Chemical Engineering and Processing 37 (1998) 433 437

A general model for the viscosity of waxy oils

Saeed M. Al-Zahrani *, Tariq F. Al-Fariss
Chemical Engineering Department, King Saud Uni6ersity, PO Box 800, Riyadh 11421, Saudi Arabia
Received 18 March 1998; accepted 26 May 1998

Abstract
A generalized viscosity model suitable for describing the non-Newtonian behaviour of waxy crudes has been developed. The
model, which has the following expression predicts the viscosity as a function of shear rate, temperature, and wax concentration:
A1 n
(1/n) (C/T + D W)
m = Bg1 [(g +
e
A 1 ) 1]

where m is the viscosity, g is the shear rate, T is the temperature, and W is the percentage of wax. The viscosity measurements
were performed by measuring the rheological properties of the waxy oil at four different concentrations and five different
temperatures. A reduced form of the model may be used to predict the viscosity of Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids with
or without yield stress. The proposed model was found to fit the experimental data well as demonstrated by a high coefficient of
correlation (97.5%). The nonlinear regression analysis was used to determine the model parameters A, B, C, and n. 1998
Elsevier Science S.A. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Viscosity model; Waxy oil; Non-Newtonian fluids

1. Introduction and literature review

Fluid behaviour is classified according to the observed
behaviour between the shear stress and shear rate into
two main types. Newtonian fluids are defined as those
exhibiting a direct proportionality between shear stress
and shear rate while for the non-Newtonian fluids, the
relation between the shear stress and the shear rate is non
linear [1,2]. Pseudoplastic fluids are often shear thinning
fluids because their apparent viscosity decreases with an
increase in the shear rate. Increased shearing breaks down
the internal structure within the fluid very rapidly and
reversibly and no time dependence is manifested [3]. Examples of fluids that exhibits shear thinning are oils, polymer melts and solutions such as rubbers, cellulose acetate
and napalm; suspensions such as paints, paper pulp, and
detergent slurries and dilute suspensions of inert solids.
Several studies have been conducted on the rheological
properties of different kinds of crude oils [4 9]. Most of
these studies have reported the existence of non-Newtonian behaviour for certain crudes. Bary [4] has reported
that many waxy crude oils of North Africa behave as
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +966 1 4676873; fax: + 966 1
4678770; e-mail: szahrani@ksu.edu.sa

non-Newtonian fluids at lower temperature and as Newtonian fluids at higher temperature. Cooper et al. [5]
reported that Canadian gelling-type crude oil exhibits
yield stress and non-Newtonian behaviour upon continued shearing.
Aranha [6] reported that the Indian crude oil with wax
content of 16% shows a yield stress of 43 dyne cm 2 at
temperature of 30C. Irani et al. [7] tested the African
waxy crude oils in Zaire (20 wt.% wax) and Cabinda (13.4
wt.%) and observed that these crudes behaved as nonNewtonian fluids. Rojas [8] reported that the Venezuela
crude oil exhibits non-Newtonian behaviour. Al-Fariss
[9] investigated the rheological behaviour of Saudi crude
oil which also shows a non-Newtonian behaviour. The
residual fuel oils show non-Newtonian behaviour below
certain temperatures due to their wax content. The wax
content and API gravity of different Saudi crude oil is
listed in Table 1 [10]. Also the characterization for Riyadh
refinery base oil which was used in this work is listed in
Table 2 [11].
The rheological behaviour of waxy oils is considered
to be a crucial parameter in the design of a pipeline, and
fuel cracking units. This behaviour was found to be
sensitive to wax concentration, shear rate, and
temperature.

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S.M. Al-Zahrani, T.F. Al-Fariss / Chemical Engineering and Processing 37 (1998) 433437

434

Table 1
Wax content and API gravity of different Saudi crude oils

Table 3
Predicted parameters for the waxy oil

Field

Wax content (wt.%)

API gravity

A (s1)

B (Pa)

C (K)

D (wt.%)1

Berri
Zulfa
Safaniya
Marjan

2.5
2.1
1.9
1.8

36.5
33.5
26.8
40.6

8.9041104

2.6288107

6720.71

6.75102

1.353

2. Experiment
The waxy oils were prepared by adding paraffin wax
to a definite amount of Saudi base oil. The mixture is
then heated for 2 h until a homogenous mixture was
achieved. Four different samples were prepared with
four different wax concentrations (namely, 2, 4, 6 and
8% by weight). These concentrations being selected
because they have the same level of wax concentration
as that of the Saudi oil.
A HAKKE (Rotovisco model RV-12) rotational-type
viscometer was used to measure the viscosity. The
viscosity was measured at six different temperatures
(i.e. 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, and 24C). These temperatures
were selected because the pipelines which carry the
Saudi crude oil working in this range of temperature
during the winter time. Each experiment was performed
five times; thus each figure point represents a mean of
five experiments. Prior to each run the temperature was
raised to 40C; then the mixture was allowed to cool to
the desired temperature, so that the homogeneity of the
mixture was assured.

3. Modelling analysis
Al-Zahrani [12] reported the following generalized
model which relates the shear stress to the shear rate
for shear thinning fluids.
A n
(1/n)
t =B [(g +
A ) 1]

(1)

This model describes the Newtonian behaviour with or

without yield stress when n =1. It also describes the
behaviour of the hyperbolic fluid when n= 2. This is in

agreement with the model reported previously by Bailey

[13] for the hyperbolic case. More details regarding this
model can be found elsewhere [12].
Based on this model, the viscosity may have the
following form:
A1 n
(1/n)
m= Bg1 [(g +
A 1 ) 1]

(2)

where A, B, and n are shear stress-shear rate model

parameters. Their mathematical expressions can be
found elsewhere [12].
The effect of temperature on viscosity has been investigated by keeping both, the wax concentration and the
shear rate, constant. It was found experimentally that
as the temperature decreases, shear stress increases
meaning that the viscosity increased with decreasing the
temperatures. It was also observed experimentally that
the viscosity dropped more quickly with decreasing
shear rate at low shear rate and temperatures than at
higher shear rates and higher temperatures. These findings indicate that the viscosity depends on the temperature exponentially and may have the following form:
m a e C/T

(3)

where C is a constant and T is the temperature (K).

Combining the effect of temperature (Eq. (3)) and the
effect of the shear rate (Eq. (1)) gives the following
form:
A n
(1/n) C/T
m= Bg1 [(g +
e
A ) 1]

(4)

In this work the effect of the wax concentration on

the viscosity of the waxy oil has been investigated by
keeping both the shear rate and the temperature, constant. It was found that the viscosity varies exponentially with the wax concentration as follows:
m a eD W

(5)

Table 2
Properties of Saudi crude oil
Properties

Values

Properties

Values

Molecular weight
API gravity (API)
Average boiling point (C)
Aniline point (C)
Latent heat of combustion (kJ/kg)
Salt content as NaCl per 1000 bbl crude

447
28
455
213
453.9
4

Ash (ppm)

110

Pour point (C)

Hydrogen sulfide
Sulfur (wt.%)
Carbon residues (wt.%)
Vanadium (ppm)
Nickel (ppm)
Iron (ppm)
Nitrogen (wt.%)

(23.3)
Nil
2.79
6.75
67.9
16.7
1.0
0.168

S.M. Al-Zahrani, T.F. Al-Fariss / Chemical Engineering and Processing 37 (1998) 433437

Fig. 1. Viscosity versus shear rate for 4 wt.% wax on base oil (The
solid line represents the calculated viscosity by the model while the
symbols represent the experimental data).

where D is a constant and W is the wax concentration

(wt.%).
Since the generalized model reported by Al-Zahranai
[12] is able to model the non-Newtonian fluids as
proved previously at a single temperature and wax
concentration, then by combining the effects of the
shear rate, temperature and wax concentration, one
ends up with the following expression for the viscosity

Fig. 2. Viscosity versus shear rate for 8 wt.% wax on base oil (The
solid line represents the calculated viscosity by the model while the
symbols represent the experimental data).

435

Fig. 3. Viscosity versus shear rate at different wax concentration at

T= 9C. (Viscosity versus shear rate for 2 wt.% wax on base oil (The
solid line represents the calculated viscosity by the model while the
symbols represent the experimental data).

of the waxy oil:

A n
(1/n) (C/T + D W)
m = Bg [(g +
e
A ) 1]

(6)

where A, B, C, D and n are the model parameters.

These parameters can be determined by least square
nonlinear regression analysis on 240 sets of data. The

Fig. 4. Viscosity versus shear rate at different wax concentration at

T= 15C. Viscosity versus shear rate for 2 wt.% wax on base oil.
(The solid line represents the calculated viscosity by the model while
the symbols represent the experimental data).

S.M. Al-Zahrani, T.F. Al-Fariss / Chemical Engineering and Processing 37 (1998) 433437

436

where mexp is the experimental data of oil viscosity, mpred

is the oil viscosity predicted by the proposed model
with the parameters obtained, mavg is the arithmetic
mean value of 240 viscosity data.
This viscosity expression includes the effect of the
shear rate, the wax concentration and the temperature.
It also has the nature of the power law type of the shear
rate which gives the flexibility to the model to accommodate the Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids with
or without yield stress.

4. Results and discussions

Fig. 5. Viscosity versus shear rate at different wax concentration at

T =24C. Viscosity versus shear rate for 2 wt.% wax on base oil (The
solid line represents the calculated viscosity by the model while the
symbols represent the experimental data).

reliability of the proposed model with the parameters

obtained was evaluated by the coefficient of correlation
R:
exp mpred]
r = %[m
%[mexp mavg]2

R =
r 1

For a total of 240 data points covering a wide range

of temperature, shear rate and wax concentration, the
viscosity was predicted via Eq. (6). The values of viscosity parameters were determined using nonlinear regression analysis and are listed in Table 3. The coefficient
of correlation R for the 240 data sets of data was
calculated to be 97.5%.
Figs. 1 and 2 illustrate the variation of the viscosity
over a wide range of shear rate at six different values of
temperature. The proposed viscosity model predicts the
viscosity quite well as shown in these figures. The solid
lines in the figures represent the predicted viscosity
while the symbols represent the experimental viscosity
values. These figures show that as the temperature
increases the viscosity decreases. It is also clear that the
rheological behaviour of waxy oils at high temperature
simulate a linear relationship (Newtonian fluids) which
indicates that the shear rate has less effect on viscosity
and the viscosity depends heavily on the temperature.
While at lower temperatures the shear rate has a larger
effect on viscosity of waxy oils which clearly simulate
the non-Newtonian behaviour.
Figs. 35 show the effect of the wax concentration
on the viscosity at temperatures of 9, 15 and 24C
respectively. This set of figures illustrate that the viscosity increases with increasing the wax concentration and
the viscosity is sensitive to the lower values of the shear
rate.
Fig. 6 illustrates a comparison between the predicted
and experimental viscosities of the waxy oil for 240
data points. It is clear that the model predicts the
viscosity quite well. Most of the data points are bound
within the 95% confidence interval as shown in the
figure. The average percentage of error i.e.
% error=(mexpmexpmpred) 100

Fig. 6. The calculated viscosity versus the experimental viscosity for

waxy oil system.

was found to be 2.5%.

This study is of great importance and application to
the oil industry in Saudi Arabia, particularly for the
design of the piping system handling crude oils during
the winter times and for the petrochemical industries in
the country where different non-Newtonian polymers
are under usage.

S.M. Al-Zahrani, T.F. Al-Fariss / Chemical Engineering and Processing 37 (1998) 433437

5. Conclusions
The proposed viscosity model predicts very well the
viscosity of the waxy oils tested. It has the advantages
of describing the dependence of the shear rate, temperature, the wax concentration and the flexibility of accommodating the Newtonian and non-Newtonian
fluids with or without yield stress. The proposed viscosity model provides an excellent rheological fit with an
average error of 2.5% in the range of shear rate investigated and therefore can be assumed to describe the
steady state behaviour of the waxy oils. It is quite clear
from the reported figures and analysis in this work that
the proposed viscosity model may describe the rheological behaviour of many waxy oils or polymer melts and
solutions. Therefore, this viscosity model can be used
safely in the design of piping system to handle the crude
oils in petrochemical industries in general and specifically in Saudi Arabia oil industries.

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