Centrifugal Compressors

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
Centrifugal Compressors
Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramcos
employees. Any material contained in this document which is not
already in the public domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given,
or disclosed to third parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part,
without the written permission of the Vice President, Engineering
Services, Saudi Aramco.
Chapter : Process
File Reference: CHE10203
For additional information on this subject, contact

R. A. Al-Husseini on 874-2792
Process
CONTENTS
PAGE
COMPONENTS AND FUNCTIONS ......................................................................................................... 1

THERMODYNAMIC EQUATIONS FOR GAS COMPRESSION ............................................................ 4
Head Calculation .................................................................................................................................... 5
Centrifugal Compressors Are Polytropic ................................................................................................ 8
POLYTROPIC EFFICIENCY..................................................................................................................... 9
Compressor Discharge Temperature....................................................................................................... 9
Power Requirements............................................................................................................................. 10
MOLLIER DIAGRAM METHOD ........................................................................................................... 11
CASING ARRANGEMENTS................................................................................................................... 13
Intercooling .......................................................................................................................................... 13
Sidestreams........................................................................................................................................... 14
PERFORMANCE CURVES..................................................................................................................... 15
ACTUAL VOLUME.................................................................................................................................18
FAN LAWS .............................................................................................................................................. 19
SURGE ..................................................................................................................................................... 20
EFFECTS OF SURGE .............................................................................................................................. 20
STONEWALL .......................................................................................................................................... 20
EFFICIENCY OF AN OPERATING MACHINE..................................................................................... 21
Procedures ............................................................................................................................................ 21
Method A - Driver Output vs. Compressor Input............................................................................. 21
Method B - Temperature Rise .......................................................................................................... 22
Tracking Changes in Efficiency ....................................................................................................... 23
Method C - Mollier .......................................................................................................................... 23
Method D - Computer Program COMPRESS .................................................................................. 25
CONTROL SCHEMES FOR CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS ........................................................... 26
Variable Speed...................................................................................................................................... 26
Suction Throttling.................................................................................................................................28
Discharge Throttling............................................................................................................................. 29
Antisurge Control .................................................................................................................................30
Antisurge Controls for Air Compressors .............................................................................................. 31
Combined Controls............................................................................................................................... 32
COMMON PROCESS PROBLEMS WITH CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS .................................... 34
WORK AID 1: CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR - CALCULATION FORM ....................................... 35
WORK AID 2: CALCULATION FORM - MOLLIER METHOD ........................................................... 37
Process
WORK AID 3: COMMON OPERATING PROBLEMS FOR CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS ........ 40

GLOSSARY.............................................................................................................................................. 41
REFERENCES.......................................................................................................................................... 44
Process
COMPONENTS AND FUNCTIONS

Figure 1 shows the basic components of a centrifugal compressor. Impellers are mounted on a horizontal
shaft. They are the primary rotating elements that impart velocity to the gas. Impellers are also called wheels.
Diffusers are stationary elements mounted in the compressor casing. There is one diffuser downstream of each
impeller. The diffuser converts velocity to pressure. Each diffuser is contained in a removable section of the
casing called a diaphragm. Each diaphragm also has a passage that directs the gas to the suction of the next
impeller. Each impeller and diffuser assembly is a stage of compression.
The shaft is supported at both ends by journal bearings. These are normally tilt-pad type bearings. Another
bearing mounted on the shaft is a thrust bearing. The thrust bearing absorbs the axial or horizontal force
generated by unequal pressures on the impellers. A balance piston mounted on the shaft neutralizes as much
thrust as possible. This neutralization is accomplished by connecting a high-pressure zone to one side of the
piston and a low- pressure zone to the other side of the piston. The residual thrust is absorbed by the thrust
bearing on the end of the shaft. This value changes as a function of compressor differential pressure
(Discharge-Suction).
Case seals are located at each place where a shaft enters the casing. Normally there are two seals for each
casing. These seals usually contain pressurized oil to prevent the leakage of any gas from the inside of the
compressor to the atmosphere. However, gas seals can also be used. These seals direct small amounts of
leakage gas to flare (1 SCFM or less).
Internally, labyrinth seals minimize recirculation of gas from high-pressure zones to lower pressure zones.
The casing of a centrifugal compressor is divided, or split, into halves that are held together by bolts. See
Figure 2. This division permits access to the internal parts without disconnecting the suction or discharge
piping if the nozzles are mounted on the lower half of the casing. The casing may be split horizontally into an
upper and lower half or it may be split vertically so that one end of the compressor is removable. The vertical
split is called a barrel compressor.
Process
COMPONENTS AND FUNCTIONS (CONTD)
Radial Bearing
Diaphragm
Casing
Thrust Bearing
Impeller
Seal Ring
Shaft
Suction
With Permission from Mitsui Engineering
Discharge
FIGURE 1. BASIC COMPONENTS - CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR
Process
COMPONENTS AND FUNCTIONS (CONTD)
Paste Figure
Horizontally Split Case

- vs Vertically Split Case
FIGURE 2. CASING DESIGNS FOR A CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR
Process
THERMODYNAMIC EQUATIONS FOR GAS COMPRESSION

Gas compression can take place in one of three separate paths. See Figure 3. The first such mode is
isothermal compression, compression taking place at constant temperature.
Actual Compression Path
Exp = I (Isothermal)
Exp = k (Isentropic)
Exp = n > k (Polytropic)
P
P
V1
V
FIGURE 3. COMPRESSION PATHS
Isothermal compression is not common in actual machinery because large amounts of heat transfer area must be
supplied to keep the temperature constant. However, one can see that if the temperature were maintained
constant, then pressure times volume would be a constant value at all points along the compression path.
PV = Constant (Isothermal Compression)
A second compression path is isentropic. This path is sometimes also called adiabatic, but its proper name is
isentropic. As the name isentropic implies, this compression follows a path of constant entropy. It is, therefore,
an ideal thermodynamic process. In this case, temperature is not constant. It increases as the pressure increases
because of the work of compression which is added to the gas. The shape of the curve shown in Figure 3 is
determined by the relationship:
PVk = Constant (Isentropic Compression)
Process
THERMODYNAMIC EQUATIONS FOR GAS COMPRESSION (CONT'D)

The exponent k is equal to Cp/Cv, a common thermodynamic property of gases.
Cp is the heat capacity of the gas at constant pressure and C v is the heat capacity of the gas at constant volume.
Figure 3 shows that the isentropic path results in a larger volume as compression proceeds, compared to the
isothermal path. This is because the rise in temperature causes an increase in volume. Therefore, the exponent
k is always larger than 1.
Polytropic compression is the compression path that occurs in a real centrifugal compressor. Centrifugal
compression is not an ideal thermodynamic process. The inefficiency of the compression process results in
excess heat input to the gas. Therefore, temperature rises faster than it does in isentropic compression. The
volume at the end of compression is again higher than it was at the end of an isentropic path, due to the
increased temperature of the gas.
Polytropic compression follows a path described by:
PVn = constant
The exponent n is always larger than the isentropic exponent k.
The actual compression path is the path plotted by P 1T1, P2T2. The actual work can be expressed by:
Actual Work = Isothermal Work = Isentropic Work = Polytropic Work
Isothermal Eff.
Isentropic Eff.
Polytropic Eff.
Head Calculation
The primary variable to be calculated for a compression service is the work or power requirement of the
compressor. The equation for work is developed from three fundamental thermodynamic relationships.
For isentropic compression:
PVk = Constant
PV = ZRT
P
Work = 2 VdP
P1
Process
Head Calculation (Cont'd)

If the proper substitution and integration are performed, the resulting equation for each stage of compression is:
k 1
Z1RT1 P2 k
Work =
1
(k 1) P
1
MW
k
Eqn. (1)
where:
Z1
R
T1
MW
P1
P2
k
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
Compressibility factor, at suction

Gas constant, 1545 ft-lb/lb mol -F
Suction temperature, R
Gas molecular weight
Suction absolute pressure
Discharge absolute pressure
Cp/Cv, average
The units of work in this equation are foot-pounds (force) per pound (mass). These units are commonly
simplified. The pound terms are implied and the resulting unit is feet. This work term is then called head.
Head is energy, even though the common units for it are feet. Head is work per unit of mass. It is the work,
or energy, needed to lift a unit of mass to a height which is equivalent to the head.
The head developed by a centrifugal compressor is analogous to the head developed by a pump. It can be
compared to a column of fluid at the discharge of the compressor. Refer to Figure 4. Visualize a column of gas
with the discharge pressure P2 at the bottom and the suction pressure P1 at the top. The height of this column
corresponds to the head required to generate this differential pressure. The following relationship applies,
which is the same as for pump head.
Head =
P(2.31)
S.G. relative to water
Eqn. (2)
where:
S.G.
Specific gravity
Process
Head Calculation (Cont'd)

The temperature and specific gravity vary along the height of the theoretical column, matching the temperatures
along the compression path from suction to discharge. This is the reason why polytropic head is greater than
isentropic head for the same terminal pressures. Since temperatures are higher during polytropic compression,
specific gravities are lower and a higher column is required to achieve the same differential pressure.
Note:
Head is Analogous to Pump Head

- Column of Fluid at Discharge
Temperatures along the theoretical column are those which occur during compression. Temperatures are higher
during polytropic compression, therefore Polytropic Head > Isentropic Head.
FIGURE 4. COMPRESSOR HEAD
Process
Centrifugal Compressors Are Polytropic

Centrifugal compressors operate in a polytropic manner. The work input is greater than the ideal amount. The
temperature rise occurs at a faster rate than it does during isentropic compression. This is accounted for
mathematically by substituting the polytropic exponent n for the isentropic exponent k. The following equation
results:
n1
Z1RT1
P2 n
Head =
(n 1) P 1
1
MW
Eqn. (3)
A fixed relationship exists between n and k as shown in the following equation:
k1
n 1
k
=
n
Polytropic Efficiency
Process
POLYTROPIC EFFICIENCY
Polytropic efficiency is a characteristic of each compressor. Polytropic efficiency is equal to reversible work
divided by total work applied to the gas. Reversible work and total work are different because of the friction
losses caused by the gas passing through the impellers and the diffusers at high velocity. For a centrifugal
compressor, the polytropic efficiency is between 60% and 85%.
Polytropic efficiency is shown on the manufacturer's performance curve. It varies with volume flow rate and
compressor speed. The manufacturer's curve is the best place to find the polytropic efficiency to make
calculations. If this is not possible, a reasonable approximation can be made using the following formula.
Polytropic Efficiency = 0.0109 ln(ACFM) + 0.643
Eqn. (4)
where:
ACFM
Actual cubic feet per minute at suction condition
Note that Eqn. (4) will give the efficiency at the machine's Best Efficiency Point (BEP). At speeds and flow
rates above or below BEP, the efficiency will be lower.
Compressor Discharge Temperature

The discharge temperature of a centrifugal compressor can be estimated using the following equation.
n1
P2 n
T 2 = T1
P1
Eqn. (5)
where:
T1
T2
=
=
Suction Temperature, R
Discharge Temperature, R
This calculation of discharge temperature is approximate unless the compressibility factor is 1.0, because gas
compressibility has an effect on temperature rise. If the compressibility is less than 1.0, the temperature
calculated will be lower than the actual temperature.
Process
Power Requirements
The energy that is imparted to the gas is called gas horsepower. Head is energy per unit of mass flow
assuming 100% efficiency. Horsepower is obtained by multiplying head times the weight flow and dividing by
efficiency to obtain the actual energy imparted to the gas. The proper conversion factor must also be included.
lbM
min
Poly.
Eff.
(33,000)
Gas Horsepower (ghp) =
(Hpoly )
Eqn. (6)
where:
Hpoly
Poly Eff.
lbMASS
min
33,000
FT LBF
LBH
=
=
Polytropic Head
Polytropic Efficiency, decimal fraction
Gas flow rate, pounds per minute
FT LBF
Conversion Factor HORSEPOWER MIN.
Brake horsepower is the total horsepower required at the shaft of the compressor. This is equal to gas
horsepower plus mechanical losses. Mechanical losses are caused by friction between the rotating surfaces. To
estimate mechanical losses see GPSA Engineering Data Book Figure 13-38. To estimate total mechanical
losses, add bearing friction losses to oil seal friction losses.
Work Aid 1 is a calculation form to facilitate the calculation of head, discharge temperature, and brake
horsepower.
10
Process
MOLLIER DIAGRAM METHOD

Mollier diagrams are another way to calculate head and horsepower. Mollier diagrams show thermodynamic
properties with various quantities, such as temperature and pressure constants, especially in terms of entropy
and enthalpy as coordinates. This method is useful only for pure gases. Mollier diagrams are published for all
of the common gases. The procedure for calculating head and horsepower using Mollier diagrams is as
follows:
1.
Locate the suction temperature and pressure on the Mollier diagram. At this point, read the initial gas
enthalpy, h, in Btu/lb.
2.
Follow a constant entropy line on the diagram to the discharge pressure. At the discharge pressure, read
the enthalpy h2. This will be the isentropic enthalpy.
3.
Calculate the isentropic head.
His = (h2 h1)
BTU
FT LBF
x 778
LBM
BTU
Eqn. (7)
4.
Obtain the polytropic efficiency from the manufacturer's data.
5.
Because Mollier diagrams are based on isentropic calculations, it is necessary to convert the polytropic
efficiency to an isentropic efficiency. Use GPSA Figure 13-37 for this purpose.
6.
Calculate the gas horsepower.

His (lb/min.)
ghp = _________________
Is. Eff. (33,000)
Eqn. (8)
Is. Eff. = Isentropic efficiency, decimal fraction.

7.
Calculate brake horsepower (bhp) by adding mechanical losses.
8.
To calculate the discharge temperature, first calculate the actual enthalpy at discharge conditions.
h2 actual = (h2 -h1 )is + h1
______________
Is. eff.
9.
Eqn. (9)
Read the actual discharge temperature from the Mollier diagram at actual discharge enthalpy and the
discharge pressure.
11
Process
MOLLIER DIAGRAM METHOD (CONT'D)

Figure 5 illustrates this calculation method, using a pressure-enthalpy diagram available in the GPSA
Engineering Data Book, Section 24.
P = 20 psia
T = 100F
P = 100 psia
Isentropic Efficiency = 0.68
1000
psia
h actual
is
= h
= 133
____is ____ = 196 Btu/lb
Is Eff.
0.68
= (h - h ) = 133 Btu/lb
2
.0
V=5 0
6.
6
2.7
0
2.8
S=
T 2=425
100 psia
15.0
T=500
460
480
440
420
380
T=400
320
340
360
280
T=300
260
220
240
120
140
160
180
T=200
20
40
60
T=100
80
T=0
V=20.0
10 psia
-1540 -1510 -1480 -1450 -1420 -1390 -1360 -1330 -1300 -1270 -1240
Enthalpy, Btu/lb
Methane
FIGURE 5. MOLLIER METHOD - EXAMPLE
12
Process
CASING ARRANGEMENTS
Intercooling
Frequently, a compressor service requires two or more casings. The gas is cooled in between casings. The
reasons for intercooling can be any of the following:
To avoid exceeding a maximum temperature limit set by the mechanical parts or by the seal oil.
To reduce power requirements.
The additional casings are necessary because many impellers are required. Intercooling is then
convenient.
For calculations, each casing is treated as a separate compressor. Each casing is often referred to as a stage.
This stage is a process stage and should not be confused with the impeller/diffuser assembly discussed earlier.
See Figure 6.
FIGURE 6. CASING ARRANGEMENTS - INTERCOOLERS
13
Process
Sidestreams
Sometimes additional gas is added to a compressor casing between wheels (impellers). This is common
practice with refrigeration compressors, where some gas is available at higher pressure. This gas is called a
sidestream. Sidestreams may also be taken out before discharge pressure is reached.
These sidestreams divide the compressor into sections. Each section must be calculated as a separate
compressor and has its own performance curve. See Figure 7.
FIGURE 7. CASING ARRANGEMENTS - SIDESTREAMS
14
Process
PERFORMANCE CURVES
Figure 8 shows a generalized performance curve. Performance curves contain the following information:
Head versus flow characteristic at several speeds

Horsepower versus flow rate and speed
The surge limit
Manufacturers plot performance curves in several ways. The x axis may show actual cubic feet per minute or
volume flow at standard conditions. The y axis may show polytropic head, pressure ratio for a particular gas, or
discharge pressure for a particular gas and a particular suction pressure. The most useful parameters on a
performance curve are head and efficiency vs. actual flow since they are relatively unaffected by gas
composition or inlet temperature changes.
Figure 9 shows a typical manufacturer's performance curve for a specific compressor.
Remember that the compressor always produces the same polytropic head at a given speed and actual volume
flow.* If the gas composition or the suction temperature changes, then the pressure ratio and the discharge
pressure will change. If the molecular weight of the gas increases, the pressure ratio will increase. The
horsepower required will also increase.
The polytropic efficiency for a machine is also constant at a given actual volume flow rate and speed.
Manufacturer's performance curves are used for the following purposes.
To determine whether a particular operation will be within the limits of the machine. The curve
will tell you if an operating condition such as flow, gas composition, suction pressure or discharge
pressure is feasible.
To determine the correct speed for a set of process conditions such as suction ACFM and head.
To determine the brake horsepower required for an operation, so that you can see if the driver will
have enough power.
To compare actual operating head and efficiency with the predicted values. This determines
whether the machine is performing normally or whether it needs maintenance.
This assumption is valid for gas density changes of 20%. Greater changes affect the head produced. In
these instances, a new performance must be supplied by the original equipment manufacturer (OEM).
15
Process
PERFORMANCE CURVES (CONTD)
Paste VG 18
FIGURE 8. GENERALIZED PERFORMANCE CURVE
16
Process
PERFORMANCE CURVES (CONTD)
Paste VG 21
With Permission from Exxon Company, U.S.A.
FIGURE 9. TYPICAL MANUFACTURER'S PERFORMANCE CURVE HEAD AND EFFICIENCY
17
Process
ACTUAL VOLUME
Manufacturer's curves and the machine's performance are based on actual volume flow at the suction of the
compressor. The units are actual cubic feet per minute. Process data is given in standard cubic feet per minute.
To convert from standard cubic feet per minute to actual cubic feet per minute, use the following equation:
ACFM = SCFM x 14.7 x T1 x Z

P1 520
Eqn. (10)
where:
SCFM
Standard cubic feet per minute (60F, 1 Atm)

SCFM = lb mol x 379
minute
SCFM =
P1
T1
Z
=
=
=
lb/hr x 379
60(MW)
Suction pressure, psia

Suction temperature, R
Compressibility factor, at suction conditions. Z is calculated using GPSA Figures
23-3 or 23-8 to 23-10.
18
Process
FAN LAWS
Fan laws for centrifugal compressors are similar to those for centrifugal pumps. The equations show the
relationship between volume flow rate, head, horsepower, and compressor speed. They can be used to predict
performance at one speed if the performance at another speed is already known. The equations are as follows:
N
Q 2 = Q1 2
N1
N
H2 = H1 2
N
Eqn. (11)
N
bhp2 = bhp1 2
N1
Eqn. (12)
3
Eqn. (13)
where:
Q
H
bhp
N
=
=
=
=
Suction flow, actual

Polytropic head
Brake horsepower
Speed, rpm
These relationships are used to draw head and horsepower curves at speed N 2, if the curve at speed N1 is
known. Start with any point on the head curve at speed N 1. Calculate both H2 and Q2 by Eqns. (11) and (12).
This gives an equivalent operating point on the curve for speed N2. A series of these points defines the curve
for N2. Similarly, for the horsepower curve, calculate bhp 2 and Q2 to obtain equivalent operating points.
Similar relationships exist for impellers of different diameters. However, compressor impeller diameters are
very seldom changed in the field. Speed changes are much more common for compressors.
It should be noted that the fan laws are reasonable approximations and do not include the effects of gas density
and multistage compressor performance. They can be used for estimating purposes only.
19
Process
SURGE
One important characteristic of a centrifugal compressor is its surge point. Surge is a condition at which flow
through the compressor becomes unstable. This condition must be avoided to prevent damage to the machine.
Surge occurs as follows: As the system resistance increases, a centrifugal compressor reacts by backing up on
its curve. That is, the flow decreases so that the head produced can rise to match the system demand. When the
highest point on the compressor curve is reached, the compressor cannot increase the discharge pressure further.
At this point, the system discharge pressure is higher than the maximum possible discharge pressure of the
compressor. The flow in the impellers becomes unstable and reverses, causing the discharge pressure to
collapse. After a few seconds forward flow resumes. The discharge pressure rises again and the cycle repeats
every few seconds.
Surge occurs at a predictable flow rate. This flow rate is shown on the manufacturer's curve. In practice,
controls are provided to keep the actual flow rate above this minimum value.
EFFECTS OF SURGE
It is normal practice to take careful precautions to prevent surge. Surge disrupts the process and it can damage
the compressor. As a result of the reversing flow, the direction of shaft thrust reverses. The temperature rises
because the gas is internally recycled and recompressed. Compressor vibration and speed fluctuations are quite
common. The reversing axial motion, high temperatures, and fluctuating pressure can also damage the
compressor seals. In a severe case, failure of the seal or the thrust bearing, or even the impellers, can occur.
External piping can also be damaged. A check valve is normally installed at the discharge of a centrifugal
compressor. During surge, this check valve can slam shut many times. This causes loud noise, pipe vibrations,
and possible leaks at piping flanges.
STONEWALL
Another phenomenon encountered in centrifugal compressors is stonewall. As the flow rate through the
compressor increases beyond the design value, the amount of head developed decreases. The greater the flow
rate, the faster the developed head decreases. At a certain point the head developed drops to zero. This is
called the stonewall condition. Stonewall is the result of reaching sonic velocity in some part of the
compression path, often in an impeller or a diffuser. Once sonic velocity is reached, the velocity cannot
increase further and the head drops to zero.
20
Process
EFFICIENCY OF AN OPERATING MACHINE

A process engineer is frequently asked to calculate the efficiency of an operating centrifugal compressor. This
actual efficiency can be compared with the predicted efficiency. If the actual efficiency is deficient, compressor
maintenance is required to remove deposits in the compressor or to replace damaged impellers, labyrinth seals
or diffusers.
The definitions of efficiency are as follows:
Efficiency = Theoretical ghp
Actual ghp
Note that gas horsepower (ghp) is used, not brake horsepower (bhp). Mechanical losses are not included in
efficiency, by convention.
Isentropic Efficiency =
Minimum adiabatic work_________

Actual work, excluding mechanical losses
Polytropic Efficiency. =
Minimum work along polytropic path___

Actual work, excluding mechanical losses
Procedures
There are four different ways to calculate operating efficiency.
Method A.
Compare driver power output to compressor power input.
Method B.
Compare compressor's actual temperature rise to isentropic temperature rise.
Method C.
Using a Mollier chart, compare actual h to isentropic h.
Method D.
A computer program, such as COMPRESS.
Method A - Driver Output vs. Compressor Input

1.
Calculate the gas horsepower using the process data and compressor equations. If the gas is a pure
compound, the Mollier method can be used.
2.
Calculate the actual work delivered to the gas by the driver. After the driver horsepower is determined,
subtract an allowance for mechanical friction losses in the compressor.
21
Process
Procedures (Contd)
Method A - Driver Output vs. Compressor Input (Cont'd)
3.
Calculate the polytropic efficiency.

Poly. Eff. =
Note:
ghp
Driver bhp - Mechanical Losses
It is not always possible to calculate the brake horsepower of the driver accurately. If this is the
case, use method B.
Method B - Temperature Rise

It is possible to calculate the efficiency of a centrifugal compressor from compressor data only. The method is
as follows.
1.
Analyze the gas compositions.
2.
Calculate the value k for the gas.
3.
Obtain temperatures and pressures at the suction and discharge of the compressor from field data. Use
calibrated gauges.
4.
Calculate the value m.
T 2 P2
=
T 1 P1
n 1
(Note that m = n )
log T 2
T1
T1
m=
logP2
P1
5. Calculate the polytropic efficiency.
k 1
k
Poly. Eff. = m
Note:
If the compressibility factor is not equal to 1.0, some inaccuracy will result from this method.
However, the method is suitable for tracking changes in efficiency over time.
22
Process
Procedures (Contd)
Tracking Changes in Efficiency
The usual reason for calculating compressor efficiency is to track changes in performance. The process
engineer wants to know whether the compressor is fouling, or if there is mechanical deterioration due to
erosion or corrosion. Method A is not the best method for this purpose. Errors in data from the driver will
cause fluctuations in the calculated compressor efficiency. For this purpose method, B is better because it uses
data only from the compressor. Note that accurate gas analysis methods and gauge calibration are very
important. A small inaccuracy in these values can lead to large inaccuracies in efficiency. Gas samples should
always be obtained from the top of pipes and analyzed at the same temperature at which they were taken.
Method C - Mollier
The efficiency of an operating compressor can also be calculated using the Mollier method, if the gas is a pure
compound. The procedure is as follows.
1.
Measure the temperature and pressure at the suction and discharge of the machine.
2.
Plot the suction condition on the Mollier diagram. See Figure 10.
3.
Follow an isentropic line to the discharge pressure.
4.
Calculate h isentropic.
5.
Plot the actual discharge pressure and temperature on the Mollier diagram.
6.
Calculate the actual h.
7.
Calculate the isentropic efficiency.

Isentropic Efficiency = h isentropic
h actual
8.
Convert the isentropic efficiency to polytropic efficiency using GPSA chart Figure 13-37. It is
necessary to track the polytropic efficiency of the compressor to draw meaningful conclusions about its
performance. The isentropic efficiency can change as process conditions change, even though the
condition of the compressor remains the same.
23
Process
Procedures (Contd)
Method C - Mollier (Contd)
FIGURE 10. EFFICIENCY FROM OPERATING DATA - MOLLIER METHOD
24
Process
Procedures (Contd)
Method D - Computer Program COMPRESS
The fourth method for calculating compressor efficiency is by using a computer program such as COMPRESS.
The input data are
Compressor T1, T2, P1, P2
Gas composition
Gas flow rate information
The program calculates
Polytropic efficiency
Gas horsepower
Polytropic exponent n
Polytropic head
The program uses an equation of state to calculate enthalpies and entropies at inlet and outlet.
The COMPRESS program is the most accurate of the four methods. It is also the most convenient, when a PC
is available. Other computer programs such as PRO-II may also be used.
The greatest source of potential error with a computer program is in the accuracy of input data. For critical
calculations, calculate the power output of the driver (Method A) as a check on the COMPRESS calculation.
After accounting for mechanical losses in the compressor and for gear efficiency, the power output of the driver
should match the power input of the compressor.
25
Process
CONTROL SCHEMES FOR CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS

Variable Speed
A control system must match the performance curve of the compressor to the system requirements. One way to
match the compressor performance and system requirements is to use a variable speed driver. Steam turbines
and gas turbines are usually capable of speed control. The range of control is normally from 80% to 105% of
rated speed. Motors normally have a fixed speed, but they can be converted into variable speed devices by
changing their electrical input frequency.
Figure 11 illustrates the principle of speed control. The solid line shows the head capacity curve at design
speed. The design point is on this curve. The desired operating point is at a lower flow rate and a lower head.
The objective is to find the operating curve shown by the dashed line which passes through that operating point.
This operating curve will be at a new speed N 2, which is lower than the design speed N 1.
26
Process
Variable Speed (Cont'd)
FIGURE 11. VARIABLE SPEED CONTROL
27
Process
Suction Throttling
If a fixed speed driver is used, suction throttling is an alternative method to control compressor flow.
Throttling the suction increases the actual volume of the gas and moves the operating point away from the
surge point.
Suction throttling utilizes a butterfly control valve in the suction line upstream of the compressor.
Figure 12 shows the principle of suction throttling control. The speed of the compressor is constant; therefore,
there is only one operating curve, shown by the solid line in the diagram. The operating point is matched to the
operating curve by a different method. As the throttle valve in the suction closes, the pressure downstream of
the valve decreases. As the pressure decreases, the volume of suction gas increases. At the same time, the
compression ratio required by the machine is increasing because the discharge pressure remains constant while
the suction pressure is dropping. This causes the actual operating point to move from point A to point B.
FIGURE 12. SUCTION THROTTLING
28
Process
Discharge Throttling
Discharge throttling of a centrifugal compressor is not used as the primary control because it increases the
horsepower required from the driver and moves the compressor towards the surge point. However, discharge
throttling is often used as a secondary control to prevent stonewall. See Figure 13.
P2
P1
P3
Q
P2
System Head
Compressor Head
P3
Head
ACFM
FIGURE 13. DISCHARGE THROTTLING
29
Process
Antisurge Control
In addition to matching process flow to compressor capacity, the flow rate must be kept higher than the surge
point. This higher flow rate is accomplished by recycling a portion of the compressor discharge flow back to
the suction vessel. This practice keeps the flow through the compressor above the minimum flow required to
keep the compressor out of surge. Refer to Figure 14. A flow transmitter is located in the discharge line from
the compressor. A signal from this flow transmitter controls the control valve in the compressor recycle line. If
the discharge flow falls below the minimum safe value, the recycle valve opens and maintains the minimum
flow rate. The circuit must be arranged so that the recycle flow always flows through a cooler. Otherwise, the
recycling gas would continue to be heated and exceed the temperature limits of the compressor.
Suction
Discharge
Recycle
FIGURE 14. ANTISURGE CONTROL

In many installations a small computer is added to the controls. The computer calculates the actual surge flow
at any moment. This flow rate is not a constant value, but can change with process conditions and gas
composition.
Another requirement is that the recycle controller must respond quickly when the flow drops below the
minimum. Normal flow controllers experience reset windup. With reset windup, it can take up to one minute
before the control valve opens. A compressor recycle controller must have special features to eliminate reset
windup. In addition, the instrumentation used must have adequate accuracy and the control valve must open
quickly (1-2 seconds).
30
Process
Antisurge Controls for Air Compressors

Figure 15 shows an alternative antisurge control for centrifugal compressors in compressed air service. Instead
of recycling air to the suction of the machine, the air is discharged to the atmosphere. In this case, the
composition of the gas is fixed and the suction pressure is fixed at atmospheric pressure. Therefore, it is
common to use discharge pressure as the control variable rather than flow rate. A pressure controller in the
discharge line opens the control valve to atmosphere whenever the discharge pressure rises above a preset safe
value. It is important to note that this scheme assumes all intercoolers function as designed. If they become
fouled, the compressor will surge at a lower discharge pressure.
Atmosphere
P1
Atmosphere
P2
P* To Consumers
P*
P2
Control
Valve
Blowoff
QReqd
QCompressor
FIGURE 15. ANTISURGE CONTROL AIR COMPRESSOR
31
Process
Combined Controls
Figure 16 shows a combined control scheme for a typical refrigeration circuit. The controls are shown in a
simplified manner, but they illustrate all of the principles mentioned so far.
This compressor has a side inlet or a second suction nozzle operating at a pressure higher than the first suction
pressure. This is a common feature of refrigeration machines and divides the compressor into two sections.
The first section is between the first suction and the sidestream inlet. The second section is between the
sidestream inlet and the discharge. The flow rate for the second section is different from the flow rate for the
first section. Both flow rates must be controlled to keep the two sections out of surge. Therefore, two flow
sensors and two recycle loops are used. This compressor is assumed to have a constant-speed driver.
Therefore, a pressure controller in the suction line is the primary flow-control device. This pressure controller
matches the compressor head to the head required by the system.
PC
PC
Recycle
Suction
Knockout
3
psig
Cooling Load
Recycle
250 psig
Accumulator
Economizer
30
psig
Cooling Load
FIGURE 16. COMBINED CONTROL SCHEME - REFRIGERATION CIRCUIT
32
Process
Combined Controls (Cont'd)

In the circuit shown, a second pressure controller is included in the discharge line. This is sometimes necessary
with multisuction machines. If this pressure controller is not included, the discharge pressure will drop during
cold weather, a condition that might be undesirable for the compressor or the process. If the pressure drops
very far, it may not be possible to keep all of the compressor wheels out of surge. Secondly, the operation of
the external circuit (for example, the economizer) would be affected when the discharge pressure drops. All the
pressures in the machine drop, including all the pressure at the sidestream inlet. This could have an adverse
effect on the process. Note that discharge pressure control is a secondary control. The primary control for
matching compressor and process is suction throttling.
33
Process
COMMON PROCESS PROBLEMS WITH CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS

Work Aid 3 lists the most common problems encountered with centrifugal compressors. The possible causes of
these problems are also listed.
34
Process
WORK AID 1: CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR - CALCULATION FORM

(Page 1 of 2)
Gas
MW
Suction Flow Rate:
SCFM,
lb/min,
ACFM
P1 psia
P2
psia
r =
P2/P1 =
T1
F,
Polytropic Efficiency:
From Manufacturer's Specification
or:
0.0109 ln (Suction ACFM) + 0.643

= 0.0109 ln (
) + 0.643
=
lst Trial
2nd Trial
3rd Trial
_________
_________
_________
T2, K assumed
k1 (GPSA Figure 13-8
or 13-6)
k2
k avg
(k-1)/k
(n-1)/n = (k-1)/k_
Poly. Eff.
T2 = T1(r)(n-1)/n
T2 calculated
35
Process
WORK AID 1:
CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR - CALCULATION FORM (CONTD)

(Page 2 of 2)
Z1 (GPSA 23-3)
Polytropic Head:
n 1
Z1( 1544 ) T1
=
( r) n 1
( n 1)
MW
n
Hpoly
Hpoly =
)( 1544 )(
(
Hpoly =
)(
)
)
[(
feet
Gas Horsepower:
Hpoly x lb/min
ghp = __________________
Poly Eff. x 33,000
ghp = _(
(
) ( )_
)(33,000)
ghp =
Mechanical Losses (GPSA Figure 13-38)
ghp
hp
= ghp + Mechanical Losses

=
hp
36
Process
WORK AID 2: CALCULATION FORM - MOLLIER METHOD

(Page 1 of 3)
Gas:
Suction Flow Rate:
SCFM,
lb/min,
ACFM
P1 psia
T1
P2 psia
h1
Btu/lb
h2
isentropic
isentropic
Btu/lb
=
)
Btu/lb
Polytropic Efficiency:
From Manufacturer Spec
or: 0.0109 ln (Suction ACFM) + 0.643
=
0.0109 ln (
) + 0.643
=
r = P2
P1
____ = _____
____
________
Isentropic Efficiency (from GPSA Figure 13-37):
37
Process
WORK AID 2: CALCULATION FORM - MOLLIER METHOD (CONTD)

(Page 2 of 3)
Gas Horsepower:
Isentropic Head
ghp
Isentropic h (778)
( )(778)
feet
(Isentropic Head)(lb/min)
_______________________________
(Isentropic Efficiency)(33,000)
( )( )
_______________
(
)(33,000)
Mechanical Losses
(GPSA Figure 13-38)
bhp
Polytropic Head
hp
ghp + Mechanical Losses
hp
Polytropic Efficiency
Isentropic Head x ___________________
Isentropic Efficiency
________ x ________
hp
feet
38
Process
WORK AID 2: CALCULATION FORM - MOLLIER METHOD (CONTD)

(Page 3 of 3)
Discharge Temperature:
Actual h
Isentropic h
_______________
Isentropic Eff.
________
Actual h2
T2
Btu/lb
h1 + Actual h
________ + ________
________ Btu/lb
F (from Mollier Diagram)
39
Process
WORK AID 3:
COMMON OPERATING PROBLEMS FOR CENTRIFUGAL

COMPRESSORS
Common Problems
Surge
Driver Overload
Vibration
Tripout or
Automatic Shutdown
Possible Cause(s)
Improper setting of recycle flow control
Slow response of recycle controller and/or valve
Deposits in rotor or diffuser
Blockage in discharge line or recycle line
Low gas density (Low MW or high suction temperature)
High suction pressure
High molecular weight of gas
Low inlet temperature of gas
Liquid in suction
Deposits on rotor
Rotor erosion/corrosion
Mechanical problems (GPSA p. 13-39)
Liquid in suction knockout drum
High discharge temperature
Loss of lube or seal oil
Loss of buffer gas
High axial displacement
Instrument malfunction, false trip
High thrust bearing pad temperature
Overspeed of driver (steam or gas turbine)
40
Process
GLOSSARY
Adiabatic Compression
A compression process in which no heat is added or removed.
Balance Piston
A device installed on the shaft of a centrifugal compressor.

It balances the thrust forces of the impellers.
Best Efficiency Point

(BEP)
The point on the performance curve of a centrifugal compressor

where the efficiency is at a maximum.
Brake Horsepower
The total horsepower required to drive a centrifugal compressor. The power

on the shaft between the compressor and the driver.
Casing
The outer containment vessel of a centrifugal compressor.
Compressibility
Factor, Z
The actual volume of a gas divided by the volume of the same

weight of ideal gas at the same molecular weight, temperature, and pressure.
Also:
Z = PV
RT
Diaphragm
A removable section inside of a casing. It contains the diffuser and a return

passage, which directs the gas to the suction of the next impeller.
Diffuser
A component of centrifugal compressors located after an impeller. The

diffuser converts velocity head to pressure head and directs the flow to the
next impeller.
Efficiency, Isentropic
For a compression process, the ideal work required divided by the actual
work imparted to the gas.
Efficiency, Polytropic
For a compression process, the minimum work along a polytropic path

divided by the actual work imparted to the gas.
Enthalpy
A thermodynamic quantity that is the sum of the internal energy of a body,

U, and the product of its volume, V, multiplied by the pressure, P. It is also
called Heat Content.
41
Process
Entropy
A quantity that is the measure of the amount of energy in a system not

available for doing work; a small change in entropy, S, is equal to Q/T,
where Q is a small increment of heat added or removed and T is the
absolute temperature.
Erosion
Damage to the internal parts of a compressor caused by abrasion by solid

particles.
Fouling
The deposition of solid material on the internal passages of a compressor.
Gas Horsepower
The total energy imparted to gas in a compressor. It includes the losses due
to gas friction, but does not include mechanical friction losses.
Head, Isentropic
The energy per unit weight of gas applied during an ideal compression
process.
Head, Polytropic
The energy per unit weight of gas applied during polytropic compression.
Impeller
The rotating element of a centrifugal compressor that develops velocity head.

Also called a Wheel.
Intercooler
A gas cooler located between two casings of a compressor.
Isentropic Compression
Ideal compression along a path of constant entropy under adiabatic

conditions.
Isothermal Compression
Compression at constant temperature. Heat must be removed during the

compression process.
Journal Bearing
A bearing that supports the weight of the shaft of a centrifugal compressor.
Labyrinth Seal
A seal made of several rings in series that fit very closely to a shaft and
impeller eye. A labyrinth seal minimizes leakage but cannot stop it
completely.
Mollier Diagram
A diagram that shows the relationship between enthalpy, entropy,

temperature, and pressure for a particular gas.
42
Process
Oil Seal
A seal at the end of a shaft. It is lubricated with oil which positively prevents
leakage of gas from the casing of a compressor.
Performance Curve
A curve supplied by the manufacturer which shows the relationship between

capacity, head, horsepower, and efficiency.
Polytropic Compression
The type of compression which takes place in a real centrifugal compressor

as compared to ideal isentropic compression.
Sidestream
A stream of gas that is introduced into a casing after one or more wheels. It
can also be removed from a casing before the final discharge nozzle.
Stonewall
The maximum flow condition for a centrifugal compressor. Stonewall is

reached when the velocity becomes sonic at some point in the compression
path.
Surge
An unstable operating condition in a centrifugal compressor. It is caused by

process conditions that result in flow rate being too low or the required
discharge pressure being too high.
Throttling
Restricting the flow of a fluid, usually by means of a control valve in the

suction or discharge process system.
Thrust
An axial force on the shaft of a compressor. It is caused by unequal

pressures on the sides of the impellers.
Thrust Bearing
A bearing located on the shaft of a centrifugal compressor that absorbs the

axial force on the shaft.
Wheel
Another name for impeller.
43
Process
REFERENCES
Vendors Bulletin
Elliot Bulletin P-25C, Multistage Centrifugal Compressors
Supplementary Text
Gas Processors Suppliers Association Engineering Data Book, Section 13
Industry Standard
API 617 Centrifugal Compressors for General Refinery Service
Saudi Aramco Standards
AES-K-402
ADP-K-402
44

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COMPONENTS AND FUNCTIONS ......................................................................................................... 1

WORK AID 3: COMMON OPERATING PROBLEMS FOR CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS ........ 40

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COMPONENTS AND FUNCTIONS

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COMPONENTS AND FUNCTIONS (CONTD)

FIGURE 1. BASIC COMPONENTS - CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR

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COMPONENTS AND FUNCTIONS (CONTD)

Horizontally Split Case

FIGURE 2. CASING DESIGNS FOR A CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR

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THERMODYNAMIC EQUATIONS FOR GAS COMPRESSION

Actual Compression Path

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THERMODYNAMIC EQUATIONS FOR GAS COMPRESSION (CONT'D)

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Head Calculation (Cont'd)

Compressibility factor, at suction

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Head Calculation (Cont'd)

Head is Analogous to Pump Head

FIGURE 4. COMPRESSOR HEAD

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