Int. j. econ. manag. soc. sci., Vol(3), No (10), October, 2014. pp.

546-550

TI Journals

International Journal of Economy, Management and Social Sciences

www.tijournals.com

ISSN:
2306-7276

Copyright 2014. All rights reserved for TI Journals.

The Comparison of Sensation Seeking between Addicts and Non-addicts;

and the Comparison of the First Consumed Opioids and Sensation
Seeking Rate among Addicts
Jalal Shakeri
Behavioral sciences Research Center, Psychiatry Department, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran.

Vahid Farnia
Behavioral sciences Research Center, Psychiatry Department, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran.

Senobar Golshani *
Behavioral Research Center, Psychiatry Department, Farabi hospital, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran.

Kianoosh Yaghoobi
Young Researchers and Elite Club, Kermanshah Branch, Islamic Azad University, Kermanshah, Iran.
*Corresponding author: snb.gln@gmail.com

Keywords

Abstract

sensation seeking
first consumed opioids
industrial opioids
addictive stimulants
traditional opioids

The present study aimed at comparing sensation seeking between addicts and non-addicts in one hand, and
the type of the first consumed opioid and sensation seeking rate among addicts on the other hand. 80
addicted participants were chosen from the referents to the Addiction Treatment Center who was approved
to be drug addict by DSM-IV-RT tests. The non-addicts, also, were 79 participants having no drug addicts
before. Zukerman Sensation Seeking Scale (SSS) was used to gather the data; moreover One-way ANOVA
test and Tukey follow-up test also were used to analyze existing differences between the groups. The result
revealed that addict group has significantly higher sensation seeking than non-addict group. In addition those
who have begun by industrial opioids and addictive stimulants have higher sensation seeking than those
starting by traditional opioids. As a result those having high sensation seeking are more in danger of
addiction, so they should be recognized promptly to lead them to the socially accepted occupations and
exciting activities, satisfying their high sensation seeking.

1.

Introduction

Addiction is not only a social pathology but also a threat for public community health. In other words, it can make the economic,
social, and even politic stability vulnerable. Nowadays opioid is reported as a world crisis [1]. International communities believe
that smuggling drugs and psychotropic drug are at the same level of other three crises, nuclear, population, and ecology crises,
threading humanity. Besides, it is believed that in today world, smuggling is economically after oil, terrorism and weapon [2].
Therefore it is important to recognize the effective components in using drugs.
Based on the sanitation primary principles, prevention is superior to treatment. This is the same for addiction. In other words in
spite of protective factors against risky factors, primary protection is of great import. Nowadays, protection is considered as the
first step, since decreasing the number of people suffering from addiction will enhance society [3]. Based on clinical research,
drug addiction variables are divided into 4 groups; 1) socio-cultural environment, 2) interpersonal factors, 3) psychological
factors, 4) genetic- biological factors [4].
Different studies have shown personality factors play an important role in provoking dangerous behaviors. One of these factors is
sensation seeking [5]. Sensation seekers are the people who not only are interested in sensation, diversity, new experience, and
newness, but also welcome dangers. Moreover it can be explained as a need to diversity seeking and a desire to experience
physical and social dangers. Duplicate experiences and addictive stimulants easily make sensation seekers bored, as they become
more sensitive facing internal stimulants and lose their temper facing external prevents. Sensation seeking can be explained as an
inherent desire to do fascinating activities; a reaction to new stimulants. Sensation seekers tend to be diversity seeker, intolerant
and generally disorganized [6].
According to Zukerman [7] sensation seeking includes 4 components: 1) adventure seeker, having a craving for physical activities
which are full of speed, danger, and newness, 2) diversity seeking, looking for new experience, got by travel, music, art, and
different lifestyles, 3) disinhibition, a tendency to be impulsive, resisting against social norms and preferring unexpected situation,

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The Comparison of Sensation Seeking between Addicts and Non-addicts; and the Comparison of the First Consumed Opioids and Sensation Seeking Rate among...
International Journal of Economy, Management and Social Sciences Vol(3), No (10), October, 2014.

4) reaction to boredom susceptibility which is hating duplicate experiences, routines, and common people. High level of sensation
seeking is not always inefficient, however inefficacy can be seen in people abusing drugs [8].
Numerous studies have focused on the relationship between drug abuse and characteristic structure, in which they consider
sensation seeking as a motivation for drug abuse [5, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12]. Some studies have related adventure seeking to drug abuse
[8, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18]. Other studies emphasize that adventure seeking and diversity seeking have effects on drug abuse, for
example Segal and Singer (1976) showed that there is a strong relationship among drug variables, adventure seeking, and diversity
seeking. Besides drug users got the higher score in comparison with normal people [7].
Meszaros, Lenzinger, Homik, Fureder, Williannger and Fischer (1999) found that high score of adventure seeking predicts the
temptation of alcoholic men who has received treatment [19]. Kopstein, Crum, Celentan and Martin (2001) in a study on the 8th to
11th grade students concluded that disinhibition can predict hashish and cigar using, even though they could not find any
relationship between subscales like sensation and adventure seeking with hashish and cigar using [20].
Although numerous studies have been done in different countries so far, special condition of Iran, as particular cultural, ethical,
social and geographical situation, and especially Kermanshah, which has the high rank in addiction, require more specific studies
to recognize the provoking factors. On the other hand, it is believed that different conclusion of various studies is the result of
different social and ethical effects on sensation seeking components.
Since ignoring the scientific characteristic of addicts of each area leads to a failing prevention a treatment, this study aims at
comparing the different rate of sensation seeking between addicts and non-addicts. Moreover there has not been the same research
before. Generally accepted, industrial opioids and addictive stimulants are more enjoyable than traditional opioids. Besides based
on Zukerman (1994) as the sensation seeking increases, enjoyment increases too, while self-controlling decreases [7]. So we
expect that people with different sensation seeking will begin by different drug. In other words we suppose that starting by
industrial opioids and addictive stimulants have higher sensation seeking.

2.

Methodology

The present method is causal-comparative of ex post facto type. The population includes the addicts attending Government
Kermanshah Addict Treatment Center. The studied sample was randomly chosen by convenient sampling and their addiction was
proved by DSM- IV- RT test. The control group, non-addicts in fact, was the people matching with the addicts by their
educational level, social, economic, and culture position, and age. Besides the qualified addict participants were those who not
only have no psychiatric problems record and severe physical problems, but also their addiction lasts at least a year. The qualified
non-addicts were those having no drug use record and psychiatric problems before. The present study was conducted on 159
subjects, including 80 addicts and 79 non-addicts, who were in the age range of 18-60. For addicts the mean and standard
deviation of age were 32.63 and 8.59, in contrast for non-addicts they were 33.40 and 8.98 respectively. The questionnaires were
completed when there were no WITH DRAWAL signs and also the subjects were focus enough.
Fifth Zukerman Sensation Seeking Scale (SSS) form was used as the sensation seeking instrument. This scale has 40 items,
including 40 yes/no questions. In fact this provides 1 total score and four scores for subscales including thrill and adventure
seeking, experience seeking, disinhibition, and boredom susceptibility. Zukerman (1979) has reported the internal consistency for
total scale from 0.83 to 0.86 and for subscales in the scope of 0.56 to 0.82. Moreover Cronbachs alpha for total scale was 0.87
however for subscales, including thrill and adventure seeking, experience seeking, disinhibition and boredom susceptibility, was
0.83, 0.63, 0.80, and 0.67 respectively [10]. The scale stability coefficient, by using test-retest method, was reported as 0.79 after
4 weeks. In Iran, Soltani, Fooladvand and Fathi-Ashtiani (2010) found Cronbachs alpha for total scale as 0.74 and for subscales,
including thrill and adventure seeking, disinhibition and boredom susceptibility, as 0.53, 0.61, 0.62 and 0.67 respectively [21]. In
this research, T-test was used to find the mean difference between sensation seeking and its components of both studying addicts
and non-addicts. Besides, one-way ANOVA test and Tukey follow-up test were used for the comparison among groups.

3.

Results

Before using parametric tests, T-test and variance-analysis, the assumption of the equal variances was tested by Levenes test. The
results were not significant for the variances, therefore using parametric tests was not forbidden. As can be seen in table 1, T-test
was done to compare the means of total sensation seeking with its components in both groups. Based on the table, the addicts get
higher score than non-addicts, for there is a significant difference between total thrill and adventure seeking in level of 0.01 and
disinhibition in level of 0.05 between the groups.

Jalal Shakeri, Vahid Farnia, Senobar Golshani *, Kianoosh Yaghoobi

548

International Journal of Economy, Management and Social Sciences Vol(3), No (10), October, 2014.

Table1. The result of T-test to compare the means of total sensation seeking and its components between addicts and non-addicts

variables
Total sensation seeking
Adventure seeking
Diversity seeking
Boredom susceptibility
Disinhibition

groups
Addicts
Non-addicts
Addicts
Non-addicts
Addicts
Non-addicts
Addicts
Non-addicts
Addicts
Non-addicts

N
80
79
80
79
80
79
80
79
80
79

Mean
20.20
17.06
9.80
8.31
6.91
6.17
2.76
2.50
1.72
1.27

Standard Deviation
7.47
6.18
4.32
3.80
2.41
2.57
1.14
1.04
1.14
1.19

df
157

t
2.911

Sig
0.004**

157

2.642

0.009**

157

1.862

0.064

157

1.493

0.137

157

2.522

0.013*

*: P<0.05 ; **: P<0.01

In the second part of the research, the between the first used opioid and sensation seeking was studied. As there are various
opioids, they are classified into 3 major groups; traditional opioids (opium), industrial opioids (glass and crack), and addictive
stimulants (psychotropic pills). Descriptive information of sensation seeking and its components, based on the first used opioids,
is sowed in table 2.

Table 2.the descriptive information of total sensation seeking and its components based on the first consumed drug

variables
Total sensation seeking

Adventure seeking

Diversity seeking

Boredom susceptibility

Disinhibition

first consumed opioids

traditional opioids
industrial opioids
addictive stimulants
traditional opioids
industrial opioids
addictive stimulants
traditional opioids
industrial opioids
addictive stimulants
traditional opioids
industrial opioids
addictive stimulants
traditional opioids
industrial opioids
addictive stimulants

N
48
15
17
48
15
17
48
15
17
48
15
17
48
15
17

Mean
18.00
23.87
23.18
8.56
11.40
11.80
5.54
7.33
6.94
2.48
2.60
2.47
1.42
2.53
1.88

Standard Deviation
7.03
7.30
6.85
3.91
3.83
4.79
2.53
2.92
1.78
1.05
0.98
1.12
1.14
0.83
0.99

The results of one-way variance analysis, which compare the mean of the first used opioids with sensation seeking, are presented
in table 3 revealing that there is a significant difference among total sensation seeking, thrill and adventure seeking, and
disinhibition in level of 0.01 in one hand and diversity seeking in level of 0.05 on the other hand.

Table 3.the result of one-way variance analysis to compare the mean of sensation seeking and its components based on the first consumed drug

Variables
Total sensation seeking

Adventure seeking

Diversity seeking

Boredom susceptibility

Disinhibition
*: P<0.05 ; **: P<0.01

Condition
Between Group
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total

Sum of squares
584.60
3822.20
4406.80
185.62
1293.18
1478.80
49.36
472.19
521.55
0.186
84.81
86.00
14.78
87.17
101.95

df
2
77
79
2
77
79
2
77
79
2
77
79
2
77
79

Sig

5.888

0.004**

5.526

0.006**

4.024

0.023*

0.083

0.920

6.531

0.002**

549

The Comparison of Sensation Seeking between Addicts and Non-addicts; and the Comparison of the First Consumed Opioids and Sensation Seeking Rate among...
International Journal of Economy, Management and Social Sciences Vol(3), No (10), October, 2014.

Tukey follow-up test was used to discover the source of the differences among opioids. The result of Tukey test, as shown in table
4, reveals that those starting by industrial opioids have significantly higher disinhibition (P<0.01), diversity seeking (P<0.05), and
sensation seeking than those starting by traditional opioids. Moreover those who start by addictive stimulants have significantly
higher total sensation seeking and adventure seeking than the addicts starting by traditional opioids (P<0.05).
Table 4.the result of Tukey follow-up test to discover the source of the difference among first consumed drug

Variables
Total sensation seeking

Adventure seeking

Diversity seeking

Boredom susceptibility

Disinhibition

first consumed opioids

traditional opioids
industrial opioids
addictive stimulants
traditional opioids
industrial opioids
addictive stimulants
traditional opioids
industrial opioids
addictive stimulants
traditional opioids
industrial opioids
addictive stimulants
traditional opioids
industrial opioids
addictive stimulants

traditional opioids
0
0.017*
0.029*
0
0.056
0.014*
0
0.044*
0.114
0
0.92
1.00
0
0.002**
0.373

industrial opioids
0
0
0.959
0
0
0.941
0
0
0.894
0
0
0.936
0
0
0.202

addictive stimulants
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

*: P<0.05 ; **: P<0.01

4.

Conclusion

This research aimed at comparing both sensation seeking between addicts and non-addicts, and the relation between the first used
opioids and sensation seeking rate. The results showed that the addicts have higher sensation seeking than non-addicts. In other
words personality factors of sensation seeking lead people to dangerous behaviors like drug using. These findings agreed with the
previous findings [12, 17, 22]. Based on these results, the addicts have higher sensation seeking, and people who have high
sensation seeking are more in danger of addiction. In addition to this fact, it is revealed that the addicts get a higher score in the
components like thrill and adventure seeking and disinhibition. In other words, the addicts get the higher score in seeking for
dangerous and fascination activities than the non-addicts. As a matter of fact, the non-addicts are less interested in challenging
activities, and try to accept the social norms. These people avoid unexpected situations. These findings are in accordance with the
previous findings [7, 9, 13, 15, 20].
The findings of this research showed that those who have used industrial opioids(like glass and crack) and addictive stimulants as
their first used drug show higher total sensation seeking, diversity seeking and disinhibition than those starting by traditional
opioids (like opium). It is believed that industrial opioids are more enjoyable, although they have extremely higher physical and
psychological damages. As a result the people who use industrial opioids are more seeking for adventures and new activities.
Moreover they rarely resist for drug temptation. These findings also are in accordance with the previous findings [9, 23, 24, 25].
Zukerman (1979) believes that by recognizing sensation seeker promptly their sensation can be satisfied. This is possible by
providing academic advising, career advising and leading them to exciting and unexpected jobs like fire fighter, police, and
emergency medical treatment [10]. Therefore their sensation can be satisfied; at the same time they can be both practical for their
society and banned from drug using. It is possible to give specific training to enhance their knowledge about their characteristic
features and addiction aspects, moreover the possible controlling strategy can be taught to avoid drug temptation.
For the future research it is suggested to focus on parents sensation seeking rate and their specific child training method, and also
its effect as an environmental factor intensifying peoples sensation seeking. It is also suggested to conduct the same research on
the occupations and exciting activities like fire fighters, police, and climbers, to find how satisfactory these experiences are for
endangered groups. They would find a way to ban them from addictive drugs.

Jalal Shakeri, Vahid Farnia, Senobar Golshani *, Kianoosh Yaghoobi

550

International Journal of Economy, Management and Social Sciences Vol(3), No (10), October, 2014.

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