Urban planning

1 History

In the Neolithic period, agriculture and other techniques

facilitated larger populations than the very small communities of the Paleolithic, which probably led to the
stronger, more coercive governments emerging at that
time. The pre-Classical and Classical periods saw a number of cities laid out according to xed plans, though
many tended to develop organically. Designed cities were
characteristic of the Minoan, Mesopotamian, Harrapan,
and Egyptian civilizations of the third millennium BC
(see Urban planning in ancient Egypt). The rst recorded
description of urban planning is described in the Epic
of Gilgamesh: Go up on to the wall of Uruk and walk
around. Inspect the foundation platform and scrutinize
the brickwork. Testify that its bricks are baked bricks,
And that the Seven Counsellors must have laid its foundations. One square mile is city, one square mile is orchards, one square mile is claypits, as well as the open
ground of Ishtar's temple.Three square miles and the
open ground comprise Uruk. Look for the copper tabletbox, Undo its bronze lock, Open the door to its secret,
Lift out the lapis lazuli tablet and read. [4]

Urban planning designs settlements, from the smallest towns to

the largest cities. Shown here is Hong Kong from Western District
overlooking Kowloon, across Victoria Harbour.

Urban planning (urban, merged urban regions, regional,

city, and town planning) is a technical and political process concerned with the use of land and design of the urban environment, including air and water and infrastructure passing into and out of urban areas such as transportation and distribution networks.
Urban planning guides and ensures the orderly development of settlements and satellite communities which
commute into and out of urban areas or share resources
with it. It concerns itself with research and analysis,
strategic thinking, architecture, urban design, public consultation, policy recommendations, implementation and
management.[1]

Distinct characteristics of urban planning from remains

of the cities of Harappa, Lothal, and Mohenjo-daro in
the Indus Valley Civilization (in modern-day northwestern India and Pakistan) lead archeologists to conclude that
they are the earliest examples of deliberately planned and
managed cities.[5][6] The streets of many of these early
cities were paved and laid out at right angles in a grid pattern, with a hierarchy of streets from major boulevards to
residential alleys. Archaeological evidence suggests that
many Harrapan houses were laid out to protect from noise
and enhance residential privacy; many also had their own
water wells, probably for both sanitary and ritual purposes. These ancient cities were unique in that they often
had drainage systems, seemingly tied to a well-developed
ideal of urban sanitation.[5]

A plan can take a variety of forms including strategic

plans, comprehensive plans, neighborhood plans, regulatory and incentive strategies, or historic preservation
plans. Planners are often also responsible for enforcing
the chosen policies.
The modern origins of urban planning lie in the movement for urban reform that arose as a reaction against the
disorder of the industrial city in the mid-19th century.
Urban planning can include urban renewal, by adapting
urban planning methods to existing cities suering from
decline. Alternatively, it can concern the massive challenges associated with urban growth, particularly in the
Global South.[2]

Many Central American civilizations also planned their

cities, including sewage systems and running water. In
Mexico, Tenochtitlan was the capital of the Aztec empire,
built on an island in Lake Texcoco in what is now the FedIn the late 20th century, the term sustainable development eral District in central Mexico. At its height, Tenochtithas come to represent an ideal outcome in the sum of all lan was one of the largest cities in the world, with over
planning goals.[3]
200,000 inhabitants.[7]
1

1 HISTORY

nience. The basic plan consisted of a central forum with

city services, surrounded by a compact, rectilinear grid
of streets, and wrapped in a wall for defense. To reduce travel times, two diagonal streets crossed the square
grid, passing through the central square. A river usually
owed through the city, providing water, transport, and
sewage disposal.[14] Hundreds of towns and cities were
built by the Romans throughout their empire. Many European towns, such as Turin, preserve the remains of
these schemes, which show the very logical way the Romans designed their cities. They would lay out the streets
at right angles, in the form of a square grid. All roads
were equal in width and length, except for two, which
were slightly wider than the others. One of these ran east
Map of Piraeus, the port of Athens, showing the grid plan of the west, the other, northsouth, and intersected in the midcity
dle to form the center of the grid. All roads were made
of carefully tted ag stones and lled in with smaller,
hard-packed rocks and pebbles. Bridges were constructed
1.1 Classical and Medieval Europe
where needed. Each square marked by four roads was
called an insula, the Roman equivalent of a modern city
Traditionally, the Greek philosopher Hippodamus (5th block.
century BC) is regarded as the rst town planner and inEach insula was 80 yards (73 m) square, with the land
ventor of the orthogonal urban layout. Aristotle called
within it divided. As the city developed, each insula
[8]
him the father of city planning, and until well into the
would eventually be lled with buildings of various shapes
20th century, he was indeed regarded as such. This is,
and sizes and crisscrossed with back roads and alleys.
however, only partly justied. The Hippodamian plan
Most insulae were given to the rst settlers of a Roman
that was called after him, is an orthogonal urban layout
city, but each person had to pay to construct his own
with more or less square street blocks. Archaeological
house.
nds from ancient Egyptamong othersdemonstrate
that Hippodamus cannot truly have been the inventor of The city was surrounded by a wall to protect it from inthis layout.[9] Aristotles critique and indeed ridicule of vaders and to mark the city limits. Areas outside city limHippodamus, which appears in Politics 2. 8, is perhaps its were left open as farmland. At the end of each main
the rst known example of a criticism of urban planning. road was a large gateway with watchtowers. A portcullis
covered the opening when the city was under siege, and
From about the late 8th century on, Greek city-states
additional watchtowers were constructed along the city
started to found colonies along the coasts of the Mediterwalls. An aqueduct was built outside the city walls.
ranean, which were centered on newly created towns and
cities with more or less regular orthogonal plans. Gradu- The development of Greek and Roman urbanization is
ally, the new layouts became more regular.[10] After the relatively well-known, as there are relatively many written
city of Miletus was destroyed by the Persians in 494 BC, sources, and there has been much attention to the subject
it was rebuilt in a regular form that, according to tra- since the Romans and Greeks are generally regarded as
dition, was determined by the ideas of Hippodamus of the main ancestors of modern Western culture. It should
Miletus.[11] Regular orthogonal plans particularly appear not be forgotten, though, that there were also other culto have been laid out for new colonial cities and cities that tures with more or less urban settlements in Europe, primarily of Celtic origin.[15] Among these, there are also
were rebuilt in a short period of time after destruction.
cases that appear to have been newly planned, such as the
Following in the tradition of Hippodamus about a century
Lusatian town of Biskupin in Poland.
later, Alexander commissioned the architect Dinocrates
to lay out his new city of Alexandria, the grandest exam- After the gradual disintegration and fall of the Westple of idealized urban planning of the ancient Hellenistic Roman empire in the 5th century and the devastation
world, where the citys regularity was facilitated by its by the invasions of Huns, Germanic peoples, Byzantines,
Moors, Magyars, and Normans in the next ve centuries,
level site near a mouth of the Nile.
little remained of urban culture in western and central EuThe ancient Romans also employed regular orthogonal
rope. In the 10th and 11th centuries, though, there apstructures on which they molded their colonies.[12] They
pears to have been a general improvement in the political
probably were inspired by Greek and Hellenic examples,
stability and economy. This made it possible for trade and
as well as by regularly planned cities that were built by
craft to grow and for the monetary economy and urban
the Etruscans in Italy.[13] (see Marzabotto)
culture to revive. Initially, urban culture recovered parThe Romans used a consolidated scheme for city plan- ticularly in existing settlements, often in remnants of Roning, developed for military defense and civil conve-

1.2

Renaissance Europe

man towns and cities, but later on, ever more towns were
created anew. Meanwhile, the population of western Europe increased rapidly and the utilized agricultural area
grew with it. The agricultural areas of existing villages
were extended and new villages and towns were created
in uncultivated areas as cores for new reclamations.[16]
Urban development in the early Middle Ages, characteristically focused on a fortress, a fortied abbey, or a
(sometimes abandoned) Roman nucleus, occurred like
the annular rings of a tree,[17] whether in an extended
village or the center of a larger city. Since the new center was often on high, defensible ground, the city plan
took on an organic character, following the irregularities of elevation contours like the shapes that result from
agricultural terracing.
Plan of Elburg in The Netherlands, based on the cadastral plan
of 1830. Elburg was founded in 1392 by Arent toe Boecop, steward of the duke of Gelre. Arent seems to have acted as a private
entrepreneur. He had bought a piece of land next to the existing
town, and he obtained permission from his lord to extend and rebuild the town, and to resettle the population of the surrounding
area, selling the house lots to the settlers. The highly symmetrical
layout is centered on a canalized river and an intersecting street.
The symmetry is disturbed, however, by the church in the eastern
corner and by the pre-existing street (the only curved one in the
whole town) on the northwest side. The corner bastions and the
wide outer ditch were added in the late 16th century.

Caernarvon (Wales). Plan by John Speed, 1611. Caernarfon

castle and town were re-founded by King Edward I of England in
July 1283, during his second Welsh campaign to end the Second
War of Independence.

In the 9th to 14th centuries, many hundreds of new towns

were built in Europe, and many others were enlarged with
newly planned extensions. These new towns and town extensions have played a very important role in the shaping of Europes geographical structures as they in modern times. New towns were founded in dierent parts
of Europe from about the 9th century on, but most of
them were realized from the 12th to 14th centuries, with
a peak-period at the end of the 13th. All kinds of landlords, from the highest to the lowest rank, tried to found
new towns on their estates, in order to gain economical, political or military power. The settlers of the new
towns generally were attracted by scal, economic, and
juridical advantages granted by the founding lord, or were
forced to move from elsewhere from his estates. Most
of the new towns were to remain rather small (as for instance the bastides of southwestern France), but some of
them became important cities, such as Cardi, Leeds,
s-Hertogenbosch, Montauban, Bilbao, Malm, Lbeck,
Munich, Berlin, Bern, Klagenfurt, Alessandria, Warsaw
and Sarajevo.[18]
From the evidence of the preserved towns, it appears that
the formal structure of many of these towns was willfully planned. The newly founded towns often show a
marked regularity in their plan form, in the sense that the

streets are often straight and laid out at right angles to

one another, and that the house lots are rectangular, and
originally largely of the same size.[19] One very clear and
relatively extreme example is Elburg in the Netherlands,
dating from the end of the 14th century. (see illustration) Looking at town plans such as the one of Elburg, it
clearly appears that it is impossible to maintain that the
straight street and the symmetrical, orthogonal town plan
were new inventions from the Renaissance,' and, therefore, typical of modern times.'
The deep depression around the middle of the 14th century marked the end of the period of great urban expansion. Only in the parts of Europe where the process of
urbanization had started relatively late, as in eastern Europe, was it still to go on for one or two more centuries. It
would not be until the Industrial Revolution that the same
level of expansion of urban population would be reached
again, although the number of newly created settlements
would remain much lower than in the 12th and 13th centuries.

1.2 Renaissance Europe

Florence was an early model of the new urban planning,
which took on a star-shaped layout adapted from the new
star fort, designed to resist cannon re. This model was
widely imitated, reecting the enormous cultural power
of Florence in this age; "[t]he Renaissance was hypnotized by one city type which for a century and a half

4
from Filarete to Scamozzi was impressed upon utopian
schemes: this is the star-shaped city.[20] Radial streets
extend outward from a dened center of military, communal or spiritual power.

The Ideal City by Fra Carnevale, between 1480 and 1484.

This extraordinary panel exemplies Renaissance ideals of urban planning and oers a model of the architecture and sculpture that would be commissioned by a virtuous ruler who cares
for the welfare of the citizenry.

1 HISTORY
heed of its undulating terrain in Filaretes manuscript.[21]
This process occurred in cities, but ordinarily not in the
industrial suburbs characteristic of this era (see Braudel,
The Structures of Everyday Life), which remained disorderly and characterized by crowding and organic growth.
Following the 1695 bombardment of Brussels by the
French troops of King Louis XIV, in which a large part
of the city center was destroyed, Governor Max Emanuel
proposed using the reconstruction to completely change
the layout and architectural style of the city. His plan
was to transform the medieval city into a city of the new
baroque style, modeled on Turin, with a logical street
layout, with straight avenues oering long, uninterrupted
views anked by buildings of a uniform size. This plan
was opposed by residents and municipal authorities, who
wanted a rapid reconstruction, did not have the resources
for grandiose proposals, and resented what they considered the imposition of a new, foreign, architectural style.
In the actual reconstruction, the general layout of the city
was conserved, but it was not identical to that before the
cataclysm. Despite the necessity of rapid reconstruction
and the lack of nancial means, authorities did take several measures to improve trac ow, sanitation, and the
aesthetics of the city. Many streets were made as wide as
possible to improve trac ow.

1.3 Enlightenment Europe

The ideal centrally planned urban space: Sposalizio by Raphael

Sanzio, 1504

Only in ideal cities did a centrally planned structure

stand at the heart, as in Raphael's Sposalizio (Illustration)
of 1504. As built, the unique example of a rationally
planned quattrocento new city center, that of Vigevano
(149395), resembles a closed space instead, surrounded
by arcading.
Filarete's ideal city, building on Leon Battista Alberti's
De re aedicatoria, was named "Sforzinda" in compliment to his patron; its twelve-pointed shape, circumscribable by a perfect Pythagorean gure, the circle, took no

During the Second French Empire, Haussmann transformed the

medieval city of Paris into a modern capital, with long, straight,
wide boulevards. The planning was inuenced by many factors,
not the least of which was the citys history of street revolutions.

During this period, rulers often embarked on ambitious

attempts at redesigning their capital cities as a showpiece
for the grandeur of the nation. Disasters were often a major catalyst for planned reconstruction. An exception to
this was in London after the Great Fire of 1666 when,
despite many radical rebuilding schemes from architects
such as John Evelyn and Christopher Wren, no large-scale
redesigning was achieved due the complexities of rival

1.4

Modern urban planning

ownership claims. However, improvements were made ceived, and assist social integration.[24]
in hygiene and re safety with wider streets, stone construction and access to the river.

1.4 Modern urban planning

Planning and architecture went through a paradigm shift

at the turn of the 20th century. The industrialized cities
of the 19th century had grown at a tremendous rate, with
the pace and style of building largely dictated by private
business concerns. The evils of urban life for the working poor were becoming increasingly evident as a matter for public concern. The laissez-faire style of government management of the economy, in fashion for most of
the Victorian era, was starting to give way to a New Liberalism that championed intervention on the part of the
poor and disadvantaged. Around 1900, theorists began
developing urban planning models to mitigate the consequences of the industrial age, by providing citizens, espeModel of the seismically protective wooden structure, the "gaiola cially factory workers, with healthier environments.
pombalina (pombaline cage), developed for the reconstruction
of Pombaline Lower Town

1.4.1 Garden city movement

In contrast, after the 1755 Lisbon earthquake, King
Joseph I of Portugal and his ministers immediately
launched eorts to rebuild the city. The architect Manuel
da Maia boldly proposed razing entire sections of the
city and laying out new streets without restraint. This
last option was chosen by the king and his minister.[22]
Keen to have a new and perfectly ordered city, the king
commissioned the construction of big squares, rectilinear, large avenues and widened streets the new mottos
of Lisbon. The Pombaline buildings were among the earliest seismically protected constructions in Europe.
An even more ambitious reconstruction was carried out in
Paris. In 1852, Baron Georges-Eugne Haussmann was
commissioned to remodel the Medieval street plan of the
city by demolishing swathes of the old quarters and laying out wide boulevards, extending outwards beyond the
old city limits. Haussmanns project encompassed all aspects of urban planning, both in the centre of Paris and
in the surrounding districts, with regulations imposed on
building faades, public parks, sewers and water works,
city facilities, and public monuments. Beyond aesthetic
and sanitary considerations, the wide thoroughfares facilitated troop movement and policing.[23]
A concurrent plan to extend Barcelona was based on
a scientic analysis of the city and its modern requirements. It was drawn up by the Catalan engineer Ildefons
Cerd to ll the space beyond the city walls after they
were demolished from 1854. He is credited with inventing the term urbanization and his approach was codied
in his General Theory of Urbanization (1867). Cerd's
Eixample (Catalan for 'extension') consisted of 550 regular blocks with chamfered corners to facilitate the movement of trams, crossed by three wider avenues. His objectives were to improve the health of the inhabitants, towards which the blocks were built around central gardens
and orientated NW-SE to maximize the sunlight they re-

Ebenezer Howard's inuential 1902 diagram, illustrating urban

growth through garden city o-shoots

The rst major urban planning theorist was Sir Ebenezer

Howard, who initiated the garden city movement in 1898.
This was inspired by earlier planned communities built
by industrial philanthropists in the countryside, such as
Cadburys' Bournville, Levers Port Sunlight and George
Pullman's eponymous Pullman in Chicago. All these settlements decentralized the working environment from the
centre of the cities, and provided a healthy living space

6
for the factory workers. Howard generalized this achievement into a planned movement for the country as a whole.
He was also inuenced by the work of economist Alfred
Marshall who argued in 1884 that industry needed a supply of labour that could in theory be supplied anywhere,
and that companies have an incentive to improve workers living standards as the company bears much of the
cost inicted by the unhealthy urban conditions in the big
cities.[25]
Howards ideas, although utopian, were also highly practical and were adopted around the world in the ensuing
decades. His garden cities were intended to be planned,
self-contained communities surrounded by parks, containing proportionate and separate areas of residences,
industry, and agriculture. Inspired by the Utopian novel
Looking Backward and Henry George's work Progress
and Poverty, Howard published his book Garden Cities
of To-morrow in 1898, commonly regarded as the most
important book in the history of urban planning.[26] His
idealized garden city would house 32,000 people on a
site of 6,000 acres (2,428 ha), planned on a concentric
pattern with open spaces, public parks and six radial
boulevards, 120 ft (37 m) wide, extending from the centre. The garden city would be self-sucient and when
it reached full population, another garden city would be
developed nearby. Howard envisaged a cluster of several
garden cities as satellites of a central city of 50,000 people, linked by road and rail.[27]
He founded First Garden City, Ltd. in 1899 to create the
rst garden city at Letchworth, Hertfordshire.[28] Donors
to the project collected interest on their investment if the
garden city generated prots through rents or, as Fishman calls the process, philanthropic land speculation.[29]
Howard tried to include working class cooperative organizations, which included over two million members,
but could not win their nancial support.[30] In 1904,
Raymond Unwin, a noted architect and town planner,
along with his partner Barry Parker, won the competition
run by the First Garden City, Limited to plan Letchworth,
an area 34 miles outside London.[31] Unwin and Parker
planned the town in the centre of the Letchworth estate
with Howards large agricultural greenbelt surrounding
the town, and they shared Howards notion that the working class deserved better and more aordable housing.
However, the architects ignored Howards symmetric design, instead replacing it with a more organic design.[32]

1 HISTORY
the housing should be of low density with wide, tree-lined
roads.
In North America, the Garden City movement was also
popular, and evolved into the Neighborhood Unit form
of development. In the early 1900s, as cars were introduced to city streets for the rst time, residents became
increasingly concerned with the number of pedestrians
being injured by car trac. The response, seen rst in
Radburn, New Jersey, was the Neighborhood Unit-style
development, which oriented houses toward a common
public path instead of the street. The neighborhood is
distinctively organized around a school, with the intention of providing children a safe way to walk to school.

1.4.2 Urban planning profession

Urban planning became professionalized at this period,
with input from utopian visionaries as well as from the
practical minded infrastructure engineers and local councilors combining to produce new design templates for political consideration. The Town and Country Planning
Association was founded in 1899 and the rst academic
course on urban planning was oered by the University
of Liverpool in 1909.[35]
The rst ocial consideration of these new trends was
embodied in the Housing and Town Planning Act of
1909 that compelled local authorities to introduce coherent systems of town planning across the country using
the new principles of the 'garden city', and to ensure that
all housing construction conformed to specic building
standards.[36]

Following this Act, surveyors, civil engineers, architects,

lawyers and others began working together within local
government in the UK to draw up schemes for the development of land and the idea of town planning as a new
and distinctive area of expertise began to be formed. In
1910, Thomas Adams was appointed as the rst Town
Planning Inspector at the Local Government Board, and
began meeting with practitioners. The Town Planning Institute was established in 1914 with a mandate to advance
the study of town-planning and civic design.[37] The rst
Welwyn Garden City, also in Hertfordshire was also built university course in America was established at Harvard
on Howards principles. His successor as chairman of the University in 1924.
Garden City Association was Sir Frederic Osborn, who The Tudor Walters Committee that recommended the
extended the movement to regional planning.[33]
building of housing estates after World War One incorThe principles of the garden city were soon applied to
the planning of city suburbs. The rst such project was
the Hampstead Garden Suburb founded by Henrietta Barnett[34] and planned by Parker and Unwin. The schemes
utopian ideals were that it should be open to all classes
of people with free access to woods and gardens and that

porated the ideas of Howards disciple Raymond Unwin,

who demonstrated that homes could be built rapidly and
economically whilst maintaining satisfactory standards
for gardens, family privacy and internal spaces. Unwin
diverged from Howard by proposing that the new developments should be peripheral 'satellites rather than fullyedged garden cities.[38]

1.4

Modern urban planning

7
including painter-architect Nadir Afonso, who absorbed
Le Corbusiers ideas into his own aesthetics theory. Lcio
Costa's city plan of Braslia and the industrial city of Zln
planned by Frantiek Lydie Gahura in the Czech Republic are notable plans based on his ideas, while the architect himself produced the plan for Chandigarh in India.
Le Corbusiers thinking also had profound eects on the
philosophy of city planning and architecture in the Soviet
Union, particularly in the Constructivist era.

Partiznske in Slovakia an example of a typical planned industrial city founded in 1938 together with a shoemaking factory in
which practically all adult inhabitants of the city were employed.

1.4.3

Modernism

In the 1920s, the ideas of modernism began to surface

in urban planning. The inuential modernist architect
Le Corbusier presented his scheme for a Contemporary City for three million inhabitants (Ville Contemporaine) in 1922. The centerpiece of this plan was the group
of sixty-story cruciform skyscrapers, steel-framed oce
buildings encased in huge curtain walls of glass. These
skyscrapers were set within large, rectangular, park-like
green spaces. At the center was a huge transportation
hub that on dierent levels included depots for buses and
trains, as well as highway intersections, and at the top, an
airport. Le Corbusier had the fanciful notion that commercial airliners would land between the huge skyscrapers. He segregated pedestrian circulation paths from
the roadways and gloried the automobile as a means
of transportation. As one moved out from the central
skyscrapers, smaller low-story, zig-zag apartment blocks
(set far back from the street amid green space) housed the
inhabitants. Le Corbusier hoped that politically minded
industrialists in France would lead the way with their ecient Taylorist and Fordist strategies adopted from American industrial models to reorganize society.[39]

Another important theorist was Sir Patrick Geddes who

understood the importance of taking the regional environment into account and the relationship between social
issues and town planning, and foresaw the emergence of
huge urban conurbations. In 1927, he was commissioned
to plan the city of Tel Aviv, then in the British mandate for
Palestine. It consisted of about 40 blocks, sized around
150 meters square. The block contained an inner small
public garden, disposed into a windmill conguration of
inner access roads, making it awkward for car trac.
The big blocks form a gently undulating street pattern,
north-south commercial, east-west arranged to catch the
sea breeze. This was a simple and ecient manner to
modernize the historical xed grid patterns. A series of
shaded boulevards short cuts the system, with some public squares, accessing the sea front. The plan of the new
town became a success.

1.4.4 New Towns

Ebenezer Howards urban planning concepts were only

adopted on a large scale after World War II. The damage brought on by the war provoked signicant public
interest in what post-war Britain would be like, which
was encouraged by the government, who facilitated talk
about a Better Britain to boost morale. Post-war rebuilding initiatives saw new plans drafted for London, which,
for the rst time, addressed the issue of decentralization.
Firstly, the County of London Plan 1943 recognized that
displacement of population and employment was necessary if the city was to be rebuilt at a desirable density.
Moreover, the Greater London Plan of 1944 went further
by suggesting that over one million people would need to
In 1925, he exhibited his Plan Voisin, in which he
of satellite suburbs, existing
proposed to bulldoze most of central Paris north of the be displaced into a mixture [41]
rural
towns,
and
new
towns.
Seine and replace it with his sixty-story cruciform towers
from the Contemporary City, placed within an orthogo- The New Towns Act 1946 resulted many New
nal street grid and park-like green space. In the 1930s, Le Towns being constructed in Britain over the followCorbusier expanded and reformulated his ideas on urban- ing decades.[42][43]
ism, eventually publishing them in La Ville radieuse (The New towns were built in the United States from the 1960s
Radiant City) in 1935. Perhaps the most signicant dif- examples include Reston, Virginia; Columbia, Maryference between the Contemporary City and the Radiant land; Jonathan, Minnesota and Riverside Plaza. This
City is that the latter abandoned the class-based stratica- construction eort was combined with extensive federal
tion of the former; housing was now assigned according to government grants for slum clearance, improved and infamily size, not economic position.[40] Le Corbusiers the- creased housing and road construction and comprehenories were sporadically adopted by the builders of public sive urban renewal projects. Other European countries
housing in Europe and the United States.
such as France, Germany, Italy and Sweden also had
Many of his disciples became notable in their own right, some successes with new towns, especially as part of post-

1 HISTORY

war reconstruction eorts.

1.4.5

Urban planning in Communist countries

diversity in society and the economy; this is the postmodernist era.[44]

Minimally planned cities still exist. Houston is a large
city (with a metropolitan population of 5.5 million) in a
developed country without a comprehensive zoning ordinance. Houston does, however, restrict development
densities and mandate parking, even though specic land
uses are not regulated. Also, private-sector developers in
Houston use subdivision covenants and deed restrictions
to eect land-use restrictions resembling zoning laws.
Houston voters have rejected comprehensive zoning ordinances three times since 1948.

1.6 New Urbanism

Russian Magnitogorsk founded as a planned industrial city in

1929.

Urban planning was popular in the Soviet Union and other

socialist countries in the period of 1929-1989. It was seen
as one method of the scientic management of society
and as a tool for a social engineering. Many new Soviet
cities and cities and suburbs in other socialist countries
were established in accordance with the prevailing trends
of urban planning. The pioneer of urban planning in
former Czechoslovakia was a Czech entrepreneur Tom
Baa (1876-1932). He and his followers signicantly reconstructed or founded several industrial cities (Zln in
Czech Republic, Svit and Partiznske in Slovakia). Later
Czechoslovak school of city planning continued in this
tradition.

Jakriborg in Sweden, started in the late 1990s as a new urbanist

eco-friendly new town near Malm

Various current movements in urban design seek to create

sustainable urban environments with long-lasting structures, buildings and a great liveability for its inhabitants.
The most clearly dened form of walkable urbanism is
known as the Charter of New Urbanism. It is an approach
for successfully reducing environmental impacts by altering the built environment to create and preserve smart
cities that support sustainable transport. Residents in
compact urban neighborhoods drive fewer miles and have
signicantly lower environmental impacts across a range
of measures compared with those living in sprawling
1.5 Reaction
suburbs.[45] The concept of Circular ow land use management has also been introduced in Europe to promote
By the late 1960s and early 1970s, many planners felt sustainable land use patterns that strive for compact cities
that modernisms clean lines and lack of human scale and a reduction of greeneld land taken by urban sprawl.
sapped vitality from the community, blaming them for In sustainable construction, the recent movement of New
high crime rates and social problems.[44]
Classical Architecture promotes a sustainable approach
Modernist planning fell into decline in the 1970s when
the construction of cheap, uniform tower blocks ended in
most countries, such as Britain and France. Since then
many have been demolished and replaced by other housing types. Rather than attempting to eliminate all disorder, planning now concentrates on individualism and

towards urban construction that appreciates and develops smart growth, walkability, architectural tradition, and
classical design.[46][47] This is in contrast to modernist and
short-lived globally uniform architecture, as well as opposing solitary housing estates and suburban sprawl.[48]
Both trends started in the 1980s.[49]

1.7

1.7

Sustainable development and sustainability

Sustainable development and sustain- managing development processes. It was adopted as a

theoretical framework for analyzing redevelopment proability
cesses in large urban distressed areas in European cities
(see LUDA : Improving quality of life in Large Urban
Distressed Areas project Research funded by the European Commission, EVK4-CT2002-00081).
Background of CoSGOP'

CoSGOP is derived from goal-oriented planning

(Gesellschaft fr Technische Zusammenarbeit GTZ
1988), which was oriented towards the elaboration
and implementation of projects based on a logical
framework, which was useful for embedding a specic
project in a wider development frame and dening its
major elements. This approach had weaknesses: its
logical rules were strictly applied and the expert language
did not encourage participation. CoSGOP introduced
Robert Hoddle's survey of Melbourne in 1837. The layout of the a new approach characterized by communication with
city is referred to as the "Hoddle Grid".
and active involvement of stakeholders and those to be
aected by the program; strategic planning based on the
Sustainable development and sustainability inuence to- identication of strengths and weakness, opportunities
days urban planners. Some planners argue that modern and threats, as well as on scenario-building and visioning;
lifestyles use too many natural resources, polluting or de- the denition of goals as the basis for action; and
stroying ecosystems, increasing social inequality, creating long-term, exible programming of interventions by
urban heat islands, and causing climate change. Many ur- stakeholders.
ban planners, therefore, advocate sustainable cities.[50][49]
Elements of CoSGOP
However, sustainable development is a recent, controversial concept.[50] Wheeler, in his 2004 book, denes CoSGOP is not a planning method but a process model.
sustainable urban development as development that im- It provides a framework for communication and joint
proves the long-term social and ecological health of cities decision-making, in a structured process characterized
and towns. He sketches a 'sustainable' citys features: by feedback loops. It also facilitates stakeholder learncompact, ecient land use; less automobile use, yet bet- ing. The essential elements of CoSGOP are analysis
ter access; ecient resource use; less pollution and waste; of stakeholders (identifying stakeholders perceptions of
the restoration of natural systems; good housing and liv- problems, interests, and expectations); analysis of probing environments; a healthy social ecology; a sustainable lems and potentials (including objective problems and
economy; community participation and involvement; and problems and potentials perceived by stakeholders); depreservation of local culture and wisdom.[50] Urban plan- velopment of goals, improvement priorities, and alterners are now promoting a sustainable city model, which natives (requiring intensive communication and active
consists of cities that designed with consideration of en- stakeholder participation); specication of an improvevironmental impacts, such as minimizing the uses of en- ment program and its main activities (based on priorities dened with the stakeholders); assessment of possiergy, water, and the outputs of waste and pollution.[49]
ble impacts of the improvement program; denition and
Because of political and governance structures in most detailed specication of key projects and their implemenjurisdictions, sustainable planning measures must be tation; continuous monitoring of improvement activities,
widely supported before they can aect institutions and feedback, and adjustment of the programme (including
regions. Actual implementation is often a complex technical and economic information and perceptions of
compromise.[51]
stakeholders).
Nature in cities Often an integral party of sustainable Application
cities is the Incorporation of nature within a city.
CoSGOP has been applied in European cross-border polCar free sustainability in city planning can include large icy programming, as well in local and regional developpedestrian zones or be a totally Car free.
ment programming. In 2004, the CoSGOP model was
Collaborative Strategic Goal Oriented Programming applied in the LUDA Project, starting with an analysis of
(CoSGOP) is a collaborative and communicative way the European experience of urban regeneration projects.
of strategic programming, decision-making, implemen- References[52][53][54]
tation, and monitoring oriented towards dened and specic goals. It is based on sound analysis of available infor- Collaborative planning in the United States
mation, emphasizes stakeholder participation, works to Collaborative planning arose in the US in response to the
create awareness among actors, and is oriented towards

10

ASPECTS

2 Aspects
2.1 Aesthetics

The graphical scheme of the Detailed Urbanist Plan for a settlement within the Municipality of Aerodrom within the City of
Skopje, Republic of Macedonia.

inadequacy of traditional public participation techniques

to provide real opportunities for the public to make decisions aecting their communities. Collaborative planning is a method designed to empower stakeholders by
elevating them to the level of decision-makers through direct engagement and dialogue between stakeholders and
public agencies, to solicit ideas, active involvement, and
participation in the community planning process. Active public involvement can help planners achieve better
outcomes by making them aware of the publics needs
and preferences and by using local knowledge to inform
projects. When properly administered, collaboration can
result in more meaningful participation and better, more
creative outcomes to persistent problems than can traditional participation methods. It enables planners to
make decisions that reect community needs and values,
it fosters faith in the wisdom and utility of the resulting
project, and the community is given a personal stake in
its success.[55]

Towns and cities have been planned with aesthetics in mind. Here
in Bath, England, 18th-century private sector development was
designed to appear attractive.

In developed countries, there has been a backlash against

excessive human-made clutter in the visual environment,
such as signposts, signs, and hoardings.[58] Other issues
that generate strong debate among urban designers are
tensions between peripheral growth, housing density and
new settlements. There are also debates about the mixing
tenures and land uses, versus distinguishing geographic
zones where dierent uses dominate. Regardless, all successful urban planning considers urban character, local
identity, respects heritage, pedestrians, trac, utilities
and natural hazards.
Planners can help manage the growth of cities, applying
tools like zoning and growth management to manage the
uses of land. Historically, many of the cities now thought
the most beautiful are the result of dense, long lasting systems of prohibitions and guidance about building sizes,
uses and features.[59] These allowed substantial freedoms,
yet enforce styles, safety, and often materials in practical
ways. Many conventional planning techniques are being
repackaged using the contemporary term smart growth.

There are some cities that have been planned from conception, and while the results often do not turn out quite as
Experiences in Portland and Seattle have demonstrated planned, evidence of the initial plan often remains. (See
that successful collaborative planning depends on a num- List of planned cities)
ber of interrelated factors: the process must be truly in- The 20th and 21st century trend for New Classical Arclusive, with all stakeholders and aected groups invited chitecture seeks to develop aesthetically pleasing smart
to the table; the community must have nal decision- growth in urban areas and to continue architectural tradimaking authority; full government commitment (of both tion and classical design.[46][47]
nancial and intellectual resources) must be manifest;
participants should be given clear objectives by planning
sta, who facilitate the process by providing guidance, 2.2 Safety and security
consultancy, expert opinions, and research; and facilitators should be trained in conict resolution and commu- Historically within the Middle East, Europe and the rest
of the Old World, settlements were located on higher
nity organization.[56][57]

2.2

Safety and security

11
because no individual feels personally responsible, there
was a general deterioration of public space leading to a
sense of alienation and social disorder.

The medieval walled city of Carcassonne in France is built upon

high ground to provide maximum protection from attackers.

ground (for defense) and close to fresh water sources.

Cities have often grown onto coastal and ood plains at
risk of oods and storm surges. Urban planners must consider these threats. If the dangers can be localised then
the aected regions can be made into parkland or green
belt, often with the added benet of open space provision.

Jane Jacobs is another notable environmental determinist

and is associated with the eyes on the street concept. By
improving natural surveillance of shared land and facilities of nearby residents by literally increasing the number
of people who can see it, and increasing the familiarity of
residents, as a collective, residents can more easily detect
undesirable or criminal behavior. However, this is not a
new concept. This was prevalent throughout the middle
eastern world during the time of Mohamad. It was not
only reected in the general structure of the outside of
the home but also the inside. (refer to various religious
texts and archaeological sites)"
Jacobs went further, though, in emphasizing the details in
how to achieve this 'natural surveillance', in stressing the
necessity of multiple uses on city streets, so that dierent people co-mingle with dierent stores and parks in a
condensed part of city space.[60] By doing this, as well as
by making city streets interesting, she theorized a continuous animation of social actions during an average city
day, which would keep city streets interesting and well
occupied throughout a 24 hour period. She presented the
North End in Boston, Massachusetts, as an idealization
of this persistent occupation and tasking in a condensed
city space, as a model for criminal control.

Extreme weather, ood, or other emergencies can often

be greatly mitigated with secure emergency evacuation
routes and emergency operations centres. These are relatively inexpensive and unintrusive, and many consider
them a reasonable precaution for any urban space. Many The broken-windows theory argues that small indicacities will also have planned, built safety features, such as tors of neglect, such as broken windows and unkempt
lawns, promote a feeling that an area is in a state of decay.
levees, retaining walls, and shelters.
Anticipating decay, people likewise fail to maintain their
In recent years, practitioners have also been expected
own properties. The theory suggests that abandonment
to maximize the accessibility of an area to people with
causes crime, rather than crime causing abandonment.[61]
dierent abilities, practicing the notion of inclusive design, to anticipate criminal behaviour and consequently Some planning methods might help an elite group to conto design-out crime and to consider trac calming trol ordinary citizens. Haussmanns renovation of Paris
or pedestrianisation as ways of making urban life more created a system of wide boulevards which prevented the
construction of barricades in the streets and eased the
pleasant.
movement of military troops. In Rome, the Fascists in
Some city planners try to control criminality with structhe 1930s created ex novo many new suburbs in order to
tures designed from theories such as socio-architecture
concentrate criminals and poorer classes away from the
or architectural determinism a subset of environmental
elegant town.
determinism. These theories say that an urban environment can inuence individuals obedience to social rules Other social theories point out that in Britain and most
and level of power. Refer to Foucault and the Encyclope- countries since the 18th century, the transformation of
dia of the Prison System for more details. The theories societies from rural agriculture to industry caused a difoften say that psychological pressure develops in more cult adaptation to urban living. These theories emphadensely developed, unadorned areas. This stress causes size that many planning policies ignore personal tensions,
some crimes and some use of illegal drugs. The antidote forcing individuals to live in a condition of perpetual exis believed to be more individual space and better, more traneity to their cities. Many people therefore lack the
comfort of feeling at home when at home. Often these
beautiful design in place of functionalism.
theorists seek a reconsideration of commonly used stanOscar Newmans defensible space theory cites the moddards that rationalize the outcomes of a free (relatively
ernist housing projects of the 1960s as an example of
unregulated) market.
environmental determinism, where large blocks of ats
are surrounded by shared and disassociated public areas,
which are hard for residents to identify with. As those
on lower incomes cannot hire others to maintain public
space such as security guards or grounds keepers, and

12

2.3

Slums

Main article: Slums

ASPECTS

2.5 Reconstruction and renewal

Main article: Urban renewal
Areas devastated by war or invasion challenge urban

The rapid urbanization of the last century caused more

slums in the major cities of the world, particularly in developing countries. Planning resources and strategies are
needed to address the problems of slum development.
Many planners are calling for slum improvement, particularly the Commonwealth Association of Planners.[62]
When urban planners work on slums, they must cope with
racial and cultural dierences to ensure that racial steering does not occur.
Slums were often xed by clearance. However,
more creative solutions are beginning to emerge such as
Nairobi's "Camp of Fire" program, where established
slum-dwellers promise to build proper houses, schools,
and community centers without government money, in
return for land on which they have been illegally squatting on for 30 years. The Camp of Fire program is one
of many similar projects initiated by Slum Dwellers International, which has programs in Africa, Asia, and South
America.[63]

The overall area plan for the reconstruction of Kabul's Old City
area, the proposed Kabul - City of Light Development

planners. Resources are scarce. The existing population

has needs. Buildings, roads, services and basic infrastructure like power, water and sewerage are often damaged,
but with salvageable parts. Historic, religious or social
centers also need to be preserved and re-integrated into
the new city plan. A prime example of this is the capital
city of Kabul, Afghanistan, which, after decades of civil
war and occupation, has regions of rubble and desolation.
2.4 Decay
Despite this, the indigenous population continues to live
in the area, constructing makeshift homes and shops out
Main article: Urban decay
of salvaged materials. Any reconstruction plan, such as
Hisham Ashkouri's City of Light Development, needs to
Urban decay is a process by which a city, or a part of be sensitive to the needs of this community and its exista city, falls into a state of disrepair and neglect. It is ing culture and businesses.
characterized by depopulation, economic restructuring,
property abandonment, high unemployment, fragmented Urban reconstruction development plans must also work
families, political disenfranchisement, crime, and deso- with government agencies as well as private interests to
develop workable designs.
late urban landscapes.
During the 1970s and 1980s, urban decay was often associated with central areas of cities in North America and
Europe. During this time, changes in global economies,
demographics, transportation, and policies fostered urban decay.[64] Many planners spoke of "white ight" during this time. This pattern was dierent from the pattern of outlying slums and suburban ghettos found in
many cities outside of North America and Western Europe, where central urban areas actually had higher real
estate values.

2.6 New master-planned cities

In the 21st Century, countries in Asia and the MiddleEast have embarked on plans to build brand new large
cities.[66][67][68] Masdar City, a new city in UAE, cost $18
billion.[67]

One expert has said building a brand new city for 1 million
people would be regarded as a terrifying concept in the
United Kingdom[69] while in Asia brand new large cities
Starting in the 1990s, many of the central urban areas are being built.[69]
in North America have been experiencing a reversal of
the urban decay, with rising real estate values, smarter Many of these new cities are built to use new technologies
cooling and automatic waste collection[70]
development, demolition of obsolete social housing and such as District
[71][72]
City
or Personal Rapid Transit in Masdar
a wider variety of housing choices.[65] However, rever- in GIFT
[73]
City.
sal of urban decay (gentrication) often causes housing
aordability in the inner city to decrease, with the conse- Saudi Arabia is building 5 new cities to control congestion
quence that poorer residents are pushed out, often to older and sprawl in existing cities.[66] While India is building 7
inner and middle ring suburbs. This suburbanization of new cities to provide space and facilities that are missing
poverty has important implications for siting aordable in existing cities, such as cycling paths, parks and pubhousing, and transportation and social services planning. lic transport within a 10 minute walk to every oce and

2.8

Suburbanization

home.[74]

2.7

Transport

13
very high density. Most exurbs are below two, while most
city centres are well above ve. Walk-up apartments with
basement garages can easily achieve a density of three.
Skyscrapers easily achieve densities of thirty or more.

City authorities may try to encourage higher densities to

Main article: Transportation planning
reduce per-capita infrastructure costs. In the UK, recent
Transport within urbanized areas presents unique probyears have seen a concerted eort to increase the density of residential development in order to better achieve
sustainable development. Increasing development density has the advantage of making mass transport systems,
district heating and other community facilities (schools,
health centres, etc.) more viable. However critics of this
approach dub the densication of development as 'town
cramming' and claim that it lowers quality of life and restricts market-led choice.

Very densely built-up areas require high capacity urban transit,

and urban planners must consider these factors in long term plans
(Canary Wharf tube station).

Problems can often occur at residential densities between

about two and ve.[75] These densities can cause trac
jams for automobiles, yet are too low to be commercially
served by trains or light rail systems. The conventional solution is to use buses, but these and light rail systems may
fail where automobiles and excess road network capacity
are both available, achieving less than 2% ridership.[76]
The LewisMogridge Position claims that increasing road
space is not an eective way of relieving trac jams as
latent or induced demand invariably emerges to restore a
socially tolerable level of congestion.

2.8 Suburbanization
Main articles: Suburbanization and Urban sprawl
In some countries, declining satisfaction with the urban

Although an important factor, there is a complex relationship between urban densities and car use.

lems. The density of an urban environment increases

trac, which can harm businesses and increase pollution
unless properly managed. Parking space for private vehicles requires the construction of large parking garages
in high density areas. This space could often be more
valuable for other development.
Good planning uses transit oriented development, which
attempts to place higher densities of jobs or residents
near high-volume transportation. For example, some
cities permit commerce and multi-story apartment buildings only within one block of train stations and multilane
boulevards, and accept single-family dwellings and parks
farther away.

Low-density (auto-oriented) suburban development near

Colorado Springs, Colorado, United States

environment is held to blame for continuing migration to

smaller towns and rural areas (so-called urban exodus).
Successful urban planning supported Regional planning
can bring benets to a much larger hinterland or city reFloor area ratio is often used to measure density. This is gion and help to reduce both congestion along transport
the oor area of buildings divided by the land area. Ratios routes and the wastage of energy implied by excessive
below 1.5 are low density. Ratios above ve constitute commuting.

14

2.9

Environmental factors

Main article: Environmental planning

ASPECTS

dressed in the design of urban highways as well as noise

barriers.[78] The Phase I Environmental Site Assessment
can be an important tool to the urban planner by identifying early in the planning process any geographic areas or parcels which have toxic constraints. In addition, automated tools have been developed to enable planners to design renewable energy systems at the city scale
such as the distribution of roof-mounted photovoltaic
systems.[79][80][81][82]

Environmental protection and conservation are of utmost

importance to many planning systems across the world.
Not only are the specic eects of development to be
mitigated, but attempts are made to minimize the overall
eect of development on the local and global environment. This is commonly done through the assessment of Tall buildings in particular can have a substantial efSustainable urban infrastructure and microclimate.
fect in channeling winds and shading large areas. The
microclimate around the building will typically be assessed as part of the environmental impact assessment for
2.10 Scope
the building. The placement and design of buildings may
also be aected by the land on which they are placed. Soil
Theoretically, the primary purpose of zoning is to segre- and rock considerations such as depth to bedrock may ingate uses that are thought to be incompatible. In practice, uence the height of very tall structures, as in Manhattan,
zoning is used to prevent new development from inter- though there is less impact than previously supposed,[83]
fering with existing residents or businesses and to pre- and geological conditions such as fault lines may aect
serve the character of a community. Zoning is com- building requirements. See: Geotechnical engineering.
monly controlled by local governments such as counties
or municipalities, though the nature of the zoning regime
may be determined or limited by state or national plan- 2.11 Light and sound
ning authorities or through enabling legislation.[77] In
Australia, land under the control of the Commonwealth The urban canyon eect is a colloquial, non-scientic
(federal) government is not subject to state planning con- term referring to street space bordered by very high buildtrols. The United States and other federal countries ings. This type of environment may shade the sidewalk
are similar. Zoning and urban planning in France and level from direct sunlight during most daylight hours.
Germany are regulated by national or federal codes. In While an oft-decried phenomenon, it is rare except in
the case of Germany this code includes contents of zon- very dense, hyper-tall urban environments, such as those
ing plans as well as the legal procedure.
found in Lower and Midtown Manhattan, Chicagos Loop
Zoning may include regulation of the kinds of activities
which will be acceptable on particular lots (such as open
space, residential, agricultural, commercial or industrial),
the densities at which those activities can be performed
(from low-density housing such as single family homes to
high-density such as high-rise apartment buildings), the
height of buildi process is known as a Sustainability Appraisal.

and Hong Kongs Kowloon and Central.

In most advanced urban or village planning models, local context is critical. In many, gardening and other outdoor activities assumes a central role in the daily life of
citizens. Environmental planners focus now on smaller
and larger systems of resource extraction and consumption, energy production, and waste disposal. A practice
known as Arcology seeks to unify the elds of ecology
and architecture, using principles of landscape architecture to achieve a harmonious environment for all living
things. On a small scale, the eco-village theory has become popular, as it emphasizes a traditional 100140 person scale for communities.

Light pollution has become a problem in urban residential areas, not only as it relates to its eects on the night
sky, but as some lighting is so intrusive as to cause conict
in the residential areas and paradoxically intense improperly installed security lighting may pose a danger to the
public, producing excessive glare. The development of
the full cuto xture, properly installed, has reduced this
problem considerably.

An urban planner can use a number of quantitative tools

to forecast impacts of development on the environmental, including roadway air dispersion models to predict
air quality impacts of urban highways and roadway noise
models to predict noise pollution eects of urban highways. As early as the 1960s, noise pollution was ad-

2.12.1 Access & Health Impacts

In urban planning, sound is usually measured as a source

of pollution. Another perspective on urban sounds is developed in Soundscape studies emphasising that sound
aesthetics involves more than noise abatement and decibel measurements. Hedfors[84] coined 'Sonotope' as a
useful concept in urban planning to relate typical sounds
to a specic place.

2.12 Water and Sanitation Infrastructure

Water and sanitation services are key considerations in

the planning of cities. This encompasses water provision,
waste-water treatment, and sewage infrastructure. These
services are crucial for public health thus, one aspect of

2.12

Water and Sanitation Infrastructure

15

urban planning is to consider how to best provide these lic health among the poor, but as NGOs and CBOs have
services to urban residents in eective and cost-sensitive pointed out, the government has been unable to adeways.
quately address the need for these services in urban enviprocuring these services from
Within urban environments, there are a number of dis- ronments or the high cost of
[91]
private
service
providers.
However, NGOs and CBOs
parities with regards to access to these services. For exare
inherently
limited
in
their
ability to provide sanitation
ample, as of 2006, among the poorest quartile of the
services,
however,
due
to
the
need to obtain permissions
urban population in India, over 80% lacked access to
for
undertaking
infrastructure
projects and due to the high
piped water at home and over half did not have sanicosts of implementing them.
[85]
tary ushes or pit toilets. Data collected in 20052006
revealed that under half of the urban poor could access
adequate sanitation compared to about 95% of the urban non-poor.[86] In India, slums compose a major part 2.12.2 Latrines
of the urban environment one of the largest barriers to
improving slum conditions is that many slums go undoc- Main article: Toilet
umented. Because most slums are informal settlements
with no tenure rights, their illegal status excludes them One aspect of sanitation infrastructure that is a major
from ocial listings and thus excludes them from access determinant of environmental health in slums is the lato municipal water and sanitation services.[87]
trine. There are a number of variables surrounding laEconomic status is highly correlated to water and sanitation service access in urban environments. But economic
status is often tied to other demographic characteristics
such as caste, ethnicity, and race. Therefore access to
water and sanitation services is an equity issue that faces
urban planners working for urban governments. In the
absence of policy to address these infrastructural disparities, the urban poor and minorities suer disproportionately. A study of the social determinants of childrens
health in urban settings in India looked at data from Indias National Family Health Survey and found that even
within poor urban areas, caste status, religion, and sex
are major factors which determine family employment
and education level, factors which in turn aect access to
sanitation and water.[88]
Water and sanitation issues relate directly to health outcomes due to the susceptibility to disease experienced
by populations that lack adequate access. In the 19th
and 20th centuries, diseases like cholera were particularly feared due to their devastating eects and due
to their proliferation in areas with poor waste management practices.[89] Today diseases such as dengue
fever, Hepatitis A, and intestinal parasites, are all examples of water-borne illnesses that aect the urban poor.
Diarrheal illnesses are perhaps today the leading type of
waterborne disease with cities like Jakarta experiencing
disease rates as high as 50 cases per 1000 people.[90]
In India, waterborne disease accounts for the loss of
roughly 180 million person-workdays annually, the economic equivalent of approximately 12 billion rupees.[86]
Thus inadequate access to water and sanitation among the
urban poor and socially disadvantaged leads to systematic
vulnerability to disease, which has both public health and
economic consequences.
In Uganda, in order to address some of these access issues, NGOs and community- based-organizations
(CBOs) have stepped in. The government in Uganda has
acknowledged the role of sanitation in improving pub-

trines and sewage which can play a critical role in determining health outcomes for urban families, including latrine location (in house versus out of house), latrine usage
(family vs community), and latrine type (for example pit
latrine versus toilet). Furthermore, the latrine is a critical
aspect of urban household-level layouts and designs.
In slum areas, unlined pit latrines constructed in areas
with a high water table are a very common option. Other
methods include ying toilets (in which individuals will
excrete waste into polythene bags, tie them up, then throw
them into the surrounding environment) and open defecation, both of which have signicant environmental health
risks associated with them. Only a small percentage of
slum residents have access to amenities like ventilated improved pit latrines and pour ush toilets.[92] Flying toilets
and open defecation are signicant environmental health
risks because they expose communities to many of the
pathogens and illnesses carried by sewage. Unlined pit
latrines are problematic due to their contamination of
groundwater.[92]
One solution to the infrastructural issues posed by sewage
and wastewater management in urban areas is the development of community toilet blocks. In India, the Alliance
(consisting the three NGOs: Mahila Milan, SPARC, and
the National Slum Dwellers Federation) has implemented
a multi-city community toilet block program in more
than eight dierent cities.[93] The goal of this program
is to elicit community participation in designing, building, and maintaining toilet blocks for communities. Traditionally, community toilet blocks have been problematic: municipal corporations often fail to upkeep the toilets, the toilets often become very dirty and unsanitary
areas of open defecation, and with these toilets rendered
unusable, women often abstain from excreting waste until nightfall to preserve modesty, which can often lead to
gastric issues and other disorders.[93] To address these issues, the Alliance has worked with womens groups to
spearhead eorts to pressure municipal service providers
into making big pipe infrastructure available to com-

16

3 THEORIES OF PLANNING

munities so that community groups can build their own

little pipe infrastructure and community toilet blocks to
connect to this infrastructure. In addition, these community groups create management plans for maintaining the
toilets, which are designed according to common-usage
practices. The improved designs used by community
groups often take into account often overlooked factors
such as separating male and female entrances and not having them face each other to avoid sexual harassment.[93]
In the case of the Alliance, involving the community
groups helped determine the relevant areas of focus for
the project.
2.12.3

Waste-Water

See main article: Sewage treatment

Waste-water collection and treatment has always been an
important consideration in urban planning, but it is becoming increasingly critical as urban population levels
rise and water conservation becomes a growing concern.
Many planners are now considering how to properly incorporate waste-water treatment into urban environments
in eective, and equitable ways.
In the US, prior to the 19th century, cities often used a decentralized privy vault-cesspool model for waste management. Urban households had vaults or tubs beneath their
latrines, which would collect waste-water until the vaults
needed to be emptied into a nearby cesspool. This model
worked at the time due to relatively low urban populations. However, industrialization, urbanization, and population growth during the 19th century led to a dramatic
increase in Americas city-dwelling population and thus
increased the need for a centralized waste-water collection and processing system.[94] With the introduction of
piped water, such a centralized system became possible
as larger quantities of water were necessary for watercarriage waste removal. Since the 19th century, watercarriage sewage management has been preferred by planners due to its scalability.

public participation.

3.1 Rational planning

Following the rise of empiricism during the industrial
revolution, the rational planning movement (18901960)
emphasized the improvement of the built environment
based on key spatial factors. Examples of these factors
include: exposure to direct sunlight, movement of vehicular trac, standardized housing units, and proximity to
green-space.[96] To identify and design for these spatial
factors, rational planning relied on a small group of highly
specialized technicians, including architects, urban designers, and engineers. Other, less common, but nonetheless inuential groups included governmental ocials,
private developers, and landscape architects. Through
the strategies associated with these professions, the rational planning movement developed a collection of techniques for quantitative assessment, predictive modeling,
and design. Due to the high level of training required to
grasp these methods, however, rational planning fails to
provide an avenue for public participation. In both theory
and practice, this shortcoming opened rational planning
to claims of elitism and social insensitivity.
Although it can be seen as an extension of the sort of civic
pragmatism seen in Oglethorpes plan for Savannah or
William Penns plan for Philadelphia, the roots of the rational planning movement lie in Britains Sanitary Movement (1800-1890).[97] During this period, advocates such
as Charles Booth and Ebenezer Howard argued for central organized, top-down solutions to the problems of industrializing cities. In keeping with the rising power of
industry, the source of planning authority in the Sanitary
Movement included both traditional governmental oces
and private development corporations. In London and it
surrounding suburbs, cooperation between these two entities created a network of new communities clustered
around the expanding rail system.[98] Two of the best
examples of these communities are Letchworth in Hertfordshire and Hampstead Garden Suburb in Greater London. In both communities, architects Raymond Unwin
and Richard Barry Parker exemplify the elite, top-down
approach associated with the rational planning movement
by using the planning process to establish a uniform landscape and architectural style based on an idealized medieval village.

However, more recently, decentralized waste water management has made a resurgence among planners and researchers. While centralized water-carriage systems have
more potential for scalability, decentralized systems are
simply more ecient because the waste-water is managed
closer to where it is generated, thus allowing for each
management system to be adapted to the local commuFrom Britain, the rational planning movement spread
nity/household needs.[95]
out across the world. In areas undergoing industrialization themselves, British inuences combined with local movements to create unique reinterpretations of the
3 Theories of planning
rational planning process. In Paris, architect Le Corbusier adopted rational plannings centralized approach
Planning theory is generally called procedural because it and added to it a dedication to quantitative assessment
generally concerns itself with the process through which and a love for the automobile. Together, these two facplanning occurs and whether or not that process is valid. tors yielded the inuential planning aesthetic known as
Lane (2005) traces the intellectual history through its dif- Tower in the Park. In the United States, Frank Lloyd
ferent procedural approaches, especially as they relate to Wright similarly identied vehicular mobility as a prin-

3.3

Participatory Planning

cipal planning metric. However, where Le Corbusier

emphasized design through quantitative assessment of
spatial processes, Wright identied the insights of local
public technicians as the key design criteria. Wrights
Broadacre City provides a vivid expression of what this
landscape might look like.

17

3.3 Participatory Planning

Participatory planning is an urban planning paradigm
that emphasizes involving the entire community in the
strategic and management processes of urban planning;
or, community-level planning processes, urban or rural. It is often considered as part of community development.[102] Participatory planning aims to harmonize
views among all of its participants as well as prevent conict between opposing parties. In addition, marginalized
groups have an opportunity to participate in the planning
process.[103]

Throughout both the United States and Europe, the rational planning movement declined in the later half of
the 20th century.[99] The reason for the movements decline was also its strength. By focusing so much on design by technical elites, rational planning lost touch with
the public it hoped to serve. Key events in this decline
in the United States include the demolition of the PruittIgoe housing project in St. Louis and the national backlash against urban renewal projects, particularly urban ex- 3.4 Incrementalism
pressway projects.[100]
Beginning in the late 1950s and early 1960s, critiques of
the rational paradigm began to emerge and formed into
several dierent schools of planning thought. The rst of
these schools is Lindbloms incrementalism. Lindblom
3.2 Synoptic planning
describes planning as muddling through and thought
that practical planning required decisions to be made inAfter, the fall of blueprint planning in the late 1950s crementally. This incremental approach meant choosand early 1960s, the synoptic model began to emerge as a ing from small number of policy approaches that can
dominant force in planning. Lane (2005) describes syn- only have a small number consequences and are rmly
optic planning as having four central elements:
bounded by reality, constantly adjusting the objectives
of the planning process and using multiple analyses and
evaluations.[104] Lane (2005) explains the public involve"(1) an enhanced emphasis on the specication
ment implications of this philosophy. Though this perof goals and targets; (2) an emphasis on quanspective of planning could be considered a large step fortitative analysis and predication of the environward in that it recognizes that there are number of public
ment; (3) a concern to identify and evaluate alinterests and because it provides room for the planning
ternative policy options; and (4) the evaluation
process to be less centralized and incorporate the voices
of means against ends (page 289).[101]
other than those of planners, it in practice would only allow for the public to involved in a minimal, more reactive
rather than proactive way.[101]
Public participation was rst introduced into this model
and it was generally integrated into the system process
described above. However, the problem was that the idea 3.5 Mixed scanning model
of a single public interest still dominated attitudes, eectively devaluing the importance of participation because The mixed scanning model, developed by Etzioni, takes
it suggests the idea that the public interest is relatively a similar, but slightly dierent approach. Etzioni (1968)
easy to nd and only requires the most minimal form of suggested that organizations plan on two dierent levels:
participation.[101]
the tactical and the strategic. He posited that organizaBlueprint and synoptic planning both employ what is tions could accomplish this by essentially scanning the
called the rational paradigm of planning. The rational environment on multiple levels and then choose dierent
model is perhaps the most widely accepted model among strategies and tactics to address what they found there.
planning practitioners and scholars, and is considered by While Lindbloms approach only operated on the funcmany to be the orthodox view of planning. As its name tional level Etzioni argued, the mixed scanning approach
both the
clearly suggests, the goal of the rational model is to make would allow planning organizations to work on[105]
Lane
functional
and
more
big-picture
oriented
levels.
planning as rational and systematic as possible. Propoexplains
though,
that
this
model
does
not
do
much
more
at
nents of this paradigm would generally come up with
improving
public
involvement
since
the
planner
or
plana list of steps that the planning process can be at least
relatively neatly sorted out into and that planning prac- ning organization is still at its focus and since its goal is
titioners should go through in order when setting out to not necessarily to achieve consensus or reconcile dierplan in virtually any area. As noted above, this paradigm ing points of view on a particular subject.
has clear implications for public involvement in planning By the late 1960s and early 1970s, planners began to look
for new approaches because as happened nearly a decade
decisions.[101]

18

before, it was realized that the current models were not

necessarily sucient. As had happened before, a number
of dierent models emerged. Lane (2005) notes that it is
most useful to think of these model as emerging from a
social transformation planning tradition as opposed to a
social guidance one, so the emphasis is more bottom-up
in nature than it is top-down.[101]

3.6

Transactive planning

Transactive planning was a radical break from previous

models. Instead of considering public participation as
method that would be used in addition to the normal training planning process, participation was a central goal. For
the rst time, the public was encouraged to take on an
active role in the policy setting process, while the planner took on the role of a distributor of information and a
feedback source.[101] Transactive planning focuses on interpersonal dialogue that develops ideas, which will be
turned into action. One of the central goals is mutual
learning where the planner gets more information on the
community and citizens become more educated about
planning issues.[106]

3.7

Advocacy planning

Advocacy planning is another radical departure from past

theoretical models. This model takes the perspective that
there are large inequalities in the political system and in
the bargaining process between groups that result in large
numbers of people unorganized and unrepresented in the
process. It concerns itself with ensuring that all people
are equally represented in the planning process by advocating for the interests of the underprivileged and seeking social change.[107][108] Again, public participation is
a central tenet of this model. A plurality of public interests is assumed, and the role of planner is essentially
the one as a facilitator who either advocates directly for
underrepresented groups directly or encourages them to
become part of the process.[101]

3.8

PROCESS

process. Decisions are made rst and foremost by the

public, and the planner plays a more minor role.[101]

3.9 Communicative approach

The communicative approach to planning is perhaps the
most dicult to explain. It focuses on using communication to help dierent interests in the process understand each other. The idea is that each individual will approach a conversation with his or her own subjective experience in mind and that from that conservation shared
goals and possibilities will emerge. Again, participation
plays a central role under this model. The model seeks to
include as a broad range of voice to enhance the debate
and negotiation that is supposed to form the core of actual plan making. In this model, participation is actually
fundamental to the planning process happening. Without the involvement of concerned interests there is no
planning.[101]
Looking at each of these models it becomes clear that
participation is not only shaped by the public in a given
area or by the attitude of the planning organization or
planners that work for it. In fact, public participation is
largely inuenced by how planning is dened, how planning problems are dened, the kinds of knowledge that
planners choose to employ and how the planning context
is set.[101] Though some might argue that is too dicult to
involve the public through transactive, advocacy, bargaining and communicative models because transportation is
some ways more technical than other elds, it is important to note that transportation is perhaps unique among
planning elds in that its systems depend on the interaction of a number of individuals and organizations.[110]

4 Process

Bargaining model

The bargaining model views planning as the result of give

and take on the part of a number of interests who are all
involved in the process. It argues that this bargaining is
the best way to conduct planning within the bounds of legal and political institutions. Like the advocacy model,
this model recognizes that there are inherent inequalities
in society, but it asserts that each group or individual in
our unequal society has a chance to inuence planning
decisions, even if they are unable to dominate it or win
the benets that they are seeking.[109] The most interesting part of this theory of planning is that makes public
participation the central dynamic in the decision-making

Blight may sometimes cause communities to consider redeveloping and urban planning.

Prior to 1950, Urban Planning was seldom considered a

unique profession.[111] There were, and are, of course,

19
dierences from country to country. For example, the
UKs Royal Town Planning Institute was created as a professional organisation in 1914 and given a Royal Charter
in 1959. Town planning focused on top-down processes
by which the urban planner created the plans. The planner would know architecture, surveying, or engineering,
bringing to the town planning process ideals based on
these disciplines. They typically worked for national or
local governments. Urban planners were seen as generalists, capable of integrating the work of other disciplines
into a coherent plan for whole cities or parts of cities.
A good example of this kind of planner was Lewis Keeble and his standard textbook, Principles and Practice of
Town and Country Planning, published in 1951.[112]

4.1

Changes to the planning process

Strategic Urban Planning over past decades have witnessed the metamorphosis of the role of the urban
planner in the planning process. More citizens calling for democratic planning & development processes
have played a huge role in allowing the public to make
important decisions as part of the planning process.
Community organizers and social workers are now very
involved in planning from the grassroots level.[113] The
term advocacy planning was coined by Paul Davido
in his inuential 1965 paper, Advocacy and Pluralism in Planning which acknowledged the political nature of planning and urged planners to acknowledge that
their actions are not value-neutral and encouraged minority and under represented voices to be part of planning
decisions.[114] Benveniste argued that planners had a political role to play and had to bend some truth to power if
their plans were to be implemented.[115]

end residential and commercial district.

Recent theories of urban planning, espoused, for example
by Salingaros see the city as an adaptive system that grows
according to process similar to those of plants. They say
that urban planning should thus take its cues from such
natural processes.[117] Such theories also advocate participation by inhabitants in the design of the urban environment, as opposed to simply leaving all development to
large-scale construction rms.[118]
In the process of creating an urban plan or urban design,
carrier-inll is one mechanism of spatial organization in
which the citys gure and ground components are considered separately. The urban gure, namely buildings, are
represented as total possible building volumes, which are
left to be designed by architects in following stages. The
urban ground, namely in-between spaces and open areas,
are designed to a higher level of detail. The carrier-inll
approach is dened by an urban design performing as the
carrying structure that creates the shape and scale of the
spaces, including future building volumes that are then
inlled by architects designs. The contents of the carrier structure may include street pattern, landscape architecture, open space, waterways, and other infrastructure.
The inll structure may contain zoning, building codes,
quality guidelines, and Solar Access based upon a solar
envelope.[119][120] Carrier-Inll urban design is dierentiated from complete urban design, such as in the monumental axis of Braslia, in which the urban design and
architecture were created together.

In carrier-inll urban design or urban planning, the negative space of the city, including landscape, open space,
and infrastructure is designed in detail. The positive
space, typically building site for future construction, are
only represented as unresolved volumes. The volumes
Ozawa and Seltzer (1999) advocate a communicative are representative of the total possible building envelope,
planning model in education to teach planners to work which can then be inlled by individual architects.
within the social and political context of the planning
process. In their paper Taking Our Bearings: Mapping a Relationship among Planning Practice, Theory, 5 See also
and Education, the authors demonstrate the importance of educating planners beyond the rational plan Circles of Sustainability
ning model in which planners make supposedly valueneutral recommendations based on science and reason.
Index of urban planning articles
Through a survey of employers, it was found that the
Index of urban studies articles
most highly rated skills in entry-level professional hiring
are communication-based. The results suggest this view
List of planned cities
of planning as a communicative discourse as a possible
List of planning journals
bridge between theory and practice, and indicate that the
education of planners needs to incorporate synthesis and
List of urban planners
communication across the curriculum.[116]
List of urban theorists
Developers have also played huge roles in development,
particularly by planning projects. Many recent developments were results of large and small-scale developers
who purchased land, designed the district and constructed
the development from scratch. The Melbourne Docklands, for example, was largely an initiative pushed by
private developers to redevelop the waterfront into a high-

MONU magazine on urbanism

Transition Towns (network)
Transportation demand management
Urban acupuncture

20

References

Notes
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[4] Dalley 1989, p.120.
[5] Davreu, Robert (1978). Cities of Mystery: The Lost
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[8] Aristotle, Politica II
[9] Urban planning in ancient Egypt
[10] Kolb, Frank (1984). Die Stadt im Altertum. Mnchen:
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EXTERNAL LINKS

Further reading
Urban Planning, 1794-1918: An International Anthology of Articles, Conference Papers, and Reports,
Selected, Edited, and Provided with Headnotes by
John W. Reps, Professor Emeritus, Cornell University.
City Planning According to Artistic Principles,
Camillo Sitte, 1889
Kemp, Roger L. and Carl J. Stephani (2011). Cities
Going Green: A Handbook of Best Practices. McFarland and Co., Inc., Jeerson, NC, USA, and
London, England, UK. (ISBN 978-0-7864-5968-1).
Tomorrow: A Peaceful Path to Real Reform,
Ebenezer Howard, 1898
The Improvement of Towns and Cities, Charles Mulford Robinson, 1901
Town Planning in practice, Raymond Unwin, 1909

The Image of the City, Kevin Lynch, 1960

The Concise Townscape, Gordon Cullen, 1961
The Death and Life of Great American Cities, Jane
Jacobs, 1961
The City in History, Lewis Mumford, 1961
The City is the Frontier, Charles Abrams, Harper &
Row Publishing, New York, 1965.
A Pattern Language, Christopher Alexander, Sara
Ishikawa and Murray Silverstein, 1977
What Do Planners Do?: Power, Politics, and Persuasion, Charles Hoch, American Planning Association, 1994. ISBN 978-0-918286-91-8
Planning the Twentieth-Century American City,
Christopher Silver and Mary Corbin Sies (Eds.),
Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996
The City Shaped: Urban Patterns and Meanings Through History, Spiro Kostof, 2nd Edition,
Thames and Hudson Ltd, 1999 ISBN 978-0-50028099-7
The American City: A Social and Cultural History,
Daniel J. Monti, Jr., Oxford, England and Malden,
Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers, 1999. 391 pp.
ISBN 978-1-55786-918-0.
Urban Development: The Logic Of Making Plans,
Lewis D. Hopkins, Island Press, 2001. ISBN 155963-853-2
Readings in Planning Theory, Susan Fainstein and
Scott Campbell, Oxford, England and Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers, 2003.
Taylor, Nigel, (2007), Urban Planning Theory since
1945, London, Sage.
Planning for the Unplanned: Recovering from Crises
in Megacities, by Aseem Inam (published by Routledge USA, 2005).

8 External links
Urban and Regional Planning at DMOZ

8.1

8.1

Library Guides for Urban Planning

Library Guides for Urban Planning

Libraries. Urban Planning Resources. Research

Guides. USA: Arizona State University.
Library. Urban Planning. Research Guides.
University of California, Los Angeles.
Avery Architectural and Fine Arts Library. Urban
Planning. Research Guides. New York: Columbia
University.
Library. Urban & Regional Policy. Research
Guides. USA: Georgia Tech.
Harvard University Graduate School of Design.
Urban Planning and Design. Research Guides.
Massachusetts: Harvard Library.
Hunter College Libraries. Urban Aairs & Planning. Topic Guides. New York City: CUNY
Hunter College.
University Library. City Planning. LibGuides.
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
MIT Libraries. Urban Studies & Planning. Research Guides. Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Urban & Regional Planning. Research Guides.
USA: University of Michigan.
Library. Urban Studies & Planning. Research
Guides. Oregon, USA: Portland State University.
Reps, John W. (27 November 2002). Urban Planning, 1794-1918: An International Anthology of
Articles, Conference Papers, and Reports. Research Guides.
Unplanned Urban Growth and its Eect on the Sustainability Discoli, Carlos; Martini, Irene. Scientic
& Academic Publishing - Resources and Environment; vol. 2, no. 3. ISSN: 2163-2618.

25

26

9 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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Urban planning Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban%20planning?oldid=633016205 Contributors: Andre Engels, Danny, Christian List, Gianfranco, Atorpen, Qbmessiah, Ray Van De Walker, DavidLevinson, Ark, Heron, Jaknouse, Edward, Patrick, Michael Hardy,
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Janko, Bemoeial, Nickg, WhisperToMe, Tpbradbury, Dogface, Babbler, Wetman, Bcorr, Francs2000, Cluth, Darkcore, Robbot, Fredrik,
Tomchiukc, Kokiri, Postdlf, Academic Challenger, Pcr, DHN, Pko, Isopropyl, Michael2, Noizy, Marnanel, Orangemike, MSGJ, Jae Yong
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Padraic, Solace098, Coneslayer, Lockley, Vary, XLerate, Ligulem, JohnnoShadbolt, Algebra, Ground Zero, Townsnda, Leslie Mateus,
Simishag, Tysto, FedericoMenaQuintero, Aberwulf, Chobot, Sherool, Bgwhite, Wavelength, Phantomsteve, Kordas, RussBot, Stephenb,
Manop, CambridgeBayWeather, Rsrikanth05, Haizum, Sanguinity, NawlinWiki, Rjensen, Bjrobinson, Elmwood, Guppywon, Wknight94,
CQ, Cmoser, Arthur Rubin, Donald Albury, Cheesewizard, NeilN, John Broughton, Eptin, DVD R W, Saikiri, That Guy, From That
Show!, Attilios, SmackBot, Ex1st, Steins, Pgk, Jagged 85, Verne Equinox, Jfurr1981, Sansvoix, Passdoubt, Kudzu1, Gilliam, Duke Ganote, Oscarthecat, Ppntori, Chris the speller, Elagatis, Droll, Hossen27, Pdxstreetcar, Zsinj, Onceler, OrphanBot, JonHarder, Thisisbossi,
Rrburke, Stevenmitchell, Silverjonny, Mesmith9, Kevlar67, Hurker, Gurdjie, JC Shepard, Thistheman, Dogears, Will Beback, Tydus
Arandor, Phanton, Anlace, Valfontis, Kuru, KenFehling, Jidanni, Tktktk, Bjankuloski06en, Wilson frederick, Ckatz, Grumpyyoungman01,
Optimale, Waggers, RichardF, Sjsharksrs, ShakingSpirit, Hu12, Levineps, Burdword, Civil Engineer III, Anger22, FancyPants, Tawkerbot2, The Letter J, Jonnyboy122, AbsolutDan, Covalent, CmdrObot, Ale jrb, RedRollerskate, Mcginnly, Gbellocchi, Wikipeder, Neelix,
Gregbard, Richcarson, Chasingsol, Torvik, Jlanska, Gonzo fan2007, Zalgo, Pavleski001, Dbarnes99, Sonderbro, Islescape, OrangePeel,
TonyTheTiger, HappyInGeneral, Mojo Hand, Atillidie13, Marek69, JustAGal, Tonyfv, A.J.Chesswas, Jdaviescoates, JeremiahJohnson,
Thomas Paine1776, Futurebird, I already forgot, AntiVandalBot, Fedayee, NightwolfAA2k5, Jj137, Zweifel, Piotr (Venezuela), Phmalo,
Dylan Lake, David Shankbone, JAnDbot, DuncanHill, Ewm, Rjholmer, Acroterion, Magioladitis, Fitnr, Gsaup, VoABot II, JNW, Tedickey,
Aeonian, Arcaddmarketing, Nyttend, Lester Townsend, Jeroenl, Srice13, Gimlei, Amadalvarez, DerHexer, Kayau, Gun Powder Ma, DGG,
FisherQueen, Rjwellings, Jim.henderson, Atlantacitizen, Cholga, CygnetSaIad, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Mausy5043, Tgeairn, Adavidb,
Jrsnbarn, Ginsengbomb, Word2line, Gus Buster, Jeepday, Toppler, Ephebi, Sundar1, NewEnglandYankee, Flatterworld, Ajschorschiii,
Zgdripps, Johnsor7, Bonadea, Andy Marchbanks, Joshww81, DASonnenfeld, Johnny Au, Triskele Jim, DimiTalen, Altruism, Technopat,
Andreas Kaganov, Datstanna, Tri400, Scrawlspacer, Wordmoderators, Qworty, Onceonthisisland, Valethar, Kaustubh48, SieBot, Doktor
Drakken, W.wang81, Anthony1776, Yintan, JabbaTheBot, Triadian, Eyedubya, Ranaldmackinnon, Flyer22, Ps6973, FIRSTBEAGLE,
Par-darmstadt, Lightmouse, Fratrep, Macy, Wiknerd, Jza84, Alpha Centaury, Athenean, Deanist, ClueBot, Kennedy, Elaw, Catarina
Camarinhas, The Thing That Should Not Be, Plastikspork, Rpfar, Drmies, Edgaro55, AHJohnstone, Grebenkov, Jes0586, Excirial, Keithutexas, Sun Creator, Aeden J., Urbancity, Techfast50, Hanshedrich, SchreiberBike, Nukeless, Craig James White, BOTarate, Zahnrad,
Nighttemper, Dana boomer, DRSOLAR, Qwfp, No i wont talk with u, Vanished user uih38riiw4hjlsd, Certied planner, Travelplanner,
XLinkBot, Roxy the dog, Calakmul2003, Gutt2007, Dforaste, Vivness, Addbot, Guanako512, CanadianLinuxUser, Nelsnelson, Socipoet,
CP3Plan, MrOllie, Timbomcchoi, Bike756, Urbourbo, Ritzbitz414, Xalteva, Cuprum, Gail, Babug, Yobot, Otwguy, Tohd8BohaithuGh1,
TaBOT-zerem, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, ThomasULI, AnomieBOT, Galoubet, Lispp, Piano non troppo, Avi.akkerman, Milo111,
UDJ, Giants27, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Indiansummermh, LovesMacs, LilHelpa, Obersachsebot, Lcurvey, Capricorn42, Drilnoth,
A455bcd9, ChildofMidnight, MakeBelieveMonster, GrouchoBot, Uqjminne, SassoBot, Brutaldeluxe, Exxoo, DITWIN GRIM, Lrudzisa,
FrescoBot, D'ohBot, M2545, Journalmuncher, Coarc, Citation bot 1, Killian441, LoveDancing, Pinethicket, Jonesey95, Calmer Waters, Anil gupta25, Horst-schlaemma, Underwatercolor, Elekhh, TobeBot, Trappist the monk, , Poppstatenda, W1lsh1r3,
Gregkaye, Bobnintendoman, PleaseStand, Thecaeser, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, RjwilmsiBot, Likemonkeys, Beyond My Ken, Grisdag, John of
Reading, Ashton 29, Jharnett44, Feldmanlaw, LRP;840, K6ka, , Terramorphous, Bluemarie0428, Laneways, EWikist, Andattaca2010, Noodleki, Ciccioformaggio, Thiagoreis leon, Xanchester, Will Beback Auto, ClueBot NG, Hannaharendt, Weissespumpernickel,
Qausi, Milesjd, Morgan Riley, Normtyler, Dasharath santra, MerlIwBot, Lipsmacking3, BG19bot, Northamerica1000, Zhongchuxiong,
Compfreak7, Aranea Mortem, Crystalbewwer, Jim Douet, Zsarrim, Jillianweigel, Naagarik, Darylgolden, Mrt3366, Sg7438, Khazar2,
Nadialebon, IvanOLC, Dexbot, Rodnebb, Ajw222, Mogism, Arrguedi, Udarque, Y256, Alexschmidt711, Tentinator, Nickknack00, Concorde83, Girder2139, Dartmouth Gal, GBmbabil32, Ugog Nizdast, Hugh de Gree, Wikiwim2000, Adirlanz, Alix1990, TuxLibNit, Demoniccathandler, E.qb25, R.M. 221, Sdot25, Lty423, Gonzalo.villarreal, Data and Lore and Anonymous: 498

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