for Rectangular Weirs in English Units

23

4.4 Sharp-crested weirs

The sharp-crested weirs are overflow structures whose crest length in flow direction is equal to or
less than two millimeters. The crest surface and the sides of the notch have plane surfaces which
make sharp 90-degree intersections with the upstream weir face. The downstream edge of the notch
should be beveled if the weir plate is thicker than two millimeters. The beveled surfaces should
make an angle of not less than 45 degrees with the surface of a rectangular notch, and an angle of not
less than 60 degrees if the throat section is non rectangular (Figure 4.9).
In general, sharp-crested weirs are used where accurate discharge measurements are required, for
example in hydraulic laboratories, industry, and irrigation pilot schemes. To obtain this high
accuracy the downstream water level should be low to ensure ventilation of the air pocket beneath
the overflow jet. Consequently the sharp-crested weirs require a substantial head loss to obtain
modular flow, which is a major disadvantage of sharp-crested weirs.
4.4 a. Rectangular sharp-crested weirs

A rectangular notch, symmetrically located in a vertical thin metal plate, placed perpendicular to the
flow direction is defined as a rectangular sharp-crested weir (Figure 4.10). Rectangular
sharp-crested weirs are classified in following three types.

Figure 4.9: Cross-section Over a Sharp-crested Weir.

24

Figure 4.10: Rectangular Sharp-crested Weir.

Contracted weirs have an approach channel whose bed and walls are sufficiently remote from the
weir crest and sides, so that the channel boundaries have no significant influence on the contraction
of the overflow jet.
Width or suppressed weirs extend across the full width of the rectangular approach channel. As a
result, the channel boundaries significantly affect the contraction pattern.
Partially contracted weirs, where contractions are not fully developed due to the proximity of the
walls and/or the bottom of the approach channel.
In general, all three types of rectangular weirs should be located in a rectangular approach channel.
If the approach channel is sufficiently large to render the approach velocity negligible, and the weir
is fully contracted, the shape of the approach channel is unimportant. Consequently, the fully
contracted weir may be used with non-rectangular approach channels. The fully contracted weir
may be described by limitations on various dimensions as shown in Table 4.7.

25

Table 4.7: Limitation on Dimensions of a Rectangular Sharp-crested Contracted Weir.

Measurement of discharge

The basic head-discharge equation for a sharp-crested weir is

Q = Cd

2
1.5
2 g bh1
3

(4.8)

To apply this equation to fully contracted and partially contracted weirs, it is modified as

Q = Cd

2
1.5
2 g be he
3

(4.9)

where the effective width be equals b + Kb and the effective head, he, equals h1 + Kh. The quantities
Kb and Kh represent the combined effects of viscosity and surface tension. Empirically defined
values for Kb as a function of the ratio b/B are given in Figure 4.11 and a constant positive value for
Kh = 0.001 m is recommended for all values of the ratios b/B and h1/p.
Ce is an effective discharge coefficient which is a function of the ratios b/B and h1/p and can be
determined from Figure 4.12. For a rectangular sharp-crested weir which has been constructed with
reasonable care and skill, the error in the effective discharge coefficient is expected to be less than 1
percent.
Limits of application

The lower limit of h1 is related to the magnitude of the influence of fluid properties and the accuracy
with which h1 can be determined. The recommended lower limit is 0.03 m. Critical depth will
occur in the approach channel upstream of the weir if ratio h1/p exceeds about 5. Alternatively the
weir is not a control section for values of h1/p greater than 5. Further limitations on h1/p arise from
observational difficulties and measurement errors. For precise discharge measurement, the
recommended upper limit for h1/p is 2.0 and p should be at least 0.10 m. The width of the weir crest
should not be less than 0.15 m; and to facilitate aeration of the nappe, the downstream water level
should remain at least 0.05 m below crest level.

26

Figure 4.11: Values of Kb as a Function of b/B

Figure 4.12: Coefficient Ce as a Function of Ratios b/B and h1/p

27

4.4 b. V-Notch Sharp-Crested Weirs

A V-shaped notch in a vertical thin plate placed perpendicular to the sides and bottom of a straight
channel is defined as a V-notch sharp-crested weir (Figure 4.13). The line which bisects the angle of
the notch should be vertical and equal distance from
both sides of the channel. The V-notch
sharp-crested weir is a very precise discharge
measuring device suitable for a wide range of flow.
In international literature, the V-notch
sharp-crested weir is also referred to as the
Thomson weir.
The flow regime encountered in V-notch
sharp-crested weirs may be partially or fully
contracted. A partially contracted weir does not
have fully developed end contractions due to
proximity of walls and/or bed of the approach
channel. A fully contracted weir has an approach
channel whose bed and sides are quite remote from
the edges of the V-notch. This allows for a
sufficiently large approach velocity component
parallel to the weir face so that the end contraction
is fully developed.
The two types of flow regimes in V-notch
sharp-crested weirs may be classified by the
limitations on various dimensions shown in Table
4.8. From Table 4.8, it appears that a weir may be
fully contracted at low head, but with increasing
head it becomes partially contracted.
Figure 4.13: V-notch Sharp-crested Weir

Table 4.8: Limitations on Dimensions of V-notch Sharp-crested Weirs

28

Measurement of discharge

The basic head-discharge equation for a V-notch sharp-crested weir is

Q = Ce

2.5
8
2 g tan h1
15
2

(4.10)

To apply this equation to both fully and partially contracted sharp- crested weirs, it is modified to a
form

Q = Ce

2.5
8
2 g tan he
15
2

(4.11)

where is the notch angle and he is the effective head which equals h1 + Kh. The quantity Kh
represents the combined effect of fluid properties such as viscosity and surface tension. Empirically
defined values for Kh as a function of the notch angle are presented in Figure 4.14.

29

Figure 4.14: Value of Kh as a Function of the Notch Angle.

For water at ordinary temperature, that is 5oC to 30oC (40oF to 85oF), the effective coefficient of
discharge, Ce, is a function of three variables.
h p
C e = f 1 , ,
p B1

If the ratio h1/p < 0.4 and p/B1 < 0.2, the V-notch weir is fully contracted and Ce becomes a function
of only the notch angle , as illustrated in Figure 4.15. If the contraction of the nappe is not fully
developed, the effective discharge coefficient can be read from Figure 4.16 for a 90-degree V-notch
only. Insufficient experimental data are available to recommend Ce values for non 90-degree
partially contracted V-notch weirs.
Limits of application

The limits of application of Equation (4.10) for V-notch sharp- crested weirs are:

Ratio h1/p should be equal to or less than 1.2

Ratio h1/B should be equal to or less than 0.4,
Head over the vertex, h1, should not be less than 0.05 m nor more than 0.60
m,
Height of the notch vertex above the approach channel bed, p, should not be
less than 0.10 m
30

Figure 4.15: Coefficient of Discharge Ce as a Function of Notch Angle

for Fully Contracted V-notch weirs.

Figure 4.16: Ce as a Function

of h1/p and p/B for 90-degree
V-notch Sharp-crested Weir.

Commonly used sizes of

V-notches for fully contracted
sharp-crested weirs are
1
1
90-degree,
90-degree and
2
4
31

90-degree notches as shown in Figure 4.17. The dimensions across the top are twice, equal to and
half the vertical depth respectively. A rating table for discharge of these three V-notch weirs is
given as Table 4.9. Downstream water level should remain below the vertex of the notch. Notch
angle of a fully contracted weir may range from 25 to 100 degrees. Partially contracted weirs have a
90-degree notch only.

Figure 4.17. V-Notch Weir Sizes

Table 4.9: Rating Table for V-Notch Weirs

32

Table 4.9 continued: Rating Table for V-Notch Weirs

33

34

4.4 c. Cipoletti weir

A Cipoletti weir is a fully contracted sharp-crested weir with a trapezoidal control section. The crest
is horizontal and the sides slope outward with an inclination of 1 horizontal to 4 vertical (Figure
4.18).

Figure 4.18: Definition Sketch of a Cipoletti Weir.

Cipoletti assumed that the decrease of discharge over a fully contracted rectangular weir, due to the
side-contraction, would be compensated by the increase of discharge because of the inclination of
the sides of the control section. Therefore, he used the head-discharge equation for a fully
suppressed rectangular weir to evaluate discharge. It should be noted, however, that experiments
differ as to the degree to which the compensation occurs. Inherently, the accuracy of measurements
obtained with the Cipoletti weir is not as great as that obtainable with rectangular or V-notch
sharp-crested weirs.
Measurements of discharge

The head-discharge equation for a Cipoletti weir is the same as that for a rectangular suppressed
weir. Hence
Q = C d Cv

3
2
2 g bh1 2
3

(4.12)

where, within certain limits of application, the discharge coefficient Cd equals 0.63. The approach
velocity coefficient Cv may be obtained from Figure 4.4. A rating table for the discharge q (m3/s/m)
with negligible approach velocity is presented in Table 4.10. The accuracy of the discharge
coefficient for a well maintained Cipoletti weir is reasonable for field conditions. The error in the
product CdCv is expected to be less than 5 percent.

35

Limits of application

The limits of application of the Cipoletti fully contracted weir are given below.

The height of the weir crest above the approach channel bottom should be at
least twice the head over the crest with a minimum of 0.30.
The distance between sides of the trapezoidal control section and the
approach channel should be at least twice the head over the crest with a
minimum of 0.30 m.
The upstream head over the weir crest h1 should not be less than 0.06 m and
not more than 0.60 m.
The ratio h1/b should be equal to or less than 0.50.
To enable aeration of the nappe, the tailwater level should be at least 0.05 m
below crest level.
Table 4.10: Rating Table for Standard Cipoletti Weir

36

4.5 Flumes

A flume is a geometrically specified horizontal constriction in an open channel to obtain critical flow
conditions. The channel constriction may be formed by side contractions only, by a bottom
contraction, or by both side and bottom contractions. A flume, therefore, has an entrance transition
to converge the flow, a throat section where the flow is critical, and a downstream expansion to
smoothly diverge the flow to its initial flow conditions. Flumes are "in-line" structures; that is, their
flow axis is parallel to the channel flow axis. Therefore flumes cannot be used as dual purpose
regulating and measurement structures; they are used for discharge measurement only.
4.5 a. Long-Throated Flumes

37

Long-throated flumes have a throat section in which streamlines are parallel to each other, at least
for a short distance (Figure 4.19). Because of this parallel streamline flow, hydrostatic pressure
distribution can be assumed at the throat control section. At the throat section the bottom is truly
horizontal in the direction of flow. The most common throat sections are rectangular, V-shaped and
trapezoidal. The entrance transition should be
of sufficient length to avoid flow separation
either at the bottom or at the sides of the
transition. The floor of the transition should be
flat and level and at no point higher than the
throat invert. The head measurement station
should be located upstream of the flume at a
distance equal to 2 or 3 times the maximum
head to be measured.

Figure 4.19: Long-throated Flume Dimensions

Discharge measurement

The hydraulic behavior of a long-throated flume is essentially the same as that of a broad-crested
weir because of the parallel streamline flow at control section. Consequently, the depth-discharge
equation for these flumes are derived in the same way as for broad-crested weirs (Section 4.3). The
basic depth discharge equation for a rectangular long-throated flume is the same as Equation (4.5),
that is,
3
2
Q = Cd Cv
2 / 3g bh1 2
(4.13)
3
For a triangular (V-shaped) control section,
38

Q = Cd Cv

5
16
2 / 5g tan h1 2
25
2

(4.14)

and for a trapezoidal control section,

Q = Cd (b yC + z yC2) [2g(H1 - yC)]1/2

(4.15)

where h1 = depth of flow at the head measurement station,

V2
2g
yC = critical depth of flow in the throat section. For trapezoidal sections, Table 4.11 is used
to find yC
Cd = discharge coefficient which is a function of the ratio H1/L and its value is presented in
Figure 4.20, and
Cv = approach velocity coefficient and its value may be obtained from Figure 4.4 as a
A*
function of the dimensionless ratio C d
A1

H1 = total upstream energy head with respect to throat bed as datum = h1 +

Table 4.11: Values of the Ratio yC/H1 as a Function of Side Slope and H1/b

39

40

Figure 4.20: Discharge Coefficients for Long-throated Flumes

The error in the product CdCv of a well maintained long-throated flume which has been constructed
with reasonable care and skill may be deduced from the equation
xc = + 2 (21 - 20 Cd) percent
It is recommended that the divergences of each plane surface be not more abrupt than 1:4. If in
some circumstances it is desirable to construct a short downstream expansion, it is better to truncate
the transition rather than to enlarge the angle of divergence. If no velocity head needs to be
recovered, the downstream transition can be fully truncated. When almost all velocity head needs to
be recovered, a transition with a very gradual expansion of sides and bed is required.
Limits of application

The limits of application of a long-throated flume for reasonable accurate flow measurements are as
follows.

The practical lower limit of h1 is related to the magnitude of the influence of fluid properties,
boundary roughness, and the accuracy with which h1 can be measured. The recommended
lower limit is 0.06 m or 0.1 L, whichever is greater.
To prevent water surface instability in the approach channel the Froude number Fr =
v1/(gA1/B)1/2 should not exceed 0.5.
The lower limitation on the ratio H1/L arises from the necessity to prevent undulations in the
flume throat. Values of the ratio H1/L should range between 0.1 and 1.0.
The water surface width in the throat at maximum stage should not be less than 0.30 m, nor
41

less than H1 max, nor less then L/5.

The width of the water surface in a triangular throat at minimum stage should not be less
than 0.20 m.

4.5 b. Cutthroat Flumes

Description
The geometry of the throatless flume with broken plane transition was first developed in 1912 in the
Punjab (Pakistan and India). Since 1967 Skogerboe et al. (1973, 1972) have extended the original
studies in rating a group of Cutthroat flumes which have the same geometric shape. In the Cutthroat
flume, the flume discharge and modular limit are related to the piezometric heads at two points -- in
the converging section (ha) and in the downstream expansion (hb). Cutthroat flumes have been
tested with a flat bottom only. A definition sketch of this structure is shown in Figure 4.22.

In the original Cutthroat flume design, various discharge capacities were obtained by simply
changing the throat width b. Flumes with a throat width of 4, 8, 12, 24 and 36 inches were tested
and rating tables have been prepared. The rating tables are given in the Colorado State University
Experiment Station Bulletin Number 120, (Skogerboe, G. 1973). The Cutthroat flume operates
satisfactorily under both free flow and submerged flow conditions. The free flow equation for
cutthroat flumes is
nf
(4.17)
Q f = C f ha
where Qf is the free flow rate in ft3/s, Cf is the free flow coefficient and nf is the free flow exponent.
The value of the exponent nf was found to be a function only of the flume length (Figure 4.23). The
value of the free flow coefficient, Cf, is a function of both flume length and throat width,
Cf = Kf W1.025

(4.18)

where Kf is the flume length coefficient (Figure 4.23), and W is the throat width in feet. For
accurate discharge measurements, the recommended ratio of upstream flow depth to flume length
(ha/L) should be equal to or less than 0.33. Higher values of this ratio result in inaccuracies because
of higher approach velocities and a rapidly changing water surface at the upstream measuring
section.

42

Figure 4.22: Definition Sketch for a Cutthroat Flume

Figure 4.23: Coefficients for Cutthroat Flumes

43

The submerged flow in cutthroat flumes is represented by the equation

Qs =

C s (ha hb )

nf

(4.19)

( log S t )ns

The value of ns depends only on the flume length (Figure 4.23). The submerged coefficient (Ks) and
the transition submergence (St) are also plotted in Figure 4.23. These are used to compute the
submerged flow coefficient, Cs, as follows,
Cs= Ks W1.025

(4.20)

4.5 c. Parshall flumes

Parshall flumes were developed by R. Parshall (1922) at Colorado State University after whom the
device was named. The flume consists of a converging section with a level floor, a throat section
with a downward sloping floor, and a diverging section with an upward sloping floor (Figure 4.24).
Because of the throat, the flume operates satisfactorily with a headloss much less than that required
for a sharp-crested weir. The primary disadvantage of the Parshall flume compared to the Cutthroat
flume is its longer length. In deviation from the general rule for long-throated flumes where the
upstream head must be measured in the approach channel, Parshall flumes are calibrated to measure
piezometric head, ha, at a prescribed location in the converging section. The downstream
piezometric head, hb, is measured in the throat.
Parshall flumes were developed in various sizes, the dimensions of which are given in Table 4.12.
The flumes must be constructed exactly in accordance with the structural dimensions given for each
of the 22 flumes, because the flumes are not hydraulic scale models of each other. Since throat
length and throat bottom slope remain constant for a series of flumes while other dimensions are
varied, each of the 22 flumes is an entirely different device. For example, it cannot be assumed that
a dimension in the 12-ft flume will be three times the corresponding dimension in the 4-ft flume.

44

Figure 4.24: Definition Sketch for Parshall Flume

45

Table 4.12: Dimensions for Parshall Flumes

Parshall flumes are arbitarily classified into three groups, on the basis of throat width, for selecting
sizes and discharge determination. These groups are "very small" for 1, 2, and 3 inch flumes;
"small" for 6 in. through 8 ft. flumes; and "large" for 10 ft. up to 50 ft. flumes.
Very small flumes (1", 2", and 3")
The discharge capacity of very small flumes ranges from 0.09 L/s to 32 L/s. The capacity of each
flume overlaps that of the next size by about one-half the discharge range (Table 4.13). The
relatively deep and narrow throat section causes turbulence and makes the hb gauge difficult to read
in very small flumes. Consequently, hc gauge, located near the downstream end of the diverging
section is added. Under submerged flow conditions, this gauge may be read instead of the hb gauge.
The hc readings are converted to hb readings by using a graph, as will be explained later under the
section of submerged flow.
Small flumes (6", 9", 1', 1'6", 2' up to 8')
The discharge capacity of small flumes ranges from 0.0015 m3/s to 3.95 m3/s. The piezometer tap
for the upstream head, ha, is located in one of the converging walls a distance of a = 2/3 A upstream
from the end of the horizontal crest, where A is length of the converging section side wall. The
location of the piezometer tap for the downstream head, hb, is the same in all small flumes, being 51
mm upstream from the low point in the sloping throat floor and 76 mm above it.
46

Table 4.13: Discharge Characteristics of Parshall Flumes

Large flumes (10' up to 50')

The discharge capacity of the large flumes ranges from 0.16 m3/s to 93.04 m3/s. The axial length of
the converging section is considerably longer than it is in small flumes to obtain an adequately
smooth flow pattern in the upstream part of the structure. The measuring station for the upstream
head, ha, is at a = b/3 + 0.813 m upstream from the end of the horizontal crest. The location of the
piezometer tap for the downstream head, hb, is the same in all large flumes, being 305 mm upstream
from the floor at the downstream edge of the throat and 229 mm above it.
47

Measurement of discharge

The upstream head-discharge relationship for Parshall flumes, as calibrated empirically, is

represented by an equation of the form
Q = Kha

(4.21)

where K denotes a dimensional factor which is a function of the throat width. The power varies
between 1.522 and 1.60. Values of K and for each flumes size are given in Table 4.13. In the
listed equation, Q is the modular discharge in m3/s, and ha is the upstream gauge reading in meters.
Submerged flow

When the ratio of gauge readings hb/ha exceeds the limits of 0.60 for 3, 6, and 9 inch flumes, 0.70 for
1 to 8 ft flumes and 0.80 for 10 to 50 ft flumes, the modular flume discharge is reduced due to
submergence. The submerged flow discharge of Parshall flumes equals
Qs =

C s (ha hb )

nf

( log S t )ns

(4.22)

where Qs = submerged flow discharge, Cs = submerged flow coefficient (Table 4.14 )

ha = upstream head and hb = downstream head
nf and ns = free flow and submerged flow exponents (Table 4.14).

48

Table 4.14: Coefficients and Exponents for Parshall Flume.

49

4.6. Orifices

A well defined opening in a plate or bulkhead, the top of which is placed well below the upstream
water level, is classified as an orifice. The upstream water level must always be well above the top
of the opening to avoid vortex flow and obtain true orifice flow. If the upstream water level drops
below the top of the opening, it no longer performs as an orifice but as a weir. The orifice can be set
to discharge freely into the atmosphere, resulting in a considerable head loss. To avoid this
excessive head loss, the orifice is arranged with the tailwater above the top of the opening. This
submerged orifice conserves head and can be used where there is insufficient fall for a sharp-crested
weir, or where the head difference is too small to produce modular flow with a broad-crested weir or
flume. A general disadvantage of submerged orifices is that debris, weeds and sediment can
accumulate upstream of the orifice; and may prevent accurate measurements.
4.6 a. Circular Sharp-Edged Orifice

A circular sharp-edged orifice is a well-defined circular opening in a plate which is placed

perpendicular to the sides and bottom of a straight approach channel. Circular orifices have the
advantage that during installation no leveling is required. In practice, circular sharp-edged orifices
are fully contracted by having the channel bed and sides and the free water surface sufficiently
remote from the control section. The fully contracted circular orifice may be placed in a
non-rectangular approach channel.The basic head-discharge equation for submerged orifice flow is
Q = C d C v A 2 gH

(4.23)

In this equation, H equals the head differential across the orifice and A is the cross-sectional area
of the orifice. Orifices should be installed and maintained so that the approach velocity is small, thus
ensuring that velocity coefficient Cv approaches unity. Calibration studies by various researchers
give the average Cd values shown in Table 4.16. The error in the discharge coefficient for a well
maintained circular sharp-crested orifice, constructed with reasonable care and skill, is about 2
percent.
Table 4.16: Average Discharge Coefficients for Circular Orifices

50

Limits of application

To ensure full contraction and accurate flow measurements, the limits of application of the circular
orifice are:
The edge of the orifice should be sharp and smooth. The upstream face of the orifice plate
should be vertical and smooth.
The distance from the orifice edge to the bed and side slopes of the approach and tailwater
channels should not be less than the radius of the orifice. To prevent air entrainment, the
upstream water level should be at a height above the orifice top which is at least equal to the
orifice diameter.
To make the approach velocity negligible, the wetted cross-sectional area at the upstream
head measurement station should be at least 10 times the orifice area.
The practical lower limit of the differential head across the orifice is related to fluid
properties, and to the accuracy with which gauge readings can be made. The recommended
lower limit is 0.03 m.
4.6 b. Rectangular Sharp-Edged Orifice

A rectangular sharp-edged orifice, used as a discharge measuring device, is a well-defined

rectangular opening in a thin plate or bulkhead, which is placed perpendicular to the bounding
surfaces of the approach channel. The top and bottom edges should be horizontal and the sides
vertical. Most submerged rectangular orifices have a height, w, which is considerably less than the
width, b. This is necessary because the ratio of depth to width of irrigation canals is generally small,
and because changes in flow depth should not influence the discharge coefficient too
rapidly. The principal type of rectangular orifice for which the discharge coefficient has been
carefully determined in laboratory tests is the submerged, fully contracted, sharp-edged orifice.
Since the discharge coefficient is not so well defined where the contraction is partially suppressed, it
is advisable to use a fully contracted orifice wherever conditions permit. To regulate discharge, it is
possible to suppress both bottom and side contractions so that the orifice becomes an opening below
a sluice gate.
A submerged rectangular orifice structure is shown in Figure 4.28. A box is provided downstream
from the orifice to protect unlined canals from erosion. The box sides and the floor should be set
away from the orifice a distance of at least two times the orifice height. The top of the orifice wall is
set lower than the maximum design water level in the canal, so that the wall may act as an overflow
spillway if the orifice should become blocked. Suitable submerged orifice-box dimensions for a
concrete, masonry, or wooden structure as shown in Figure 4.28 are listed in Table 4.17.

51

Figure 4.28: Rectangular Orifice Dimensions

Table 4.17: Recommended Dimensions for a Rectangular Orifice

Measurement of discharge

Equation (4.23) is the basic head-discharge equation for submerged orifice flow, and for rectangular
orifice it can be written as
Q = C d C v wb 2 g (h1 h2 )

(4.24)

where h1 - h2 equals the head differential across the orifice. In general, submerged orifices should be
52

designed and maintained so that the approach velocity is negligible and the coefficient Cv
approaches unity. For a fully contracted, submerged, rectangular orifice, the discharge coefficient
Cd = 0.61. If the contraction is suppressed along part of the orifice perimeter, then following
approximate discharge coefficient may be used.
Cd = 0.61 (1 + 0.15 r)

(4.25)

where r equals the ratio of the suppressed portion of the orifice perimeter to the total perimeter.
If water discharges freely through an orifice with both bottom and side contractions suppressed, the
flow pattern equals that of free outflow below a vertical sluice gate as shown in Figure 4.29. The
free discharge below a sluice gate is a function of upstream water depth and the gate opening,
expressed as follows.
Q = C d C v wb 2 g ( y1 y 2 )

(4.26)

Figure 4.29: Flow through a Sluice Gate

53