LTE
Physical Layer
LTE Protocol Stack
Author: Surya Patar Munda
3PCA-L1
surya.patar@3gnets.in
Preface:
Dedication This book is dedicated to my family who has given me support to complete this book.
The colleagues in office have given me encouragement to start and complete this book. My hearty
thanks to all of you. The first release is printed with many terms unexplained and even sentences are
shortened but intended to cover in this book. They will gradually be expanded in next release. Please
do write me on the email given in the pages below to improve.
If you need 3GNets LTE Physical Layer for Amateur Level (3PCA-L1), you need this course. This
knowledge and level is required for the next level Professional Level (3PCP-L1) where you can
be trained for higher level with Hands on Projects and real implementation. Full Amateur level
courses are:
LTE Physical Layer LTE L2 Layer - MAC, RLC, PDCP LTE RRC
LTE NAS
(3PCA-L1)
(3PCA-L2)
(3PCA-RRC)
(3PCA-NAS)
About Author:
Surya Patar Munda has been in Telecommunications Since 1987 and has gone through the life cycle
of Software Development, Software Testing, Network Deployments, Integration, Testing,
Troubleshooting, Handphone Testing with Specification etc.. a full round of the Telecom industry. He
has worked with Motorola, Nortel Networks, Spirent Communications, Sasken etc. companies with full
round cycle. The Software engineers midset and Testing engineers mindsets are different and so is
the mindset of an RF optimization engineer. This book will cater to all.
Author also conducted many trainings for Telecom industry and has a very good understanding of
what kind of requirement is there for engineers. The goal is not just what and how does it work, but
also the goal is how do I start implementing and how do I test.
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Contents
1.
1.1.1
1.1.2
1.1.3
1.1.4
1.1.5
1.1.6
1.2
1.2.1.
1.2.2.
1.2.3.
1.2.4.
1.2.5.
1.2.6.
1.2.7.
1.2.8.
1.2.9.
1.2.10.
1.2.11.
1.2.12.
1.2.13.
1.2.14.
1.3
1.3.1.
1.3.2.
1.3.3.
1.3.4.
1.3.5.
1.3.6.
1.3.7.
1.3.8.
1.3.9.
1.3.10.
1.3.11.
1.3.12.
1.3.13.
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1.3.14.
1.3.15.
1.4.1.
1.4.2.
1.4.3.
Channel Coding............................................................................................................. 49
1.4.4.
1.4.5.
1.4.6.
Rate-Matching ............................................................................................................... 52
1.4.7.
HARQ in LTE................................................................................................................. 53
1.4.8.
1.4.9.
1.4.10.
Scrambling .................................................................................................................... 55
1.4.11.
Modulation ..................................................................................................................... 55
1.4.12.
Layer mapping............................................................................................................... 55
1.4.13.
Precoding ...................................................................................................................... 55
1.4.14.
1.5
2.
1.5.1.
1.5.2.
1.5.3.
1.5.4.
1.5.5.
1.5.6.
1.5.7.
1.5.8.
Precoding ...................................................................................................................... 66
1.5.9.
1.5.10.
1.5.11.
2.1.1.
2.1.2.
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2.2.
2.2.1
2.2.2
2.2.3
2.2.4
2.2.5
2.2.6
2.2.7
2.2.8
2.2.9
2.2.10
2.2.11
2.2.12
2.2.13
2.2.14
2.3.
2.3.1.
2.3.2.
2.3.3.
2.3.4.
2.3.5.
2.3.6.
2.3.7.
2.4.
2.4.1
2.4.2
2.4.3
2.4.4
2.4.5
2.4.6
2.4.7
2.4.8
2.4.9
2.5.
2.6.1
2.6.2
2.6.3
2.6.4
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2.6.5
2.6.6
2.6.7
2.6.8
2.6.9
2.6.
Miscellaneous...................................................................................................................... 116
2.6.1
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First OFDM patent filed at Bell Labs in 1966, initially only as analog. In 1971, Discrete Fourier
Transform (DFT) was proposed. Later in 1980, application of the Winograd Fourier Transform (WFT)
or Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) was employed. OFDM then became modulation of choice for ADSL
and wireless systems.
OFDM tended to focus broadcast systems such as - Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB) and Digital
Audio Broadcasting (DAB), and WLANs. Main thing to control in OFDM was PAPR and thats why in
low power WLAN it was good. First cellular mobile based on OFDM was proposed in 1985 by IEEE
to LTE downlink. Other benefits of OFDM was to operate in different bandwidth according to spectrum
availability.
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the frequency domain: Rk[m] = Xk[m] H[m] + Zk[m]. As a result the equalization is much simpler than
for single-carrier systems and consists of just one complex multiplication per subcarrier.
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to prevent ISI,
to keep ICI due to Doppler sufficiently low,
for spectral efficiency.
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downlink; remaining subframes are used for uplink or for special subframes which allow
switching between DL & UL. In the centre of the special subframes a guard period is provided
which allows UL timing to be advanced.
Signal Structure
Physical layer translate data into reliable signal for transmission between eNodeB and UE. Each
block of data is first protected against transmission errors, first with a Cyclic Redundancy Check
(CRC), and then with coding; The initial scrambling stage is applied to all DL channels and helps
interference rejection. Scrambling sequence uses order- 31 Gold code, which are not cyclic shifts of
each other.
Scrambling sequence generator is re-initialized every subframe (except PBCH), based on cell-id,
subframe number (within a radio frame), UE identity and codeword id.
Scrambling sequence generator is similar to pseudo-random sequence used for Reference Signals,
only difference is the method of initialization. A fast-forward of 1600 places is applied at initialization to
ensure low cross-correlation between sequences used in adjacent cells.
Following scrambling, data bits from each channel are mapped to modulation symbols depending on
modulation scheme, then mapped to layers, precoded, mapped to RE, and finally translated into a
complex-valued OFDM signal by IFFT.
To communicate with eNodeB cells, UE must first identify the DL from one of these cells and
synchronize with it. This is achieved by means of special synchronization signals embedded into the
OFDM structure by cell search and synchronization. Then UE estimates DL radio channel to perform
demodulation of received DL signal, based on pilot signals (reference signals) inserted into DL signal.
The channel designs are explained next.
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The sync signals are transmitted periodically, twice per 10 ms radio frame.
th
th
In FDD cell, PSS is always located in the last symbol of the 0 and 10 slots of each frame,
thus enabling UE to acquire the slot boundary timing independently of the CP. SSS is located
in the symbol immediately preceding PSS, for coherent detection of SSS relative to PSS.
nd
nd
th
In TDD cell, PSS is located in 2 symbol of the 2 and 12 slots, while the SSS is located 3
symbols earlier and falls in previous slot.
Position of SSS changes depending on CP length of the cell. At this stage, CP length is unknown and
SSS is blindly detected by checking for SSS at expected positions.
PSS in a given cell is same in every subframe, SSS may change & thus UE knows the position of the
10 ms radio frame boundary. PSS and SSS are transmitted in the central six Resource Blocks (RBs),
irrespective of the system BW (6 to 110 RBs), without knowing BW. The PSS and SSS are each
comprised of a sequence of length 62 symbols, mapped to the central 62 subcarriers around d.c.
subcarrier which is left unused. Five REs at each extremity of each sync sequence are not used. Thus
a UE can detect the PSS and SSS with size-64 FFT and a lower sampling rate if all 72 subcarriers
were used.
In case of MIMO at eNodeB, PSS and SSS are always transmitted from same antenna port in a
subframe, while between different subframes they may be transmitted from different antenna ports for
diversity.
PSS and SSS sequence indicate one of 504 unique PCI, grouped into 168 groups of three identities.
The three identities in a group are assigned to cells under same eNodeB. Three PSS sequences are
used to indicate the cell identity within the group, and 168 SSS sequences are used to indicate the
identity of the group.
PSS uses ZadoffChu sequences
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How does the PCI optimization affect my Network? Well, this is the main parameter, by which the
PSS, SSS and reference signals will be generated. Even your scrambling code with which every DL
and UL signal will be scrambled, will depend on this. So, every generated signals uniqueness
depends on this parameter. Lets understand how some of the signals are generated based on PCI.
If PSS, SSS, RS and other generated signals are not unique, then my every operation will be affected
and it may reflect as latency in Synchronization detection, Interference and lower SINR values for
signals, which will end up in low CQI.
j un( n 1)
63
e
d u (n) u ( n 1)( n 2)
e j
63
n 0,1,...,30
n 31,32,...,61
Root index u
(2)
N ID
0
1
2
25
29
34
The mapping of PSS to resource elements depends on the frame structure, FDD or TDD. The
sequence d(u,n) is mapped to the resource elements according to
ak ,l d n ,
k n 31
n 0,...,61
DL RB
N RB
N sc
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For FDD, the PSS is mapped to the last OFDM symbol in slots 0 and 10. For TDD, the PSS is apped
to the third OFDM symbol in subframes 1 and 6. Resource elements (k,l) in the OFDM symbols used
for transmission of the primary synchronization signal where
DL RB
N RB
N sc
2
n 5,4,...,1,62,63,...66 are reserved and not used for transmission of the primary synchronization
signal. N=0,1,61 are used with above formulae.
k n 31
PSS is constructed from a freq-domain ZC sequence of length 63, with middle element punctured to
avoid transmitting on d.c. subcarrier.
This set of roots for ZC sequences was chosen for its good periodic autocorrelation and crosscorrelation properties. These sequences have a low-frequency offset sensitivity (maximum undesired
autocorrelation peak /desired correlation peak) at a certain frequency offset, giving best robustness.
Also the ZC sequences are robust against frequency drifts. Thus, PSS can be easily detected during
the initial synchronization with a frequency offset up to 7.5 kHz.
The selected root combination satisfies time-domain root-symmetry, sequences 29 and 34 are
complex conjugates of each other and can be detected with a single correlator. UE must detect PSS
without any prior knowledge of the channel, so noncoherent correlation is required for PSS timing
detection.
with m1 m0 m 31 1 mod 31
s1( m1 ) (n)c1 n z1( m0 ) n in subframe 0
N (1) q(q 1) 2
d (2n 1) ( m )
(1)
(m )
m N ID(1) q(q 1) 2 , q ID
, q N ID 30
s0 0 (n)c1 n z1 1 n in subframe 5
30
Thus UE determines the 10 ms radio frame timing from a single observation of a SSS. SSC2 is
scrambled by a sequence that depends on the index of SSC1. Sequence is then scrambled by a code
that depends on the PSS. Scrambling code is mapped to the PCI within the group corresponding to
the target eNodeB.
The resource mapping is done as per the following:
LTE Physical Layer- 3PCA-L1 Certification
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ak ,l d n ,
k n 31
n 0,...,61
DL RB
N RB
N sc
2
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Normalized Least-Mean-Square(NLMS)
An adaptive estimation approach can be considered which does not require knowledge of secondorder statistics of both channel and noise. A feasible solution is the Normalized Least-Mean-Square
(NLMS) estimator. It can be observed that the TD-NLMS estimator requires much lower complexity
compared to TD-MMSE as no matrix inversion is required, as well as not requiring any a priori
statistical knowledge.
Other adaptative approaches could also be considered such as Recursive Least Squares (RLS) and
Kalman-based filtering.
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Reliability of PBCH is achieved with time diversity, FEC coding and antenna diversity. Time diversity
is exploited by spreading transmission of each MIB on PBCH over 40 ms ensuring reception despite
loosing one transmission. The FEC coding for the PBCH uses a convolutional coder, as bits to be
coded is small. Basic code rate is 1/3, after which a high degree of repetition of systematic bits and
parity bits is used, such that each MIB is coded at a very low code-rate (1/48 over a 40 ms period) to
give strong error protection.
PBCH uses dual-antenna receive diversity enabling wider cell coverage with fewer cell sites. Transmit
antenna diversity may be also employed at eNodeB to further improve coverage.
The exact REs used by PBCH is independent of transmit antenna ports; REs used for RS are avoided
by PBCH. Number of transmit antenna ports used by eNodeB must be determined blindly by the UE.
Discovery of number of transmit antenna ports is helped by CRC on each MIB which is masked with a
codeword representing the number of transmit antenna ports.
Low latency and a low impact on UE battery life is also facilitated by low code rate with repetition.
Full set of coded bits are divided into four subsets, each is self-decodable, which are sent in one of
four different frames during the 40 ms. UE may decode the MIB correctly from the transmission in less
than four radio frames, then UE does not need to receive other parts of PBCH in the remainder of 40
ms. On the other hand, if SIR is low, UE can receive further parts of MIB, soft-combining each part,
until successful decoding is achieved.Timing of 40 ms interval is not indicated explicitly to UE; it is
determined by scrambling and bit positions. UE can initially do four separate decodings of the PBCH
and checking the CRC for each decoding to determine 40ms boundary.
A simple approach is to perform decoding using soft combination of the PBCH over four radio frames,
advancing 40 ms sliding window one radio frame at a time until the window aligns with 40 ms period
of the PBCH and the decoding succeeds.
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UE is signalled by dynamic control signalling at the start of the relevant subframe using Physical
Downlink Control Channel (PDCCH). The mapping of data to RB is carried out in one of two ways:
1. localized mapping and
2. distributed mapping.
Localized resource mapping allocates all REs in a pair of RB to same UE.
Distributed resource mapping separates two PRB in frequency giving frequency diversity for small
amounts of data. Up to two pairs of RB may be transmitted to a UE in this way.
Example of distributed Mapping: In Voice-over-IP (VoIP) service, certain frequency resources may
be persistently-scheduled, on a periodic basis to a specific UE by RRC signalling rather than
PDCCH. As data per UE for VoIP is small (one or two pairs of RB), degree of frequency diversity
obtainable via localized scheduling is very limited. When dynamic channel-dependent PDCCH
scheduling is not done, frequency diversity is achieved through distributed mapping. A frequency-hop
occurs at slot boundary in the middle of subframe, block of UE data transmitted on one RB in first half
of subframe and on a different RB in the second half.
The potential number of VoIP users which can be accommodated in a cell increases by distributed
mapping, compared to localised.
Special Uses of the PDSCH
Apart from normal user data transmission, PDSCH is used for Dynamic BCH, all SIBs, not carried on
PBCH. The RBs for SIBs are indicated by PDCCH, same way as for other PDSCH data without any
specific UE identity, but is, rather by fixed SI-RNTI(FFFF), known to all UEs..
Another special use is for Paging, as no separate physical channel provided. Normal PDCCH
signalling is used to carry equivalent of a WCDMA paging indicator, with detailed paging information
carried on PDSCH in a RB indicated by PDCCH, using single fixed identifier, P-RNTI (FFFE).
Different UEs monitor different subframes for their paging messages with their Paging Frame and
Paging Occasion calculations.
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and ensure appropriate power levels, further physical layer signals are needed to convey ACK/NACK
by eNodeB, and power control commands.
Flexibility, Overhead and Complexity
LTE allows operation in BW from six RB (1.08MHz) to 110 RB (19.8MHz). It is also designed to
support very few users with high data rates, or very many users with low data rates. Both UL grants
and DL allocations could be required for every UE in each subframe, and may be only one RB each,
worst case.
Control channel and HARQ is designed to minimize unnecessary overhead and power saving,
scaleability and flexibility without undue decoding complexity.
Coverage and Robustness
If control channels reception fails, corresponding data transmission will also fail, and will impact
throughput efficiency. Channel coding and frequency diversity can be used to make control channels
robust. It is important to adapt transmission parameters of the control signalling for different UEs or
groups of UEs, so that lower code rates and higher power levels are only applied for only relevant
UEs as necessary (e.g. near cell border).
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Fig 2.3.6.2 Search Space, Aggregation levels & common and UE specific
CCEs are numbered and used consecutively. A PDCCH with a format consisting of n CCEs may only
start with a CCE with a number equal to a multiple of n. Format is decided by eNB based on RF
conditions.
If a UE has good downlink RF (e.g. close to eNB), format 0 may be sufficient, but for a cell border UE,
format 3 may be required for robustness with good power level of a PDCCH.
SI-RNTI / P-RNTI / RA-RNTI, use Common Search Space. UL/DL C-RNTI/ SPS C-RNTI, and DL
Temp. C-RNTI, use UE-Specific Search Space. TPC-PUCCH-RNTI / TPC-PUSCH-RNTI and UL
Temp. C-RNTI is not considered for default CCE management.
For SI-RNTI PDCCH candidate CCEs between 0 and (CS_Agr-1) is used and reserved in FDD and left
vacant if no SI-RNTI is scheduled. For TDD the default UL/DL configuration type 1, this PDCCH
candidate is reserved forS I-RNTI in sf 0 & 5 (and UL grant for C-RNTI/SPS-RNTI is not scheduled).
CCEs between CS_Agr and (2*CS_Agr-1) can be used either for P-RNTI or RA-RNTI.
For FDD:
-
For DL C-RNTI/SPS-RNTI/Temp C-RNTI the lowest m =m' from CCEs between 2*CS_Agr and
(Max_CCE-1) shall be used.
For UL C-RNTI/SPS-RNTI the lowest m =m">m' from CCEs between 2*CS_Agr and (Max_CCE-1)
shall be used.
For TDD:
- For DL C-RNTI/SPS-RNTI/Temp C-RNTI the lowest m =m' which has a PDCCH available from
CCEs between 2*CS_Agr and (Max_CCE-1) shall be used.
-
For UL C-RNTI/SPS-RNTI the lowest m =m">m' which from CCEs between 2*CS_Agr and
(Max_CCE-1) shall be used.
CCE resources utilized are well defined for default values of common search space aggregation level
=4, UE-specific search space aggregation L=2 resulting in 6 PDCCH candidates m=0..5. For different
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bandwidth, Max_CCE =20(5 Mhz)/25(10 MHz)/37(15 MHz)/50(20 MHz) for FDD. These are in general
to be applied in MAC Transport block size.
Each TDD subframe (take sf config 1 as example) having different PHICH group number, and for
5/10/15/20 MHz bandwidth, each subframe has, therefore, different number of MAX_CCE. SF0 and
SF5 cannot be used for UL grant. SF1 and SF6 are not used for DL assignment. SF2, SF3, SF7 and
SF8 are not applicable to PDCCH CCE allocation since they are uplink subframes.
Format 0. DCI Format 0 is used for resource grants for the PUSCH.
DCI Form ats D C I S T R Fields
Size
Format0
FreqHopping
1-bit
Allocation
variable
ModCoding
5-bits
NewData
1-bit
TPC
2-bits
CShiftDMRS
3-bits
CQIReq
1-bit
CQI request
TDDIndex
2-bits
DCIFormat
Description
Format0
For TDD Config 1-6, this field is the Dow nlink Assignment Index.
Not present for FDD
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Format 1. DCI Format 1 is used for resource assignments for single codeword PDSCH:
DCI Formats
DCISTR Fields
Format1
DCIFormat
Size
Description
Format1
AllocationType
1-bit
Allocation
variable
ModCoding
5-bits
HARQNo
3-bits (FDD)
4-bits (TDD)
NewData
1-bit
RV
2-bits
Redundancy version
TPCPUCCH
2-bits
TDDIndex
2-bits
Format 1A. DCI Format 1A is used for compact resource assignments for single codeword PDSCH,
and allocating a dedicated preamble signature to a UE for contention-free random access:
DCI
Formats
Format1A
DCISTR Fields
Size
Description
DCIFormat
AllocationType
1-bit
Format1A
VRB assignment flag: 0 (localized), 1 (distributed)
Allocation
variable
ModCoding
5-bits
HARQNo
NewData
3-bits (FDD)
4-bits (TDD)
1-bit
RV
2-bits
Redundancy version
TPCPUCCH
2-bits
TDDIndex
2-bits
Format 1B. DCI Format 1B is used for compact resource assignments for PDSCH using closed loop
precoding with rank-1 (transmission mode 6). Information is same as in Format 1A, but with addition
of precoding vector indicator applied for the PDSCH.
Format1B
DCIFormat
Format1B
AllocationType
1-bit
Allocation
variable
ModCoding
5-bits
HARQNo
3-bits (FDD)
4-bits (TDD)
NewData
RV
1-bit
2-bits
TPCPUCCH
2-bits
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TPMI
PMI information
4-bits- (4 ants)
PMI
TDDIndex
1-bit
2-bits
PMI confirmation
For TDD config 0, this field is not used.
For TDD Config 1-6, this field is the Downlink Assignment Index.
Not present for FDD.
Format 1C. DCI Format 1C is used for very compact PDSCH assignments. With 1C format, PDSCH
is uses QPSK. This is used for paging, and some SI:
DCI
Formats
DCISTR Fields
Size
Description
Format1C
DCIFormat
Allocation
ModCoding
variable
5-bits
Format1C
Resource block assignment/allocation
Modulation and coding scheme
Format 1D. DCI Format 1D is used for compact signalling of resource assignments for PDSCH using
multi-user MIMO (transmission mode 5). Information is similar as in Format 1B. Instead of one of
precoding vector indicators bits, there is a single bit for power offset indicators, to show if transmitted
power is shared between two UEs.
DCI Formats
DCISTR Fields
Format1D
DCIFormat
Size
-
Description
Format1D
AllocationType
1-bit
Allocation
variable
ModCoding
5-bits
HARQNo
3-bits (FDD)
4-bits (TDD)
NewData
1-bit
RV
2-bits
Redundancy version
TPCPUCCH
2-bits
TPMI
2-bits (2 antenna)
4-bits (4 antenna)
DlPowerOffset
1-bit
TDDIndex
2-bits
Format 2. DCI Format 2 is used for resource assignments for PDSCH for closed-loop MIMO
(transmission mode 4):
DCI
Formats
Format2
DCISTR Fields
DCIFormat
AllocationType
Size
1-bit
Description
Format2
Resource allocation header: type 0, type 1
(only if downlink bandwidth is >10 PRBs)
Allocation
variable
TPCPUCCH
HARQNo
2-bits
3-bits (FDD)
4-bits (TDD)
1-bit
5-bits
SwapFlag
ModCoding1
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NewData1
1-bit
RV1
ModCoding2
NewData2
RV2
2-bits
5-bits
1-bit
2-bits
PrecodingInfo
3-bits - 2ants
6-bits - 4 ants
2-bits
Precoding information
TDDIndex
Format 2A. DCI Format 2A is used for resource assignments for PDSCH for open-loop MIMO
(transmission mode 3). Info is the same as Format 2, except that if eNodeB has two antenna ports,
there is no precoding information, and for four antenna ports two bits are used to indicate the
transmission rank.
DCI Formats
DCISTR Fields
Format2A
DCIFormat
Allocation Type
Size
1-bit
Description
Format2A
Resource allocation header: type 0, type 1
(only if downlink bandwidth is >10 PRBs)
Allocation
variable
TPCPUCCH
2-bits
HARQNo
3-bits (FDD)
4-bits (TDD)
SwapFlag
1-bit
ModCoding1
5-bits
NewData1
1-bit
RV1
2-bits
ModCoding2
5-bits
NewData2
1-bit
RV2
2-bits
Precoding Info
0-bits
Precoding information
(2 antennas)
2-bits
(4 antennas)
TDDIndex
2-bits
Format 2B
DCI Formats
DCISTR Fields
DCIFormat
AllocationType
Size
1-bit
Description
Format2B
Resource allocation header: type 0, type 1
(only if downlink bandwidth is >10 PRBs)
Format2B
Allocation
variable
TPCPUCCH
2-bits
HARQNo
3-bits (FDD)
4-bits (TDD)
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ScramblingId
1-bit
Scrambling identity
ModCoding1
5-bits
NewData1
1-bit
RV1
2-bits
ModCoding2
5-bits
NewData2
1-bit
RV2
2-bits
TDDIndex
2-bits
Formats 3 and 3A. DCI Formats 3 and 3A are used for power control for PUCCH and PUSCH with 2bit or 1-bit power adjustments respectively.
DCI Formats
DCISTR Fields
Format3
DCIFormat
DCI Formats
Description
Format3
TPCCommands
variable
DCISTR Fields
Size
Description
DCIFormat
Format3A
Size
TPCCommands
variable
Format3A
TPC commands for PUCCH and PUSCH
CRC attachment. For UE to know whether it has received a PDCCH correctly, a 16-bit CRC is
appended to each PDCCH. CRC is scrambled with UE identity for this to be identified for a particular
UE. In UL MIMO, antenna may be indicated using Format 0 by antenna-specific mask to the CRC.
This way, no extra bit needed.
PDCCH construction. The PDCCH bits are encoded. The coded and rate-matched bits are then
scrambled with a cell-specific scrambling sequence to distinguish from neighbouring cells. The
scrambled bits are QPSK modulated and mapped to blocks of four REs (REGs). Interleaving is
applied for frequency diversity, followed by RE mapping to symbols indicated by PCFICH, excluding
PCFICH and PHICH. The PDCCHs are transmitted similar to PBCH, and diversity is applied if more
antenna ports are used.
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Resource Indication Value (RIV) corresponding to a starting RB(RB START) and a length in terms of
contiguously-allocated resource blocks (LCRBs). RIV is defined by:
if (LCRBs 1) NDLRB /2 then RIV = NDL,RB (LCRBs 1) + RBSTART
(start from lower)
else RIV = NDL,RB (NDL,RB LCRBs + 1) + (NDL,RB 1 RBSTART)
Example: for Localized mode, RBStart = 5, LCRB = 20 and NDL,RB = 50
Here: RIV = 50 * (20-1) + 5 = 955
The bandwidth of 5/10/20 MHz makes 25/50/100 available physical resource blocks respectively.
These resource blocks are divided into three distinct sets. Exact set sizes and the elements contained
in the individual sets depend upon the DCI combination to be applied.
The first set is reserved for BCCH mapped to DL-SCH (SI-RNTI).
The second set is reserved for PCCH mapped to DL-SCH (P-RNTI).
The third set is used for one of mutually exclusive transmissions of:
a. 'Random Access Response' mapped to DL-SCH (RA-RNTI); or
b. UE-dedicated scheduling mapped to DL-SCH (C-RNTI/ SPS C-RNTI/ Temp C-RNTI).
For each subframe where data is scheduled, eNB shall select a Transport Block Size (TBS),
independently for each type of data scheduled, such that:
All the scheduled data is transmitted respecting the timing information.
Not more than MaxRbCnt resource blocks are used, for DCI format 1C, NPRB = MaxRbCnt.
Minimum MAC Padding is performed.
If all scheduled Data cannot be transmitted in the indicated subframe, for example due to TDD and half
duplex configuration, it shall be transmitted in the next available subframe.
This scheme is applicable for Data transmission on logical channel BCCH mapped to DL-SCH,
PDCCH scrambled by SI-RNTI. 4 physical resource blocks are reserved for BCCH transmission with
QPSK. Following additional rules are applied for TBS selection:
- The Max TBS, the maximum TBS allowed for the scheduling scheme, is restricted to 600. (nearest value
achievable for ITBS = 9 and NPRB = 4.
- If BCCH cannot fit into a TBS smaller or equal to Max TBS, its an error.
PDCCH scrambled by P-RNTI. For DCI combination 1, one physical resource block is reserved for
this DL-SCH. For DCI combination 2, two PRBs are reserved for 5 MHz bandwidth, and four PRBs
are reserved for 10 MHz or 20 MHz bandwidth with QPSK.
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For transmission of Random Access Response mapped to DL-SCH, PDCCH is scrambled by RARNTI. four PRBs are reserved with QPSK. The Max TBS is restricted to 600 bits (nearest value
achievable for ITBS = 9 and NPRB =4.
For DL subframe UE-dedicated resources, these are mapped to DL-SCH, PDCCH scrambled by CRNTI/ SPS C-RNTI/ Temp C-RNTI. Maximum modulation is restricted to 64QAM. For DCI
combination 1, 20 PRBs (5 to 24), and for DCI combination 2, 17 PRBs are reserved.
In TDD no data is transmitted in DwPTS of the special subframe.
The eNB should support DL QPSK, 16QAM and 64QAM modulation schemes. The configured radio
parameters, including DCI format, resource allocation types, maximum allowed modulation scheme,
first virtual / physical resource block to be used, maximum available RBs and RV are all known to
eNB.
If in a TTI more than one transport blocks are scheduled (DCI format 2/ 2A/2B), HARQ retransmission
is handled independently for each TB by eNB. In case UE ACKs one TB and NACKs the other and
there is no fresh data scheduled for transmission, eNB only schedules the NACKed TB for
retransmission, using same Imcs as used in initial transmission, mapped to codeword 0. Acked TB
(and hence codeword 1) is disabled by setting corresponding I MCS 0 and rvidx = 1. Resource
allocation (Nprb) used in retransmission is same as in initial transmission.
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RACH procedure: UE in idle mode, handed over to a new cell or connected mode but PUCCH is
unsynchronized (sometimes referred to as PUCCH is not configured) will trigger RACH procedure on
data ready for transmission in UL.
Buffer Status Reports: UE in connected mode, PUCCH synchronized, has a configured grant
for current TTI, but grant is not sufficient to transmit all the data will include MAC control element BSR
in the UL MAC PDU.
RACH and SR indicate on data availability and BSR provides an estimate of data available for
transmission. CQI/PMI/RI feedback from the UE which indicates the channel conditions and
recommended number of layers.
Hence to determine the exact need of the grant requirement of the UE a network needs to act on all
four of the above.
The NW disables aperiodic CQI/PMI/RI feedback from the UE by setting the CQI request field to 0 in
DCI format 0/RAR grant.
eNB, will periodically transmit automatically MAC PDUs containing the MAC control element 'Timing
Advance'. The period normally is set to 80 % of the 'Time Alignment Timer' default value (750 ms)
configured at UE.
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Network will UL grant at every reception of a Scheduling Request. All UL grant define grant allocation
in terms of IMCS and NPRB to be used. The eNB shall allocate RBs corresponding to PRB indices
0..(NPRB-1).
Informs the UE about the resource allocation of DL-SCH, and Hybrid ARQ information related to
DL-SCH;
- Carries the uplink scheduling grant.
The EPDCCH carries UE-specific signalling. It is located in UE-specifically configured PRBs and
consists of:
- Transport format, resource allocation, and HARQ# for DL-SCH;
- Transport format, resource allocation, and HARQ# for UL-SCH;
Multiple EPDCCHs are supported and a UE monitors a set of EPDCCHs.
EPDCCHs are formed by aggregation of enhanced control channel elements (ECCEs), each eCCE
consisting of a set of resource elements. Different code rates for EPDCCHs are realized by
aggregating different numbers of eCCEs. An EPDCCH can use either localized or distributed
transmission, differing in the mapping of enhanced control channel elements to the resource elements
in the PRBs.
EPDCCH supports C-RNTI and SPS C-RNTI. If configured, EPDCCH is applicable in the same way
as PDCCH unless otherwise specified.
of subframe k . Each EPDCCH-PRB-set can be configured for either localized EPDCCH transmission
or distributed EPDCCH transmission.
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UE shall monitor a set of EPDCCH candidates on one or more activated serving cells as configured in
UE-specific search spaces. For each serving cell, the subframes in which the UE monitors EPDCCH
UE-specific search spaces are configured by search patterns.
If the UE is configured with a carrier indicator field, then the UE shall monitor one or more EPDCCH
UE-specific search spaces at each of the aggregation levels on one or more activated serving cells.
On each serving cell c, UE shall monitor EPDCCH with CRC scrambled by C-RNTI and SPS C-RNTI
in the EPDCCH UE specific search space of serving cell c.
A UE is not expected to monitor the EPDCCH of a secondary cell if it is configured to monitor
EPDCCH with carrier indicator field corresponding to that secondary cell in another serving cell. For
the serving cell on which EPDCCH is monitored, the UE shall monitor EPDCCH candidates at least
for the same serving cell.
value
for each EPDCCH-PRB-set, starting OFDM symbol for monitoring EPDCCH in
subframe k is determined from PDSCH starting position for PDSCH RE mapping as
follows
if the value of PDSCH starting position for PDSCH RE mapping is 5,
l' EPDCCHStart = CFI value
otherwise
l' EPDCCHStart =PDSCH starting position for PDSCH RE mapping
The mapping to resource elements k, l on antenna port p shall be in increasing order of first k and
then l , starting with the first slot and ending with the second slot in a subframe.
For localized transmission, the single antenna port p to use is given by
ECCE
ECCE
ECCE
n' nECCE,low mod N RB
nRNTI mod min(N EPDCCH
, N RB
)
where nECCE,low is the lowest ECCE index used by this EPDCCH transmission in the EPDCCH set,
ECCE
nRNTI corresponds to the RNTI associated with the EPDCCH transmission, and N EPDCCH
is the
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is present and is a valid reference for EPDCCH demodulation only if the EPDCCH transmission
is associated with the corresponding antenna port;
- is transmitted only on the physical resource blocks upon which the corresponding EPDCCH is
mapped.
A demodulation reference signal associated with EPDCCH is not transmitted in resource elements
k, l in which one of the physical channels or physical signals other than the demodulation reference
signals are transmitted using resource elements with the same index pair k, l regardless of their
antenna port p .
EPDCCH formats
The EPDCCH carries scheduling assignments which is transmitted using an aggregation of one or
several consecutive enhanced control channel elements (ECCEs) where each ECCE consists of
multiple enhanced resource element groups (EREGs). The number of ECCEs used for one EPDCCH
depends on the EPDCCH format and the number of EREGs per ECCE is pre-defined. Both localized
and distributed transmission is supported.
An EPDCCH can use either localized or distributed transmission, differing in the mapping of ECCEs
EREG
to EREGs ( N ECCE
= 4 for normal or 8 for extended CP per ECCE) and PRB pairs.
A UE shall monitor multiple EPDCCHs. One or two sets of PRB pairs which a UE shall monitor for
EPDCCH transmissions can be configured. All EPDCCH candidates in EPDCCH set S m use either
only localized or only distributed transmission as configured. Within EPDCCH set S m in subframe i ,
the ECCEs available for transmission of EPDCCHs are numbered from 0 to N ECCE,m,i 1 and ECCE
number n .
EREG
ECCE
EREG
N ECCE
16 N ECCE
is the number of EREGs per ECCE, and N RB
is the number of ECCEs/RB pair.
The PRB pairs constituting EPDCCH set S m are assumed to be numbered in ascending order from 0
Sm
to N RB
1.
DL
25 , - 2,4,8,16 or 32 ECCEs may
When DCI formats 2, 2A, 2B, 2C or 2D is used and N RB
be there
- any DCI format when nEPDCCH 104 and normal cyclic prefix is used in normal subframes or
special subframes with configuration 3, 4, 8(TDD) - 2,4,8,16 or 32 ECCEs may be there
- otherwise - 2,4,8,16 or 32 ECCEs may be there
The quantity nEPDCCH for a particular UE is defined as the number of downlink resource elements
(k , l ) in a PRB pair configured for possible EPDCCH transmission of EPDCCH set S 0 and fulfilling all
of the following criteria:
- they are part of any one of the 16 EREGs in the PRB pair, and
LTE Physical Layer- 3PCA-L1 Certification
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they are assumed by the UE not to be used for CRS or CSI RS, and
the index l in the first slot in a subframe fulfils l lEPDCCHStart .
EPDCCH-Config
The IE EPDCCH-Config is used to configure the subframes and resource blocks for EPDCCH
monitoring.
-- ASN1START
EPDCCH-Config-r11 ::=
SEQUENCE{
epdcch-SubframePatternConfig-r11 CHOICE {
release
NULL,
setup
SEQUENCE {
epdcch-SubframePattern-r11
MeasSubframePattern-r10
}
}
epdcch-StartSymbol-r11
INTEGER (1..4)
epdcch-SetConfigReleaseList-r11
EPDCCH-SetConfigReleaseList-r11
epdcch-SetConfigAddModList-r11
EPDCCH-SetConfigAddModList-r11
}
OPTIONAL, -- Need ON
OPTIONAL, -- Need OP
OPTIONAL, -- Need ON
OPTIONAL -- Need ON
EPDCCH-SetConfigAddModList-r11 ::=
EPDCCH-SetConfigReleaseList-r11 ::=
EPDCCH-SetConfig-r11 ::=
SEQUENCE {
epdcch-SetIdentity-r11
epdcch-TransmissionType-r11
epdcch-ResourceBlockAssignment-r11
numberPRBPairs-r11
resourceBlockAssignment-r11
},
dmrs-ScramblingSequenceInt-r11
pucch-ResourceStartOffset-r11
re-MappingQCLConfigListId-r11
}
EPDCCH-SetIdentity-r11 ::=
EPDCCH-SetIdentity-r11,
ENUMERATED {localised, distributed},
SEQUENCE{
ENUMERATED {n2, n4, n8},
BIT STRING (SIZE(4..38))
INTEGER (0..503),
INTEGER (0..2047),
PDSCH-RE-MappingQCL-ConfigId-r11
OPTIONAL -- Need OR
INTEGER (0..1)
-- ASN1STOP
EPDCCH
dmrs-ScramblingSequenceInt - The DMRS scrambling sequence initialization parameter nID,i
.
epdcch-SetConfig - Provides EPDCCH configuration set. E-UTRAN configures at least one epdcchSetConfig when EPDCCH-Config is configured.
epdcch-SetIdentity - Indicates the indentity of the EPDCCH set.
epdcch-StartSymbol (1,2,3,4) - Indicates the OFDM starting symbol for any EPDCCH and PDSCH
scheduled by EPDCCH on the same cell, if the UE is not configured with tm10. If not present, the
configuration is released and the UE shall derive it from PCFICH. It is not configured for UEs
configured with tm10.
epdcch-SubframePatternConfig - Configures the subframes which the UE shall monitor the UEspecific search space on EPDCCH. If it is not configured when EPDCCH is configured, the UE
monitors the UE-specific search space on EPDCCH in all subframes except for pre-defined rules.
epdcch-TransmissionType - Indicates whether distributed or localized EPDCCH transmission mode
is used.
numberPRBPairs - Indicates the number of PRB pairs used for the EPDCCH set. Value n2
corresponds to 2 PRB pairs; n4 corresponds to 4 PRB pairs and so on. n8 is not supported for dlBandwidth having value n6.
pucch-ResourceStartOffset - PUCCH format 1a and 1b resource starting offset for the EPDCCH
set.
re-MappingQCLConfigListId - Indicates the starting OFDM symbol, the related rate matching
parameters and quasi-collocation assumption for EPDCCH when the UE is configured in tm10. This
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provides the index of PDSCH-RE-MappingQCL-ConfigId. E-UTRAN configures this only when tm10 is
configured.
resourceBlockAssignment - Indicates the index to a specific combination of PRB pair for EPDCCH
set. The size of resourceBlockAssignment is calculated based on numberPRBPairs and the signalled
value of dl-Bandwidth.
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Transport block
CRC attachment
b0 , b1 ,..., b B 1
Channel coding
d r(i0) , d r(1i ) ,..., d r(i)D
r 1
Rate matching
er 0 , er1 ,..., er Er 1
Code block
concatenation
f 0 , f1 ,..., f G 1
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Wideband feedback mode is similar to via PUSCH, the UEselected sub-band CQI using PUCCH is
different. In this case, number of sub-bands N is divided into J bandwidth parts. The J depends on
BW.
In periodic UE-selected sub-band CQI reporting, one CQI value is computed and reported for a single
selected sub-band from each bandwidth part, along with the corresponding sub-band index.
ck
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selects the best total metric among different metrics computed for each state (in case of trellis
terminated code, last state is all-0 state) and it traces back the selected path in the trellis to provide
the estimated input sequence. This is a recursive iterative process.
Convolutional codes are most widely used for good performance, decoding speed based on VA and
flexible codeword sizes adaptation. Followed by this, turbo code and Low-Density Parity Check
(LDPC) codes were discovered that provided near-Shannon limit performance.
Turbo Codes
Turbo codes is an iterative decoding algorithm to achieve near-Shannon limit performance. Encoder
has two convolutional encoders linked by an interleaver. Two identical convolutional codes have g0 =
[13] and g1 = [15]. Turbo code encodes the input block twice (with and without interleaving) to
generate two set of parity bits. Each encoder is terminated to all zero state by using tail bits. The
nominal code rate of turbo code is 1/3.
Number of states in the trellis of a turbo code is significantly larger due to the interleaver, making it
intractable (except for trivial block sizes). Therefore, iterative decoding is done based on separate
optimal decoder for each constituent convolutional coder, both iteratively exchanging bits via a
(de)interleaver.
The two decoders cooperate by iteratively exchanging bits via (de)interleaver. After a certain number
of iterations, the output can be used to obtain final hard decision estimates of the information bits.
xk
ck
zk
Output
Input
zk
Output
ck
xk
UMTS
LTE
Constituent code
Same
mother code
Turbo interleaver
Row/column permutation
Contention-free quadratic
permutation polynomial (QPP)
interleaver
Rate matching
Hybrid ARQ
Performed on concatenated
code blocks
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operation allowed
Allowed
Control channel
256-state tailed
convolutional code
It was enhanced by the ability to select different redundancy versions for HARQ retransmissions.
However the decoder shows the strain at 10Mbps. LTE effort began for data rates of 100 Mbps to
1Gbps in view. For LTE, turbo interleaver was replaced with a contention-free interleaver.
Contention-Free Turbo Decoding
The existing UMTS interleaver had a problem with memory access contentions (read or write from/to
the same memory same time. Contention resolution is possible with extra hardware, and the
resolution time (cycles) may vary for every interleaver size. Complex memory management is used as
contention resolution for any arbitrary interleaver, such that no contentions occur.
It requires that for each window, the memory banks accessed be unique between any two windows,
thus eliminating access contentions. Instead of using M separate memories, better to use single
physical memory and fetch/store M values on each cycle from a single address. This requires CF
interleaver to satisfy a vectorized decoding property where the intra-window permutation is the same
for each window.
A variety of possible parallelism factors provides freedom for each individual manufacturer to select
the degree of parallelism based on the target data rates for different UE categories. After
consideration of performance, available flexible classes of CF interleavers and complexity benefits, a
new contention-free interleaver was selected for LTE.
For block size K, a QPP(Quadratic Permutation Polynomial) interleaver is defined by: (i) = (f1i + f2i )
mod K, where
o i is the output index (0 i K 1),
o (i) is the input index and
o f1 and f2 are the coefficients:
f1 is relatively prime to block size K;
all prime factors of K also factor f2.
i
f1
f2
f1
f2
f1
f2
f1
f2
1
2
-46
47
40
48
--400
408
3
7
--151
155
10
12
--40
102
48
49
--93
94
416
424
--1056
1088
25
51
--17
171
52
106
--66
204
95
96
--140
141
1120
1152
--3072
3136
67
35
--47
13
140
72
--96
28
142
143
--187
188
3200
3264
--6080
6144
111
443
--47
263
240
204
--190
480
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The amounts of parallelism depend on the factorization of the block size, certain block sizes (prime
sizes) are not natively supportable by the turbo code. Filler bits are used to pad the input to the
nearest QPP interleaver size. The QPP sizes are selected such that:
Number of interleavers is limited (fewer interleavers implies more filler bits).
Filler bits is roughly same as block size increase (spacing increases as block size increases).
Multiple parallelism values are available (block sizes are spaced an integer bytes apart).
Following 188 byte-aligned interleaver sizes spaced in a semi-log manner are selected with
approximately 3% filler bits:
K=
40 + 8t
if 0 t 59 (40512 in steps of 8 bits)
512 + 16t if 0 < t 32 (5281024 in steps of 16 bits)
1024 + 32t if 0 < t 32 (10562048 in steps of 32 bits)
2048 + 64t
if 0 < t 64 (21126144 in steps of 64 bits)
Maximum turbo interleaver size is increased from 5114 in UMTS to 6144 in LTE, such that a 1500
byte TCP/IP packet would be segmented into only two segments rather than three, minimizing
potential segmentation penalty and (marginally) increasing turbo interleaver gain.
1.4.6. Rate-Matching
Rate-Matching (RM) algorithm selects bits for transmission by puncturing and/or repetition, based on
the available physical resources. RM should send as many new bits as possible in retransmissions to
maximize Incremental Redundancy (IR) HARQ gains.RV = 0 starts at an offset relative to the
beginning of the CB(Code Block) to enable systematic bit puncturing on the first transmission.Circular
buffer RM was selected for LTE as it generates puncturing patterns simply and flexibly for any
arbitrary code rate, with excellent performance.
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for initial transmission to send as many systematic bits as possible. The scheduler can choose
different RVs on transmissions of the same packet to support both IR and Chase combining HARQ.
Turbo code tail bits are uniformly distributed into the three streams, with all streams the same size.
Each sub-block interleaver is based on the traditional row-column interleaver with 32 columns, and a
simple length-32 intra-column permutation.
The bits of each stream are written row-by-row into a matrix with 32 columns (rows
determined by the stream size), with dummy bits padded to the front of each stream to
completely fill the matrix.
A length-32 column permutation is applied and the bits are read out column-by-column to
form the output of the sub-block interleaver, [0, 16, 8, 24, 4, 20, 12, 28, 2, 18, 10, 26, 6, 22, 14, 30, 1, 17, 9,
25, 5, 21, 13, 29, 3, 19, 11, 27, 7, 23, 15, 31]
This sub-block interleaver first puts all the even indices and then all the odd indices into the
rearranged sub-block.
A small percentage of systematic bits are punctured in an initial transmission to enhance performance
at high code rates. With the offset, RV = 0 results in partially systematic codes that are self-decodable
at high coding rates, avoiding the catastrophic puncturing patterns.
After interleaving, bits are read column-by-column starting from a column top RV location. This
enables efficient HARQ operation, because CB operation can be performed without requiring an
intermediate step of forming any actual physical buffer. For any combination of the 188 stream sizes
and 4 RV values, the desired codeword bits can be equivalently obtained directly from the output of
the turbo encoder using simple addressing based on sub-block permutation.
The buffer looks like Virtual Circular Buffer (VCB) and this allows Systematic Bit Puncturing (SBP) by
defining RV = 0 to skip the first two systematic columns of the CB, leading to approximately 6%
punctured systematic bits. Thus, with systematic bit puncturing and uniform spaced RVs, the four RVs
start at the top of columns 2, 26, 50 and 74.
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Scrambling
Modulation
mapper
Layer
mapper
Scrambling
antenna
ports
layers
codewords
Modulation
mapper
Resource
element mapper
OFDM signal
generation
Resource
element mapper
OFDM signal
generation
Precoding
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1.4.10. Scrambling
For each codeword q of M bits shall be scrambled prior to modulation, resulting in a block of
~
scrambled M bits according to b ( q) (i) b (q) (i) c (q) (i) mod 2 , where the scrambling sequence is
c ( q ) (i) . The scrambling sequence generator shall be initialised at the start of each subframe, where
the initialisation value of cinit is
cell
n
214 q 213 ns 2 29 N ID
for PDSCH
cinit RNTI 9
MBSFN
ns 2 2 N ID
for PMCH
1.4.11. Modulation
For each codeword q of M scrambled bits, shall be modulated as using one of the modulation
schemes of QPSK, 16QAM or 64QAM, resulting in a block of complex-valued Msymb modulation
symbols.
layer
be one symbol transmitted in each layer - x(i) x (0) (i) ... x ( 1) (i) , i 0,1,...,M symb
1 .
1.4.13. Precoding
layer
Precoder takes as input a block of vectors x(i) for v layers ( i 0,1,...,M symb
1 ) from layer mapping and
(p)
ap
generates a block of vectors y (i) for p antenna ports each ( i 0,1,...,M symb
1 ) to be mapped onto
resources, where y ( p ) (i) represents the signal for antenna port p . For transmission on a single
ap
antenna port, precoding is defined by y ( p) (i) x (0) (i) for each symbol i 0,1,...,M symb
1 ,
ap
layer
.
M symb
M symb
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W (i )
y ( P 1) (i )
x ( 1) (i )
ap
ap
layer
where the precoding matrix W (i) is of size P and i 0,1,...,M symb
.
M symb
1 , M symb
Values of W (i) shall be selected among the precoder elements in the codebook configured in the
eNodeB and the UE.
W (i ) D(i )U
y ( P 1) (i )
x ( 1) (i )
The diagonal size- matrix D(i) supporting CDD and the size- matrix U are given for
different numbers of layers . A different precoder is used every vectors, where denotes the
number of layers.
For transmission on two antenna ports, p 0,1 , and for the purpose of CSI reporting based on two
antenna ports p 0,1 or p 15,16 , the precoding matrix W (i) is selected.
y (7 ) (i ) x (0) (i )
(8 )
y (i ) x (1) (i )
(6 ) ( 1)
(i ) x
(i )
y
ap
ap
layer
.
M symb
i 0,1,...,M symb
1 , M symb
power allocation and be mapped in sequence starting with y ( p ) (0) to resource elements k, l , when:
-
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they are not used for PBCH, PSS, SSS, MBSFN RS, UE-specific RS with PDSCH, and
they are not used for CRS, with the number of antenna ports for and the frequency shift of cellspecific RS unless other values for these parameters are provided, and
- they are not to be used for CSI RS, with zero power and non-zero power CSI RS, and the DCI
associated with DL uses the C-RNTI or semi-persistent C-RNTI, and
- they are not part of RB pair, carrying an EPDCCH associated with PDSCH, and
- l in the first slot in a subframe fulfils l lDataStart .
If the DCI uses C-RNTI or semi-persistent C-RNTI and transmit diversity is used, resource elements
in an OFDM symbol assumed by the UE to contain CSI-RS shall be used in the mapping above if and
only if all of the following criteria are fulfilled:
- there is an even number of RE for symbol in each RB assigned for transmission, and
- symbols y ( p ) (i) and y ( p ) (i 1) , where i is an even number, can be mapped to resource
elements k, l and k n, l in the same OFDM symbol with n 3 .
The mapping to RE k, l on antenna port p are in increasing order of first the index k over the
assigned RB and then the index l , starting with the first slot in a subframe.
Finally, the above mapping will be passed on to the stage of IFFT with CP signal insertion, then
concert parallel to serial and then transmit the signal out of the antenna.
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MIMO signal Y is a matrix of size NxT precoded signals transmitted from N distinct antennas over T
symbol durations (or, in frequency-domain T subcarriers). Thus the n-th row of Y corresponds to nth
transmit antenna signal. Let H be MxN channel matrix modelling the propagation from each of the N
antennas to any one of the M receive antennas, on a arbitrary subcarrier, for T symbol durations.
Then the MxT signal received over T symbol durations, R = HY + N where N is the noise matrix of
dimension MxT over all M receiving antennas.
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The MRC provides a factor of M improvement in received SNR compared to M = N = 1. Array gain
=10log10(M)dB in link budget.
In transmit beamforming, M =1 and N >1, Symbol-to-transmit-signal mapping has P=T=1, and Y(X)=
wx, where x is the symbol, w is transmit beamforming vector of size N1, computed based on channel
knowledge (based on feedback link). The SNR-maximizing is done by transmit MRC, seen as a
matched prefilter: w = HH/H where H enforces total power constraint across transmit antennas.
Transmit MRC pre-filter gain= 10log10(N)dB SINR improvement.
Spatial Multiplexing without Channel Knowledge at the Transmitter
WhenN >1 andM >1, multiplexing of MxN streams is possible. Assume M N, consider N streams,
each with different transmitter. If transmitter does not have knowledge of H, spatial multiplexing
scheme cannot be improved by channel-dependent precoder. Then precoder is simply the identity
matrix. Then symbol-to-transmit-signal mapping function P=NT and Y(X) = X
At receiver, linear and non-linear detection techniques are implemented to recover X. A lowcomplexity linear solution case, receiver superposes N beamformers w1, w2, . . . , wN. Detection of
stream [xi,1, xi,2, . . . , xi,T ] is achieved by applying wi = wiR = wiH.X + wiN.
Beamformer wi design can be interpreted as a compromise between single-stream beamforming and
cancelling of interference (created by other N 1 streams). Inter-stream interference is fully cancelled
by selecting the Zero-Forcing (ZF) receiver with W= f(w1, w2, ... wN).
For optimal performance, wi should strike a balance between alignment of hi and orthogonality of
signatures hk, by may be Minimum Mean-Squared Error (MMSE) receiver.
Beyond classical linear detection (ZF or MMSE) receivers, more advanced but nonlinear detectors
can be exploited at extra complexity like- Successive Interference Cancellation (SIC) detector and
Maximum LikelihoodDetector (MLD).
SIC treats individual channel-encoded streams, like layers which are peeled off one by one by a
processing sequence consisting of linear detection, decoding, remodulating, re-encoding and
subtraction from the total received signal R.
MLD selects the most likely set of all streams from R, by an exhaustive search procedure or a lowercomplexity equivalent such as sphere-decoding technique.
Multiplexing gain
Multiplexing gain multiplicative factor by which spectral efficiency is increased by a given scheme.
MIMO achieves gain for various antennas to experience a sufficiently different channel response, to
be sufficiently
decorrelated and linearly independent to allow for the channel matrix H to be invertible. There is a
limitation to MxN number of independent streams which may be multiplexed into the MIMO channel
(rank(H) streams). SU-MIMO between a four-antenna eNB and a dual antenna UE can, at best,
support multiplexing of two data streams, doubling UEs data rate compared with a single stream.
Diversity
A diversity-oriented design will feature some level of repetition between the entries of Y. For full
diversity, each symbol xi must be assigned to each transmit antennas at least once during T symbol
durations. Diversity symbol-to-transmit signal mapping function is called Space-Time Block Code
(STBC). In addition to STBC, orthogonality of matrix Y improves performance and easy decoding at
receiver, realized by Alamouti space-time code. The diversity order is equal to MxN. For this
transmission, no knowledge of channel and feedback is necessary.
Diversity versus multiplexing trade-off
There exists a compromise between reaching full beamforming gain in detection of a desired stream
of data and perfect cancelling of undesired, interfering streams. Similarly, there is a trade-off between
the number of multiplexed streams in MIMO channel and the amount of diversity each one of them
will enjoy.
In N streams over a N to M antenna channel, with M N, and using a linear detector, each stream will
enjoy a diversity order of M N + 1. Increasing the spatial load of MIMO (Rank streams) is akin to
increasing the user load in CDMA.
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The full MIMO benefits (array gain, diversity gain and multiplexing gain) assume ideally
decorrelated antennas and full-rank MIMO channel matrices. In single-user case, antennas at
both eNB and UE are typically separated by between 1/2 wavelength to a few
wavelengths at most, which is very short in relation to eNB to UE. In a LOS situation, this will
cause a strong correlation between spatial signatures, limiting the use of multiplexing
schemes. But design itself may provide the necessary orthogonality properties even in LOS
situations. Two antennas (at both transmitter and receiver) that operate on orthogonal
polarizations (horizontal and vertical polarizations, +45 and 45 polarizations, which give a
twofold multiplexing capability even in LOS). Orthogonal polarizations at UEs may not always
be recommended as it results in non-omnidirectional beam patterns. Also, in SU-MIMO, the
condition of spatial signature independence can only be satisfied with rich random multipath
propagation.
Another source of discrepancy between theoretical MIMO gains and practically achieved
performance lies in the (in-)ability of the receiver to give right CSI frequently and perfectly,
but we know that they are limited and finite. This degrades the performance.In DL, MU-MIMO
relies on eNB to compute required transmit beamformer, which in turn requires CSI. If no
sufficient CSI available MU-MIMO gains disappear and SU-MIMO strategy becomes
optimal.SO, accurate Channel State Information (CSI) to be delivered by UE to eNB in a
resource-efficient manner is required. This requires use of appropriate codebooks for
quantization.
Another issue is the interaction between the physical layer and the scheduling protocol. In
both UL and DL cases, number of UEs served in MU-MIMO is limited to K = N, assuming
linear combining. Number of active users U will typically exceed K, right k users will have to
be scheduled for simultaneous transmission over a particular RB. This algorithm is not
specified in LTE and various approaches are possible. A combination of rate maximization
and QoS constraints may be considered. The choice of UEs that will maximize the sum-rate
is one that favours UEs exhibiting not only good instantaneous SNR but also spatial
separability among their signatures.
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Frequency Switched Transmit Diversity (FSTD) and its Combination with SFBC
General FSTD schemes transmit symbols from each antenna on a different set of subcarriers. In
practice in LTE, FSTD is only used in combination with SFBC for the case of 4 transmit antennas, to
provide a suitable transmit diversity scheme where no orthogonal rate-1 block codes exists. Mapping
of symbols to antenna ports is different in 4 transmit-antenna case compared to the 2 transmitantenna SFBC scheme. This is because RS density on third and fourth antenna ports is half of first
and second antenna ports, and hence CSI accuracy may be lower on third and fourth antenna ports.
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1.5.8. Precoding
PDSCH transmission modes for open-loop spatial multiplexing and closed-loop spatial multiplexing
use precoding from a defined codebook to form transmitted layers. Codesbooks are a set of
predefined precoding matrices, with size being a trade-off between signalling bits required to indicate
PMI and suitability of resulting transmitted beam direction.
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precoder selection by eNodeB; (3) Method and procedure for signalling the precoding weights to the
relevant UEs.
Calculation of Precoding Vector Indicator (PVI) and CQI
MU-MIMO supports only one codeword, to each UEs, we refer to precoding feedback as a Precoding
Vector Indicator (PVI) is used for both SU-MIMO and MU-MIMO.
Precoder and feedback calculation methods
Consider a codebook for feedback from the UEs, C = {C(0), . . . , C(L1)}, of L unitary matrices of size
NN, N = #transmit antennas & codebook size in number of vectors is Nq = L*N. Consider two
methods of calculating PVI from codebook and CQI.
1. In MU-MIMO precoding technique 1 (codebook of UP matrices), UE does following:
a. The SINR is computed for each vector in the codebook taken as UEs own precoding
vector. The interfering precoding vectors are assumed to be the other N 1 vectors in the
codebook.
b. Largest such SINR is used to report the CQI value, while useful precoding vector
represents PMI.
2. In MU-MIMO precoding technique 2 (codebook for CVQ), UE does following:
a. The measured channel vector is quantized to the nearest vector in the codebook in terms
of chordal distance.
b. SINR is estimated with assumptions:
o There are N1 interfering precoding vectors to the PVI vector (UE assumes that
zero-forcing beamforming will be used).
o The useful precoding vector is only slightly offset from the PVI vector.
Equivalence between channel vector quantization and PVI calculation
PVI and CQI is used by the eNodeB to construct PMI. In MU-MIMO precoding technique 1, a
precoder matched to the selected PVIs have to be orthogonal. In MU-MIMO precoding technique 2,
the PVIs of the selected UEs need not be exactly orthogonal and the eNodeB would be allowed to
adjust the precoder to minimize interference among UEs.
PDSCH transmission in MU-MIMO mode is based on selection of PMI from the same codebooks as
SU-MIMO. LTE 2-antenna codebook, and first eight entries in 4-antenna codebook, are DFT-based
codebooks. The main reasons for this choice are as follows:
Simplicity in the PVI/CQI calculation.
A DFT matrix nicely captures the characteristics of a MISO channel. If the first N rows are
taken from a DFT matrix of size Nq , each of the Nq column vectors that is obtained contains
the phases of a line-of-sight propagation channel from a uniform linear array with N elements
to a point in space located at a given angle with respect to the antenna array boresight.
The vectors in such a codebook can be grouped into L = Nq/N unitary matrices.
User Selection Mechanism
One important aspect of MU-MIMO is the selection of UEs, as throughput gain depends on exploiting
multi-user diversity.
Group the UEs that report orthogonal PVIs and select the group providing the highest total
throughput. Capacity formula R=k log(1+SINRk), which sums up the SINR(CQI) over the UEs in the
group.
Another greedy strategy consists of adding one UE at a time, as long as the additional UE increases
the overall throughput, for an achievable sum-rate. Let R(S) denote the achievable sum-rate when
UEs set S is selected.
Initialize S = { }, R(S) = 0.
(sum rate=0)
while |S| N do
(max user=N)
{ k = argmax R(S {k}) (k is not an element of S)
if R(S {k}) > R(S) update S = S {k},
else exit.
}
Receiver Spatial Equalizers
Commonly, three possible spatial equalizersat UE side may be used.
1. MMSE receiver.
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2.
3.
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1 ms
0.5 ms
15 kHz
66.67 s
Normal CP: 5.2 s first symbol in each slot,
Extended CP: 16.67 s all symbols
7 (Normal CP)
6 (Extended CP)
12
An important feature of the LTE SC-FDMA parameterization is that the numbers of subcarriers which
can be allocated to a UE for transmission are restricted such that the DFT size in LTE can be
constructed from multiples of 2, 3 and/or 5. This enables efficient, low complexity mixed-radix FFT
implementations.
The same basic transmission resource structure is used for the uplink as for the downlink: a 10 ms
radio frame is divided into ten 1 ms subframes each consisting of two 0.5 ms slots. It uses the same
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15 kHz subcarrier spacing. Smallest unit of resource being a Resource Element (RE), consisting of
one SC-FDMA data block length on one subcarrier. A Resource Block (RB) comprises 12 REs in the
frequency domain for a duration of 1 slot. A normal CP of duration 4.69 s and an extended CP of
16.67 s may be configured. Extended CP is beneficial for deployments with large channel delayspread characteristics, and for large cells.
The 1 ms subframe allows a 1 ms scheduling interval (or Transmission Time Interval (TTI)). However,
one difference from the downlink is that the uplink coverage is more likely to be limited by the
maximum transmission power of the UE. In some situations, when some Voice-over-IP (VoIP) packet
cannot be transmitted in a 1 ms subframe and segmentation may be required leading to more
signalling. A more efficient technique for improving uplink VoIP coverage at the cell edge is to use socalled TTI bundling, where a single transport block from the MAC layer is transmitted repeatedly in
multiple consecutive subframes, with only one set of signalling messages for the whole transmission.
The LTE uplink allows groups of 4 TTIs to be bundledin this way, in addition to the normal 1 ms TTI.
Uplink SC-FDMA parametrization for selected carrier bandwidths.
Carrier bandwidth (MHz)
1.4 3
5
10
15
20
FFT size
128 256 512 1024 1536 2048
Sampling rate: M/N 3.84 MHz
1/2 1/1 2/1 4/1 6/1 8/1
Number of subcarriers
72
180 300 600 900 1200
Number of RBs
6
15
25
50
75
100
Bandwidth efficiency (%)
77.1 90 90
90
90
90
In practice in LTE, all the uplink data transmissions are localized, using contiguous blocks of
subcarriers. Frequency-diversity is achieved by frequency hopping, which can occur both within one
subframe (at the boundary between the two slots) and between subframes. In the case of frequency
hopping within a subframe, the channel coding spans the two transmission frequencies, and therefore
the frequency diversity gain is maximized through the channel decoding process. The only instance of
distributed transmission in the LTE uplink (using an IFDMA-like structure) is for the Sounding
Reference Signals (SRSs) which are transmitted to enable the eNodeB to perform uplink frequencyselective scheduling.
System bandwidth is scalable from approximately 1.4 MHz up to 20 MHz with the same subcarrier
spacing and symbol duration for all bandwidths. Sampling rates resulting from FFT sizes are designed
to be small rational multiples of UMTS 3.84 MHz chip rate, for ease of implementation in a multimode
UE.
Pulse Shaping
In SC-FDMA, there is no need for explicit pulse-shaping thanks to the implicit sinc pulse-shaping.
Nevertheless, an additional explicit pulse-shaping filter can further reduce the CM/PAPR, but at the
expense of spectral efficiency. As a result of this trade-off, additional pulse shaping is not specified in
LTE.
The important properties of the SC-FDMA transmission scheme used for the LTE uplink are derived
from its multicarrier OFDM-like structure with single-carrier characteristic. The multicarrier-based
structure gives the LTE uplink the same robustness against ISI as the LTE downlink, with lowcomplexity frequency-domain equalization being facilitated by the CP. At the same time, the DFTbased pre-coding ensures that the LTE uplink possesses the low CM required for efficient UE design.
Crucially, LTE uplink is designed to be orthogonal in the frequency domain between different UEs,
thus virtually eliminating the intra-cell interference associated with CDMA.
The parameters of the LTE uplink are designed to ensure maximum commonality with the downlink,
and to facilitate frequency-domain DFT-S-OFDM signal generation. The localized resource allocation
scheme of the LTE uplink allows both frequency selective scheduling and the exploitation of
frequency diversity, the latter being achieved by means of frequency hopping.
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for 0 t <(NCP, + N)Ts, where NCP= #samples of CP in SC-FDMA symbol (see Section 15.3), N =
RB
2048 is IFFT size, df = 15 kHz subcarrier spacing, Ts = 1/(Ndf ) is the sampling interval, N is
()
system BW in RBs, Nsc = 12 subcarriers per RB, k = k + [NRBNsc /2] and ak,l is the content of
subcarrier k on symbol l. For PUSCH data, ak,l (k=0,1,2.M-1) is obtained by DFT-spreading the
data QAM symbols, [d0,l, d1,l, . . . , dM1,l] to be transmitted on data symbol l,
A Hybrid Automatic Repeat reQuest (HARQ) is used synchronously, using N-channel stop and wait
(retransmissions occur in specific periodically-occurring subframes (HARQ channels)).
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channel quality information is needed at the eNodeB. SRS may be used to get quality info, whose
quality depends on SRS BW.
Frequency-Diverse or Non-Selective Scheduling
Frequency hopping of a localized transmission is used to provide frequency diversity (1)hopping
only between subframes (intersubframe hopping), or (2) hopping both between and within subframes
(inter- and intra-subframe hopping). hopping modes are configured by Cell-specific broadcast.
1. Intra-subframe hopping - frequency hop occurs at the slot boundary in the middle of a
subframe; this provides frequency diversity within a codeword (within TB).
2. Inter-subframe hopping - frequency diversity between HARQ retransmissions of TB, as the
frequency allocation hops every allocated subframe.
Either (1) a pre-determined pseudo-random frequency hopping pattern, or (2) an explicit hopping
offset signalled in the UL resource grant on the PDCCH.
For NRB < 50RBs, size of hopping offset is approximately NRB/2, &
For NRB >50 RBs, possible hopping offsets are NRB /2, and +- NRB/4..
In UL, resource grant indicated frequency hopping. Semiselective scheduling is when the frequency
resource is assigned for the first slot and frequency diversity is also achieved by hopping to a different
frequency in the second slot.
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The dHARQ, is then used to modulate the second RS symbol (5th symb) in each CQI slot i.e.
ACK/NACK is signalled using RS. NACK is mapped to +1, resulting in a default NACK in case of DTX.
If UE fails to detect DL grant on PDCCH or it is DTX, it is as good as NACK and triggers DL
retransmission.
Multiplexing of CQI and HARQ ACK/NACK Extended CP (Format 2)
In extended CP (One RS symbol per slot), ACK/NACK is jointly encoded with CQI resulting in a (20,
kCQI + kACK/NACK) Reed Muller based block code. A 20-bit codeword is transmitted on PUCCH
using CQI channel structure. The largest number of information bits supported by the block code is
13, corresponding to kCQI = 11 CQI bits and kACK/NACK = 2 bits (1 for each codeword).
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Similarly, for extended CP with four data SC-FDMA symbols but only two RS symbols, orthogonal
spreading code indices 0 and 2 of length-4 are used for the data block spreading codes.
The ACK/NACK and SRS may be configured in the same subframe configured by SI. One option is
for the ACK/NACK to take precedence over the SRS, only HARQ is transmitted in the relevant
subframe. The alternative is to configure UEs to use shortened PUCCH in such subframes, whereby
the last SC-FDMA symbol in the second slot of the subframe is not transmitted. This is known as a
shortened PUCCH format, length of the timedomain orthogonal block spreading code is reduced by
one (compared to the first slot). Hence, it uses the length-3 DFT spreading codes in place of length-4
WalshHadamard codes. A UE may not simultaneously transmit on SRS and PUCCH or PUSCH to
avoid violating the single-carrier nature of the signal. Therefore, a PUCCH or PUSCH symbol may be
punctured if SRS is transmitted.
The number of HARQ resource-index
NPUCCH,RB= c.P
where
c=3(normal CP) or 2(extended CP)
P=12/(dPUCCHshift(1,2 or 3)).
As in CQI, cyclic time shift hopping is used for HARQ. In SPS, PDSCH without a DL grant on PDCCH,
PUCCH ACK/NACK resource index n(1)PUCCH should to be used by a UE for initial HARQ. For
dynamically DL scheduling, (including HARQ retransmissions for SPS) on PDSCH (indicated by DL
assignment on PDCCH), PUCCH HARQ resource index n(1)PUCCH is determined based on the index
of the first Control Channel Element (CCE) of DL control assignment. PUCCH region m used for
HARQ with format 1/1a/1b for the case with no mixed PUCCH region is given by
(2)
m = (nPUCCH/NPUCCH,RB) + N RB (RB for PUCCH format 2a/2b).
The PUCCH resource index n(1)(ns ), corresponding to a combination of a cyclic time shift and
orthogonal code (nPUCCH RS and noc), within the PUCCH region m in even slots is given by
n(1)(ns) = n(1)PUCCH mod N(1)PUCCH,RB for ns mod 2 = 0
The PUCCH resources are first indexed in cyclic time shift domain, followed by orthogonal time
spreading code domain. The cyclic time shifts used on adjacent orthogonal codes can also be
staggered, providing the opportunity to separate the channel estimates prior to de-spreading. As high
Doppler breaks down the orthogonality between the spread blocks, offsetting the cyclic time shift
values within each SC-FDMA symbol can restore orthogonality at moderate delay spreads. To
randomize intra-cell interference, PUCCH resource index remapping is used in the second slot. Index
remapping includes both cyclic shift remapping and orthogonal block spreading code remapping. The
PUCCH resource index remapping function in an odd slot is based on the PUCCH resource index in
the even slot of the subframe.
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Since HARQ structure is reused for the SR, different PUCCH resource indices (i.e. different cyclic
time shift/orthogonal code combinations) in the same PUCCH region can be assigned for SR (Format
1) or HARQ ACK/NACK (Format 1a/1b) from different UEs. This results in orthogonal multiplexing of
SR and HARQ ACK/NACK in the same PUCCH region. The PUCCH resource index to be used by a
UE for SR transmission, m(1)PUCCH,SRI, is configured by UE-specific signalling. In case a UE needs to
transmit a positive SR in the same subframe as a scheduled CQI transmission, the CQI is dropped
and only the SR is transmitted, in order to maintain the low CM of the transmit signal. Similarly, in the
case of simultaneous SR and SRS configuration, UE does not transmit SRS and transmits only SR. If
an SR and ACK/NACK happen to coincide in the same subframe, UE transmits the ACK/NACK on the
assigned SR PUCCH resource for a positive SR and transmits ACK/NACK on its assigned
ACK/NACK PUCCH resource in case of a negative SR. The modulation mapping is such that a NACK
(or NACK-NACK for 2 codewords) is mapped to +1 resulting in a default NACK in case of DTX similar
to the case of multiplexing CQI and HARQ ACK/NACK for the normal CP.
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Control signalling can also be transmitted on PUSCH without UL-SCH data. CQI/PMI, RI, and/or
ACK/NACK are multiplexed prior to DFT-spreading. ACK/NACK is mapped next to RS, by puncturing
the CQI data and RI symbols, irrespective of whether ACK/NACK is actually present in a given
subframe. The reference CQI/PMI MCS is computed from the CQI payload size and resource
allocation. The channel coding and rate matching of the control signalling without UL-SCH data is the
same as that of multiplexing control with UL-SCH data as described above.
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data on the inner RBs, as well as maximizing flexibility for PUSCH scheduling in the central part. In all
cases of multiplexing different kinds of control signalling, single-carrier property is preserved. Control
signalling from multiple UEs is multiplexed via orthogonal coding by using cyclic time shift
orthogonality and/or time-domain block spreading. MIMO is used in UL, in particular through closedloop switched antenna diversity and SDMA. These techniques are also cost-effective for a UE
implementation, as they neither assume simultaneous transmissions from multiple UE antennas.
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Smallest number of available base sequences is for three RBs, where, only 30 extended ZC
sequences exist. As a result, complete set of base sequences is divided into 30 non-overlapping
sequence-groups. Cell is then assigned one of the sequence-groups for UL from UEs served by the
cell.
For each RB size up to five RBs, each of the 30 sequence groups contains only one base sequence,
since for five RBs (i.e. sequences of length 60) only 58 extended ZC-sequences are available. For
sequence lengths greater than five RBs, more extended ZC-sequences are available, and therefore
each of the 30 sequence-groups contains two base sequences per resource allocation size; this is
exploited in LTE to support sequence hopping (within the sequence-group) between the two slots of a
subframe.
The base sequences for resource allocations larger than three RBs are selected such that they are
the sequences with high cross-correlation to the single 3 RB base sequence in the sequence-group.
Since cross-correlation between the 3 RB base sequences of different sequence-groups is low due to
the inherent properties of the ZC sequences, such a method for assigning the longer base sequences
to sequence-groups helps to ensure that the cross correlation between sequence-groups is kept low,
thus reducing inter-cell interference.
The v base RS sequences of length 3 RBs or larger (i.e.MRS sc 36) assigned to a sequence-group
u are given by,
ru,v(n) = aq (n mod NZC), n = 0, 1, . . . ,MRS sc 1
where u {0, 1, . . . , 29} is the sequence-group number,
v is the index of the base sequence of length MRSsc within the sequence-group u, given by
v = 0, 1 forMRSsc 72
= 0 otherwise
NZC is the largest prime number smaller than MRSsc , and
q is the root ZC sequence index.
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Sequence-Group Hopping
It is enabled in a cell by 1-bit broadcast parameter groupHoppingEnabled. This mode is a
combination of hopping and shifting of the sequence-group according to one of 504 sequence-group
hopping/shifting patterns corresponding to the 504 unique cell-IDs. Since there are 30 base
sequence-groups, 17(= 504/30) unique sequence-group hopping patterns of length 20 are defined
(corresponding to 20 slots in a frame), each of which can be offset by one of 30 sequence-group shift
offsets. The sequence-group number u depends on the sequence-group hopping pattern fgh (0..16) and
the sequence-group shift offset fss. The sequence-group hopping pattern changes u from slot to slot in
a pseudo-random manner, while the shift offset fss is fixed in all slots. Both fgh and fss depend on the
cell-ID.
The pattern fgh is obtained from a length-31 Gold sequence generator, of which the second
constituent M-sequence is initialized at the beginning of each radio frame by fgh of the cell. Up to 30
cell-IDs can have the same fgh (planned coordinated cell cluster), with different fss. The same fgh is
used for PUSCH DM RS, SRS and PUCCH DM RS. The fss can be different for PUSCH and PUCCH.
For PUSCH, plan to assign cell-IDs such that the same fgh and fss, and hence same base sequences,
are used in adjacent cells. This can enable RSs from UEs in adjacent cells to be orthogonal to each
other by using different cyclic time shifts of the same base sequence. Therefore fss for PUSCH is
explicitly configured by 5bit, groupAssignmentPUSCH(dss) such that fss = (cell-ID mod 30 + dss)
mod 30, where dss {0, . . . , 29}.
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For PUCCH, the same RBs at the edge of the system bandwidth are normally used by all cells. To
randomize interference on PUCCH between neighbouring cells with same fgh, fss is simply given by
cell-ID mod 30. Similarly, for SRS, the same fss as PUCCH is used.
There are two base sequences per sequence-group for each RS sequence length greater than 60 (5
RBs), with possibility of sequence-hopping between two base sequences at the slot boundary in the
middle of each subframe. If sequence-group hopping is used, base sequence automatically changes
between each slot, and therefore additional sequence hopping within the sequence group is not
needed; therefore only the first base sequence in the sequence group is used if sequence-group
hopping is enabled.
Sequence-Group Planning
If sequence-group hopping is disabled, the same sequence-group number u, is used in all slots and u
= fss. Planned sequence-group assignment is possible for up to 30 cells in LTE. In this case,
neighbouring cells to be assigned sequence groups u with low cross-correlation.
The same sequence-group number (base sequences) are used in the three cells of each eNodeB,
with different cyclic time shifts assigned to each cell. With sequence-group planning, sequence
hopping within group between two slots of a subframe is enabled by 1-bit parameter,
sequenceHoppingEnabled. The base sequence index for MRS sc 72 used in slot ns is then
obtained from length-31 Gold sequence generator. In order to enable the use of the same base RS
sequence (and hopping pattern) in adjacent cells for PUSCH, the pseudo-random sequence
generator is initialized at the beginning of each radio frame by the sequence-group hopping pattern
index (based on part of the cell-ID), offset by the PUSCH sequence-group shift index of the cell.
RS Symbol Duration
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For a given RS overhead, RSs could in theory be concentrated in one position in each slot, or divided
up and positioned in multiple locations in each slot:
1. One RS symbol per slot, having the same duration as a data symbol ( Long Block (LB)), with
same subcarrier spacing as data symbols.
2. Two RS symbols per slot, each of half the duration of a data symbol ( Short Block (SB)), with
subcarrier spacing in RS symbols being double that of data symbols (only six subcarriers per
RB in the RS symbols).
The LB RS structure was adopted in LTE for the PUSCH DM RS. The exact position of the single
PUSCH DM RS symbol in each uplink slot depends on whether the normal or extended CP is used.
rd
For normal CP with seven SC-FDMA symbols per slot, the PUSCH DM RS occupies the centre (3 ).
nd
With six SC-FDMA symbols per slot. In extended CP, the 2 SC-FDMA symbol is used. For PUCCH,
the position and number of DM RS depends on the type of PUCCH format.
The DM RS occupies the same RBs as RB allocation for PUSCH or PUCCH. Thus, RS sequence
length, MRSsc = #subcarriers for PUSCH or PUCCH. Since PUSCH RB size is multiples of two, three
and/or five RBs, DM RS sequence lengths are also restricted to the same multiples. For interference
randomization, cyclic time shift hopping is always enabled for DM RS.
NSRS RB = 2
3 5
and
MSRS sc =
NSRS RB 12
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where 2, 3, 5 is a set of positive integers. Simultaneous SRS can be transmitted from multiple UEs
using the same RBs and the same offset of the comb, using different cyclic time shifts of the same
base sequence to achieve orthogonal separation. For SRS, eight (evenly-spaced) cyclic time shifts
per SRS-comb are supported, with the cyclic shift being configured individually for each UE.
SRS Bandwidths
Some of the factors which affect the SRS bandwidth are max power of the UE, number of supportable
sounding UEs, and the sounding bandwidth needed to benefit from uplink channel-dependent
scheduling. Full bandwidth sounding provides the most complete channel information when the UE is
sufficiently close to the eNodeB, but degrades as the path-loss increases when the UE cannot further
increase its transmit power to maintain the transmission across the full bandwidth. Full bandwidth
transmission of SRS also limits the number of simultaneous UEs whose channels can be sounded,
due to the limited number of cyclic time shifts (eight cyclic time shifts per SRS-comb).
To improve the SNR and support a larger number of SRS, up to four SRS bandwidths can be
simultaneously supported in LTE depending on the system bandwidth. To provide flexibility with the
values for the SRS bandwidths, eight sets of four SRS bandwidths are defined for each possible
system bandwidth. RRC signalling indicates which of the eight sets is applicable in the cell by means
of a 3-bit cell-specific parameter srsBandwidthConfiguration. This allows some variability in the
maximum SRS bandwidths, which is important as the SRS region does not include the PUCCH region
near the edges of the system bandwidth, which is itself variable in bandwidth.
SRS BW
SRS-BW SRS-BW SRS-BW SRS-BW
configuration
0
1
2
3
0
48
24
12
4
1
48
16
8
4
2
40
20
4
4
3
36
12
4
4
4
32
16
8
4
5
24
4
4
4
6
20
4
4
4
7
16
4
4
4
The specific SRS bandwidth is configured by a further 2-bit UE-specific parameter, srsBandwidth.
The smallest sounding bandwidth supported is 4 RBs. Frequency hopping can be enabled or disabled
for an individual UE based on frequencyDomainPosition. The tree structure of the SRS bandwidths
limits the possible starting positions for the different SRS bandwidths, reducing the overhead for
signalling the starting position to 5 bits (for each UE by Frequency-domain-position.
UL RS provided in LTE fulfil an important function in facilitating channel estimation and channel
sounding. The ZC-based sequence design can be seen to be a good match to this role, with constant
amplitude in the frequency domain and the ability to provide a large number of sequences with zero or
low correlation. This enables both interference randomization and interference coordination
techniques to be employed in LTE system deployments, as appropriate to the scenario. A high degree
of flexibility is provided for configuring the reference signals, especially for the sounding reference
signals, where the overhead arising from their transmission can be traded off against the
improvements in system efficiency which may be achievable from frequency-selective uplink
scheduling.
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such a manner as to reduce inter-intra-cell control channel interference under light to moderately
loaded conditions.
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CQI PUCCH
PRACH
Target quality
-----------------102
102
104
Likely to be around 102101
The link budget results are for deployment scenario Case 3, and assume a log-normal
shadowing margin of 12.1 dB corresponding to 98-percentile single-cell area coverage
reliability and a propagation model given by
Propagation loss = 128.1 + 37.6 log(distance(m)) (18.7)
Only an average throughput of 5 kbps can be supported based on a single (1 ms) RB PUSCH
transmission. The downlink SINR at 1000m given the corresponding downlink conditions is about 8.3
dB, which is also the SINR required for a 1% BLER on the Physical Broadcast CHannel (PBCH)
SINR. At 1000 m the transmission loss (propagation loss minus the antenna gains plus the log-normal
shadowing margin plus the penetration/body loss) is 146.2 dB, which must be supported by the uplink
and downlink control channels in order to achieve the 98-percentile area coverage reliability.
1. 1-bit ACK/NACK and 4-bit CQI Coverage via PUCCH.
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The 1-bit ACK/NACK and the 4-bit CQI, each transported on a PUCCH, achieve almost the
same coverage as the PBCH, but fall short by approximately 1.3 dB as determined by the
difference in transmission loss (146.2144.9 dB). A repetition factor of 2 may be used to close
the coverage gap.
2. 12.2 kbps AMR VoIP Coverage via PUSCH.
Even TTI bundling over four subframes (i.e. allocating four HARQ processes so that each
VoIP packet can occupy four consecutive TTIs) combined with five HARQ transmissions per
packet is not enough to close the coverage gap for a VoIP 12.2 kbps AMR service. Some
relaxation in error rate or reduction of the AMR codec rate (e.g. 7.95 kbps) may be enough to
close the coverage gap.
3. PRACH coverage.
A repeated RACH preamble burst (2 800 s) is needed for the PRACH to achieve 98percentile or better area coverage reliability, since PRACH format 2, only supports a cell
radius of about 0.8 km which is close to the range supported by one ZadoffChu root
sequence (0.78 km). With a single sequence a total received preamble energy per sequence
of approximately 18 dB (Es/N0 11.5 dB) is required to meet missed detection and false
alarm probabilities of less than 1%. PRACH format 2 with repetition is slightly better with a
required Es/N0 =13.5 dB for the same error probabilities.
We highlight the main factors affecting uplink capacity and coverage. It is possible to observe how
uplink coverage issues have led to particular design choices in LTE, such as the size of a RB, the
length of TTI, and the design of the control channels. Evaluations can be carried out to examine the
effect of each relevant factor, leading to the LTE performance being able to be characterized by a
variety of metrics. Such metrics include average throughput, cell-edge throughput, number of VoIP
users, and FTP download time. Depending on the requirements of particular deployments, the
eNodeB has the freedom to balance average throughput against cell-edge coverage and fairness.
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further subdivided into two subgroups, so that the choice of signature can carry one bit of information
to indicate information relating to the amount of transmission resource needed to transmit the
message at Step 3. The SI indicates which signatures are in each of the two subgroups (each
subgroup corresponding to one value of the one bit of information), as well as the meaning of each
subgroup. The UE selects a signature from the subgroup corresponding to the size of transmission
resource needed for the appropriate RACH use case (some use cases require only a few bits to be
transmitted at Step 3, so choosing the small message size avoids allocating unnecessary UL
resources), which may also take into account the observed DL radio channel conditions. The eNB can
control the number of signatures in each subgroup according to the observed loads in each group.
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PRACH Formats
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Four Random Access (RA) preamble formats are defined for FDD. Each format is defined by the
durations of the sequence and its CP.
format
---0
TCP (s)
----------103.13
TSEQ (s)
------800
684.38
800
203.13
1600
684.38
1600
14.6
133
usage
---------------------------Normal 1 ms RA burst with 800 s
preamble sequence, for smallmedium cells (up to14 km)
2 ms RA burst with 800 s preamble
sequence, for large cells (up to 77 km) without a link budget problem
2 ms RA burst with 1600 s
preamble sequence,for medium cells (up to 29 km)
supporting low data rates
3 ms RA burst with 1600 s preamble sequence,
for very large cells (up to 100 km)
2 symbol period (approx)
Fig 3.5.3.1 Preable format versus Cell Radius Max and Recommended
Sequence Duration
The sequence duration, TSEQ, is driven by the following factors:
1. Trade-off between sequence length and overhead: a single sequence must be as long as
possible to maximize the number of orthogonal preambles, while still fitting within a single
subframe to keep PRACH overhead small;
2. Compatibility with the maximum expected round-trip delay;
3. Compatibility between PRACH and PUSCH subcarrier spacings;
4. Coverage performance.
Maximum round-trip time.
The lower bound for TSEQ must allow for unambiguous round-trip time estimation for a UE located at
the edge of the largest expected cell (i.e. 100 km radius), including the maximum delay spread
3
8
6
expected in such large cells, namely 16.67 s. Hence TSEQ (200x10 ) / (3x10 )+ 16.67x10 =
683.33 s. For format 3, GT=0.72ms which is sufficient for 103km.
Subcarrier spacing compatibility.
Further constraints on TSEQ are given by SC-FDMA signal generation principle, such that the size of
the DFT and IDFT, NDFT, must be an integer number: NDFT = fs *TSEQ = k, k N, where fs is the
system sampling rate (30.72 MHz=1/Ts). Additionally, it is desirable to minimize the orthogonality loss
in the frequency domain between the preamble subcarriers and the subcarriers of the surrounding
uplink data transmissions. This is achieved if the PUSCH data symbol subcarrier spacing df is an
integer multiple of the PRACH subcarrier spacing dfRA:
dfRA = fs / NDFT = 1/TSEQ = 1/ (k*TSYM) = (1/ k)* df, k N
where TSYM = 66.67 s is the symbol duration. In other words, the preamble duration must be an
integer multiple of UL subframe symbol duration:
TSEQ = kTSYM = k/ df , k N. Here k=12 makes Tseq=12*66.67 = 800s.
The FFT/IFFT components can be reused from SC-FDMA processing for the scheduled data. For
example, an n 2m DFT can be implemented with an FFT of 2m samples combined with a DFT of n
samples, since NDFT = kfsTSYM = kNFFT, k N where NFFT is the FFT size for a PUSCH symbol.
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Coverage performance.
In general a longer sequence gives better coverage, but better coverage requires a longer CP and GT
in order to absorb the corresponding round-trip delay. The required CP and GT lengths for PRACH
format 0, for example, can be estimated from the maximum round-trip delay achievable by a preamble
sequence which can fit into a 1 ms subframe.
Under a noise-limited scenario (low density cell), coverage performance can be estimated from a link
budget calculation. Under the assumption of the Okumura-Hata empirical model of distancedependent path-loss L(r) (where r is the cell radius in km), the PRACH signal power PRA received at
the eNodeB baseband input can be computed as follows:
PRA(r) = Pmax + Ga L(r) LF PL (dB)
Generic Parameters:
Parameter
Value
---------------------Carrier frequency (f )
2000 MHz
Antenna height (hb)
30 m / 60 m
UE antenna height (hm)
1.5 m
UE transmitter EIRPa (Pmax)
24 dBm (250 mW)
eNodeB Receiver Antenna Gain (Ga)
14dBi
Receiver noise figure (Nf)
5.0 dB
Thermal noise density (N0)
174 dBm/Hz
Percentage of area covered by buildings ()
10%
Required Ep/N0 (eNodeB with 2 Rx antenna)
18 dB (six-path Typical Urban
channel model)
Penetration loss (PL)
0dB
Log-normal fade margin (LF)
0 dB
PRACH preamble sequence duration TSEQ is then derived from the required preamble sequence
energy to thermal noise ratio Ep/N0 to meet a target missed detection and false alarm probability, as
follows:
TSEQ = N0Nf * Ep / (PRA(r) N0)
where N0 is the thermal noise power density (in mW/Hz) and Nf is the receiver noise figure (in linear
scale). Assuming that Ep/N0 = 18 dB is required to meet missed detection and false alarm
probabilities of 102 to 103, It is observed that the potential coverage performance of a 1 ms PRACH
preamble is in the region of 14 km. As a consequence, the required CP and GT lengths are
approximately (2 14000)/(3 108) = 93.3 s, so that the upper bound for TSEQ is given by TSEQ
1000 2 93.33 = 813 s.
Therefore, the longest sequence is TSEQ = 800 s, as used for preamble formats 0 and 1.
The resulting PRACH subcarrier spacing is dfRA = 1/TSEQ = 1.25 kHz. The 1600 s preamble
sequence of formats 2 and 3 is implemented by repeating the baseline 800 s preamble sequence.
These formats can provide up to 3 dB link budget improvement, which is useful in large cells and/or to
balance PUSCH/PUCCH and PRACH coverage at low data rates.
CP and GT Duration
Having chosen TSEQ, the CP and GT dimensioning can be specified more precisely. For formats 0
and 2, the CP is dimensioned to maximize the coverage, given a maximum delay spread d: TCP =
(1000 800)/2 + d/2 s, with d 5.2 s (corresponding to the longest normal CP of a PUSCH
symbol). The maximum delay spread is used as a guard period at the end of CP, thus providing
protection against multipath interference even for the cell-edge UEs.
For a cell-edge UE, the delay spread energy at the end of the preamble is replicated at the end of the
CP and is therefore within the observation interval. Consequently, there is no need to include the
maximum delay spread in the GT dimensioning. Hence, instead of locating the sequence in the centre
of the PRACH slot, it is shifted later by half the maximum delay spread, allowing the maximum
Round-Trip Delay (RTD) to be increased by the same amount. The residual delay spread at the end
of the preamble from a cell-edge UE spills over into the next subframe, but this is taken care of by the
CP at the start of the next subframe to avoid any inter-symbol interference.
For formats 1 and 3, the CP is dimensioned to address the maximum cell range in LTE, 100 km, with
a maximum delay spread of d 16.67 s. In practice, format 1 is expected to be used with a 3LTE Physical Layer- 3PCA-L1 Certification
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subframe PRACH slot; the available GT in 2 subframes can only address a 77 km cell range. It was
chosen to use the same CP length for both format 1 and format 3 for implementation simplicity. Of
course, handling larger cell sizes than 100 km with suboptimal
CP dimensioning is still possible and is left to implementation. The CP lengths are designed to be an
integer multiple of the assumed system sampling period for LTE, TS = 1/30.72 s.
PRACH Resource Configurations
The PRACH slots can be configured to occur in up to 64 different layouts, or resource configurations.
Depending on the RACH load, one or more PRACH resources may need to be allocated per PRACH
slot period. The eNB has to process the PRACH very quickly so that message 2 of the RACH
procedure can be sent within the required window. In case of more than one PRACH resource per
PRACH period it is generally preferable to multiplex the PRACH resources in time rather than in
frequency. This helps to avoid processing peaks at the eNodeB.
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The former requirement is guaranteed by choosing a prime-length sequence. For the latter, since data
and preamble OFDM symbols are neither aligned nor have the same durations, strict orthogonality
cannot be achieved. At least, fixing the preamble duration to an integer multiple of the PUSCH symbol
provides some compatibility between preamble and PUSCH subcarriers. However, with the 800 s
duration, the corresponding sequence length would be 864, which does not meet the prime number
requirement. Therefore, shortening the preamble to a prime length slightly increases the interference
between PUSCH and PRACH by slightly decreasing the preamble sampling rate.
The interference from PUSCH to PRACH is further amplified by the fact that the operating Es/N0 of
PUSCH (where Es is the PUSCH symbol energy) is much greater than that of the PRACH (typically as
much as 24 dB greater if we assume 13 dB Es/N0 for 16QAM PUSCH, while the equivalent ratio for
the PRACH would be 11 dB assuming Ep/N0 = 18 dB and adjusting by 10 log10 (864) to account for
the sequence length).
The PRACH uses guard bands to avoid the data interference at preamble edges. A cautious design of
preamble sequence length not only retains a high inherent processing gain, but also allows avoidance
of strong data interference. In addition, the loss of spectral efficiency (by reservation of guard
subcarriers) can also be well controlled at a fine granularity (dfRA = 1.25 kHz).
In the absence of interference, there is no significant performance difference between sequences of
similar prime length. In the presence of interference, it can be seen that reducing the sequence length
below 839 gives no further improvement in detection rate. No effect is observed on the false alarm
rate.
Therefore the sequence length of 839 is selected for LTE PRACH, corresponding to 69.91 PUSCH
subcarriers in each symbol, and offers 72 69.91 = 2.09 PUSCH subcarriers protection, which is very
close to one PUSCH subcarrier protection on each side of the preamble. Note that the preamble is
positioned centrally in the block of 864 available PRACH subcarriers, with 12.5 null subcarriers on
each side.
The location in the frequency domain is controlled by the parameter nRAPRB,expressed as a RB
number configured by higher layers and fulfilling 0 nRAPRB NULRB 6.
Cyclic Shift Dimensioning (NCS) for Normal Cells
Sequences obtained from cyclic shifts of different ZC sequences are not orthogonal. Therefore,
orthogonal sequences obtained by cyclically shifting a single root sequence should be favoured over
non-orthogonal sequences; additional ZC root sequences should be used only when the required
number of sequences (64) cannot be generated by cyclic shifts of a single root sequence. The cyclic
shift dimensioning is therefore very important in the RACH design.
The cyclic shift offset NCS is dimensioned so that the Zero Correlation Zone (ZCZ) of the sequences
guarantees the orthogonality of the PRACH sequences regardless of the delay spread and time
uncertainty of the UEs. The minimum value of NCS should therefore be the smallest integer number of
sequence sample periods that is greater than the maximum delay spread and time uncertainty of an
uplink non-synchronized UE, plus some additional guard samples provisioned for the spill-over of the
pulse shaping filter envelope present in the PRACH receiver.
Larger the cell, the larger the cyclic shift required to generate orthogonal sequences, and
consequently, the larger the number of ZC root sequences necessary to provide the 64 required
preambles. The relationship between cell size and the required number of ZC root sequences allows
for some system optimization. In general, the eNodeB should configure NCS independently in each
cell, because the expected inter-cell interference and load (user density) increases as cell size
decreases; therefore smaller cells need more protection from co-preamble interference than larger
cells.
Some examples may show different scenarios with different numbers of parameters such as:
(Number of cyclic shifts per ZC sequence * Number of ZC sequences) >= 64, Cyclic shift size Ncs, Cell Radius
etc. For each scenario, the total number of sequences is 64, but resulting from different combinations of
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3. Case 3: Two UEs transmit a preamble, and the two preamble sequences are generated from
different root ZC sequences.
It is observed that, when two preambles are transmitted which are cyclic shifts of the same root
sequence (Case 2), the performance does not degrade compared to the case of only one preamble
being transmitted, confirming the ZCZ property of the shifted sequences. By contrast, when the two
preambles are generated from different root sequences (Case 3), a degradation of 0.250.4 dB is
observed at 1% 0.1% missed detection rates.
NCS set design.
Given the sequence length of 839, allowing full flexibility in signalling NCS would lead to broadcasting
a 10-bit parameter, which is over-dimensioning. As a result, in LTE the allowed values of NCS are
quantized to a predefined set of just 16 configurations. The 16 allowed values of NCS were chosen so
that the number of orthogonal preambles is as close as possible to what could be obtained if there
were no restrictions on the value of NCS..It is observed that the performance loss due to the
quantization is negligible.
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wrong cyclic shift windows C1 and C+1 of a cyclicly-shifted ZC sequence overlap none of C0, C1 or
C+1 of other cyclicly-shifted ZC sequences, nor the correct cyclic shift window C0 of the same cycliclyshifted ZC sequence, nor each other. Finally, the restricted set of cyclic shifts is obtained such that
the minimum difference between two cyclic shifts is still NCS but the cyclic shifts are not necessarily
multiples of NCS.
It is interesting to check the speed limit beyond which it is worth considering a cell to be a high-speed
cell. This is done by assessing the performance degradation of the PRACH at the system-level as a
function of the UE speed when no cyclic shift restriction is applied. A preamble detection is
considered to be correct if the timing estimation is within 2 s. A target Ep/N0 of 18 dB is used for the
first preamble transmission, with a power ramping step of 1 dB for subsequent retransmissions. The
cell radius is random between 0.5 and 12 km and a 2 GHz carrier frequency with frequency errors
within 0.05 ppm. The access failure rate is the measure of the number of times a UE unsuccessfully
re-tries access attempts (up to a maximum of three retransmissions), weighted by the total number of
new access attempts.
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Sequences with Smax less than 15 cannot be used by any high-speed cells, but they can be used by
any normal cells which require no more than 24 root sequences from this group for a total of 64
preambles. Ordering of the physical ZC root sequence indices is pairwise, since root sequence
indices u and NZC u have the same CM and Smax values.
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The fact that different PRACH signatures are generated from cyclic shifts of a common root sequence
means that the frequency-domain computation of the PDP of a root sequence provides in one shot
the concatenated PDPs of all signatures derived from the same root sequence. Therefore, the
signature detection process consists of searching, within each ZCZ defined by each cyclic shift, the
PDP peaks above a detection threshold over a search window corresponding to the cell size.
Detection threshold setting.
The target false alarm probability pfa(Tdet) drives the setting of the detection threshold Tdet. Under the
assumption that the L samples in the uncertainty window are uncorrelated Gaussian noise with
variance 2n in the absence of preamble transmission, the complex sample sequence zma ( )
received from antenna a (delayed to reflect a targeted time offset of the search window, and
despread over a coherent accumulation length (in samples) Nca against the reference code
sequence) is a complex Gaussian random variable with variance 2n,ca = Nca2n . The relative
detection threshold can be precomputed and stored.
Noise floor estimation.
In a real system implementation, the number of additions can be made a power of two by repeating
some additions if needed. The initial absolute threshold Tdet_ini is computed using an initial noise floor
estimated by averaging across all search window samples.
Collision detection.
In any cell, the eNodeB can be made aware of the maximum expected delay spread. As a result,
whenever the cell size is more than twice the distance corresponding to the maximum delay spread,
the eNodeB may in some circumstances be able to differentiate the PRACH transmissions of two UEs
if they appear distinctly apart in the PDP. Collision detection is never possible, while the lower PDP
represents a larger cell where it may sometimes be possible to detect two distinct preambles within
the same ZCZ. If an eNodeB detects a collision, it would not send any random access response, and
the colliding UEs would each randomly reselect their signatures and retransmit.
Timing Estimation
The primary role of the PRACH preamble is to enable the eNodeB to estimate a UEs transmission
timing. One can observe that the timing of 95% of UEs can be estimated to within 0.5 s, and more
than 98% within 1 s. No collision detection algorithm is implemented here. The IFFT size is 2048 and
the system sampling rate 7.68 MHz, giving an oversampling rate of 2.44.
Channel Quality Estimation
For each detected signature, the relative frequency-domain channel quality of the transmitting UE can
be estimated from the received preamble. This allows the eNodeB to schedule the L2/L3 message
(message 3) in a frequency-selective manner within the PRACH bandwidth.
The BLER performance of the L2/L3 message of the RACH procedure when frequency-selectively
scheduled or randomly scheduled, assuming a typical 10 ms delay between the PRACH preamble
and the L2/L3 message. A Least Squares (LS) filter is used for the frequency-domain interpolation,
and a single RB is assumed for the size of the L2/L3 message. It can be seen that the performance of
a frequency-selectively scheduled L2/L3 message at 10% BLER can be more than 2 dB better than
blind scheduling at 3 km/h, and 0.5 dB at 10 km/h.
Preamble Format 4
For preamble format 4, a ZC sequence of length 139 is used. The preamble starts 157 s before the
end of the UpPTS field at the UE. Unlike preamble formats 0 to 3, a restricted preamble set for highspeed cells is not necessary for preamble format 4, which uses a 7.5 kHz subcarrier spacing. With a
random access duration of two OFDM symbols (157 s), the preamble format 4 is mainly used for
small cells with a cell radius less than 1.5 km, and where cyclic shift restrictions for high UE velocities
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are not needed. Therefore, considering that Layer 2 always sees 64 preambles and a sequence
length of 139, a smaller set of cyclic shift configurations can be used.
Unlike for preamble formats 0 to 3, the root ZC sequence index for preamble format 4 follows the
natural pairwise ordering of the physical ZC sequences, with no special restrictions related to the CM
or high-speed scenarios.
Cyclic shift configuration for preamble format 4.
NCS NCS value
Required number of ZC root sequences per cell
-------- -------------- -- -------------------------------------------------------------0
2
1
1
4
2
2
6
3
3
8
4
4
10
5
5
12
6
6
15
8
It can be seen how the PRACH preamble addresses the high performance targets of LTE, such as
high user density, very large cells, very high speed, low latency and a plurality of use cases, while
fitting with minimum overhead within the uplink SC-FDMA transmission scheme. Many of these
aspects benefit from the choice of ZC sequences for the PRACH preamble sequences in place of the
pseudo-noise sequences used in earlier systems. The properties of these sequences enable
substantial numbers of orthogonal preambles to be transmitted simultaneously.
Considerable flexibility exists in the selection of the PRACH slot formats and cyclic shifts of the ZC
sequences to enable the LTE PRACH to be dimensioned appropriately for different cell radii and
loadings. Some options for the implementation are available, by which the complexity of the PRACH
transmitter and receiver can be minimized without sacrificing the performance.
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The granularity of 0.52 s, enables an accuracy, well within CP length (smallest CP is 4.7 s) and
also finer than the a cyclic shift of UL RS. It is observed that timing misalignment of up to at least 1 s
does not cause significant degradation in system performance due to increased interference. Thus
granularity of 0.52 s is sufficiently fine.
Timing Advance Updates
After the timing advance has first been set for each UE, it will then need to be updated from time to
time to counteract changes in UL signals timing at eNB. Such changes may arise from:
1. Fast movement of UE, causing propagation delay to change at a rate relative to eNodeB; at
500 km/h, the round-trip propagation delay would change by a maximum of 0.93 s/s.
2. Abrupt changes in propagation delay due to existing propagation paths disappearing and new
ones coming into play; like in dense urban as UEs move around the corners of buildings.
3. Oscillator drift in UE with frequency errors accumulated over time result in timing errors; the
frequency accuracy in UE is required to be better than 0.1 ppm, maximum accumulated
timing error of 0.1 s/s.
4. Doppler shift arising from the movement of the UE, results in an additional frequency offset of
the UL signals. TA to counteract these effects are performed by a closed loop mechanism
whereby eNodeB measures received UL timing and issues TA commands to instruct the UE
to adjust its timing relative to its previous transmission timing.
In deriving the timing advance update commands, the eNodeB may measure any uplink signal which
is useful. This may include SRSs, CQI, ACK/NACK for DL data, or UL data themselves. Highly
accurate timing estimation has to be traded off against UL overhead from such signals. Cell-edge UEs
are power limited and therefore also bandwidth-limited for a given UL SINR;
A TA command received at the UE is applied at the beginning of UL subframe which begins 45 ms
later. For TDD or half-duplex FDD, the new timing would take effect at the start of the first uplink
transmission after this point. In case of increase in TA relative to previous, first part of subframe in
which new timing is applied is skipped.
The TA commands are generated at MAC layer in eNodeB and transmitted to UE as MAC packets
which may be multiplexed with data on PDSCH. Update TA commands have a granularity of 0.52 s.
The range of update commands is 16 s, allowing a step change in timing equivalent to the length of
extended CP. They would typically not be sent more frequently than about 2 Hz, not too frequent.
The eNodeB must balance the overhead of sending regular timing update commands to all the UEs in
the cell. The eNodeB therefore configures a timer for each UE, which UE restarts each time a TA is
received; if UE does not receive another TA before timer expires, it declares uplink to have lost
synchronization. In such a case, UE is not permitted UL transmission without first transmitting a
random access preamble to reinitialize the uplink timing.
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and fine-tune the power setting to suit the channel conditions (including fast fading). Due to
orthogonal nature of UL, power control does not need to operate fater than a few hundred Hertz.
Fastest and most frequent adaptation is by UL scheduling grants, which vary bandwidth (and total Tx
power) and MCS.
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full path-loss compensation is always used. A different base level P0 is also provided for PUCCH
compared to those used for the PUSCH.
Dynamic Offset
The dynamic offset (Per RB) = MCS dependent component + TPC commands.
MCS-dependent component - The MCS-dependent component (dTF,Transport Format) allows
additional transmitted power per RB for that data rate. Normalized data rate as Shannons theorem:
RN = log2(1 + SNR)* 1/k = bits per RE = BPRE and
SNR = Signal-to-Noise Ratio, k= 1.25.
MCS-dependent component is like a power control command, as the MCS is controlled by eNodeB
scheduler. MCS-dependent component can also be like frequency dependent power control when
scheduling a low-rate MCS in a particular part of the band. eNodeB can dictate a low transmission
power in those RBs.
Uplink RBs allocated to a UE in a subframe may not be matched to the desired data rate and SIR.
Enable transmit power to be reduced if data transmitted is less than the rate supported by the radio
channel in a single RB. The MCS-dependent component for the PUSCH can be set to zero if fast
Adaptive Modulation and Coding (AMC) is used instead.
PUCCH bandwidth for a UE does not vary (although it may be ranging from a 1 bit SR/ACK/NACK, to
22 bits combined ACK/NACK and CQI together). Magnitude of power offset for each control can be
adjusted semi-statically by eNodeB to set a suitable error-rate operating point.
UE-specific power control commands. Other dynamic offset is UE-specific TPC commandsaccumulative (for PUSCH, PUCCH and SRS) and absolute (for PUSCH only). For PUSCH, switch
between these two modes is done by RRC for each UE.
1. Accumulative - each TPC signals a power step relative to previous level. This is default and
is suited when successive subframes received as closed loop. In LTE, two sets of power step
values are provided: either {1, +1} dB or {1, 0, +1, +3} dB configured by TPC command and
RRC configuration. Maximum power step size= +3/1 dB, adjustable upto maximum and
minimum power limits according to the UE power class. A 0 dB step size means transmit
power to be kept constant if needed.
2. Absolute - TPC command is independent of sequence of TPC commands received
previously; depends only on the most recently-received absolute TPC command, a power
offset relative to the semi-static operating point. Absolute TPC commands offset set is {4,
1, +1, +4} dB.
The absolute power control mode can only control power within 4 dB from operating point, but a
relatively power step can be triggered by a single command (up to 8 dB), suited to scenarios of
intermittent transmission. Absolute TPC command adjusts to a suitable level in a single step.
Total Transmit Power Setting
Finally, for PUSCH and SRS, total transmit power in each subframe is scaled up linearly according to
RBs scheduled from UE in the subframe. Thus the overall power control equation is as follows:
UE Tx power = P0 + *PL(basic open-loop operating point)
+ dTF + f (dTPC)(dynamic offset)
+ 10 log10 M (bandwidth factor)
where dTPC TPC command, f () accumulation and M =# RBs.
This overall power control formula allows UEs transmit power is allowed to be, typically 50 dBm to
+23 dBm (0.2 W).
Transmission of TPC Commands
TPC commands are sent to UE in PDCCH messages. UE is required to check for TPC command in
every subframe unless DRX is configured. However, TPC commands are not necessarily periodic.
TPC commands may be transmitted in UL scheduling assignment messages for each UE, resulting in
information for an uplink transmission (RB, MCS, and power) in a single message.
Individual accumulative TPC commands for multiple UEs can be jointly coded into a special PDCCH
message Formats 3 and 3A; furthermore, for PUCCH only, TPC commands can be sent in DL
assignment messages on PDCCH. These methods track changes in channel conditions even when
UE is not scheduled for UL, and works as alternative to absolute TPC. No jointly-coded TPC allowed
on PDCCH in absolute power control mode.
LTE Physical Layer- 3PCA-L1 Certification
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PDCCH signalling with TPC commands are protected by a CRC and are reliable. The eNodeB may
use many techniques to determine transmit power. One method will be received SIR measurements
of SRS and UL RSs and BLER of uplink data. Also take into account interference coordination with
neighbouring cells, overload indicator (interference from a UE is causing a problem).
Alpha(j) = {0, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9 or 1}, 3bit factor for path loss
PL = DLPathLoss calculated by UE in dB = Ref Sig
(PathLossReferenceLinking)
Pwr
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BPRE.Ks
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2.6. Miscellaneous
2.6.1 Evaluation LTE Physical Layer Questions
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