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Viscoelasticity
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Viscoelasticityisthepropertyofmaterialsthatexhibitbothviscousandelasticcharacteristicswhen
undergoingdeformation.Viscousmaterials,likehoney,resistshearflowandstrainlinearlywithtime
whenastressisapplied.Elasticmaterialsstrainwhenstretchedandquicklyreturntotheiroriginalstate
oncethestressisremoved.Viscoelasticmaterialshaveelementsofbothofthesepropertiesand,assuch,
exhibittimedependentstrain.Whereaselasticityisusuallytheresultofbondstretchingalong
crystallographicplanesinanorderedsolid,viscosityistheresultofthediffusionofatomsormolecules
insideanamorphousmaterial.[1]

Contents
1Background
2Elasticbehaviorversusviscoelasticbehavior
3Typesofviscoelasticity
4Dynamicmodulus
5Constitutivemodelsoflinearviscoelasticity
5.1Maxwellmodel
5.2KelvinVoigtmodel
5.3Standardlinearsolidmodel
5.4GeneralizedMaxwellModel
5.5Pronyseries
6Effectoftemperatureonviscoelasticbehavior
7Viscoelasticcreep
8Measuringviscoelasticity
9Seealso
10References

Background
Inthenineteenthcentury,physicistssuchasMaxwell,Boltzmann,andKelvinresearchedand
experimentedwithcreepandrecoveryofglasses,metals,andrubbers.[2]Viscoelasticitywasfurther
examinedinthelatetwentiethcenturywhensyntheticpolymerswereengineeredandusedinavarietyof
applications.[2]Viscoelasticitycalculationsdependheavilyontheviscosityvariable,.Theinverseof
isalsoknownasfluidity,.Thevalueofeithercanbederivedasafunctionoftemperatureorasagiven
value(i.e.foradashpot).[1]
Dependingonthechangeofstrainrateversusstressinsideamaterialtheviscositycanbecategorizedas
havingalinear,nonlinear,orplasticresponse.Whenamaterialexhibitsalinearresponseitis
categorizedasaNewtonianmaterial.[1]Inthiscasethestressislinearlyproportionaltothestrainrate.If
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thematerialexhibitsanonlinearresponsetothestrainrate,itiscategorizedasNonNewtonianfluid.
Thereisalsoaninterestingcasewheretheviscositydecreasesastheshear/strainrateremainsconstant.
Amaterialwhichexhibitsthistypeofbehaviorisknownasthixotropic.[1]Inaddition,whenthestressis
independentofthisstrainrate,thematerial
exhibitsplasticdeformation.[1]Many
viscoelasticmaterialsexhibitrubberlike
behaviorexplainedbythethermodynamic
theoryofpolymerelasticity.Inrealityall
materialsdeviatefromHooke'slawin
variousways,forexamplebyexhibiting
viscouslikeaswellaselasticcharacteristics.
Viscoelasticmaterialsarethoseforwhich
therelationshipbetweenstressandstrain
dependsontime.Anelasticsolidsrepresenta
subsetofviscoelasticmaterials:theyhavea
uniqueequilibriumconfigurationand
ultimatelyrecoverfullyafterremovalofa
transientload.
Differenttypesofresponses( )toachangeinstrainrate(d
Somephenomenainviscoelasticmaterials
are:

/dt)

ifthestressisheldconstant,thestrainincreaseswithtime(creep)
ifthestrainisheldconstant,thestressdecreaseswithtime(relaxation)
theeffectivestiffnessdependsontherateofapplicationoftheload
ifcyclicloadingisapplied,hysteresis(aphaselag)occurs,leadingtoadissipationofmechanical
energy
acousticwavesexperienceattenuation
reboundofanobjectfollowinganimpactislessthan100%
duringrolling,frictionalresistanceoccurs
Allmaterialsexhibitsomeviscoelasticresponse.Incommonmetalssuchassteeloraluminum,aswell
asinquartz,atroomtemperatureandatsmallstrain,thebehaviordoesnotdeviatemuchfromlinear
elasticity.Syntheticpolymers,wood,andhumantissueaswellasmetalsathightemperaturedisplay
significantviscoelasticeffects.Insomeapplications,evenasmallviscoelasticresponsecanbe
significant.Tobecomplete,ananalysisordesigninvolvingsuchmaterialsmustincorporatetheir
viscoelasticbehavior.Knowledgeoftheviscoelasticresponseofamaterialisbasedonmeasurement.
Someexamplesofviscoelasticmaterialsincludeamorphouspolymers,semicrystallinepolymers,
biopolymers,metalsatveryhightemperatures,andbitumenmaterials.Crackingoccurswhenthestrain
isappliedquicklyandoutsideoftheelasticlimit.Ligamentsandtendonsareviscoelastic,sotheextent
ofthepotentialdamagetothemdependsbothonthevelocityofthechangeoftheirlengthaswellason
theforceapplied.
Aviscoelasticmaterialhasthefollowingproperties:
hysteresisisseeninthestressstraincurve
stressrelaxationoccurs:stepconstantstraincausesdecreasingstress
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creepoccurs:stepconstantstresscausesincreasingstrain

Elasticbehaviorversusviscoelasticbehavior
Unlikepurelyelasticsubstances,aviscoelasticsubstancehasanelasticcomponentandaviscous
component.Theviscosityofaviscoelasticsubstancegivesthesubstanceastrainratedependenceon
time.[1]Purelyelasticmaterialsdonotdissipateenergy(heat)whenaloadisapplied,thenremoved.[1]
However,aviscoelasticsubstancelosesenergywhenaloadisapplied,thenremoved.Hysteresisis
observedinthestressstraincurve,withtheareaoftheloopbeingequaltotheenergylostduringthe
loadingcycle.[1]Sinceviscosityistheresistancetothermallyactivatedplasticdeformation,aviscous
materialwillloseenergythroughaloadingcycle.Plasticdeformationresultsinlostenergy,whichis
uncharacteristicofapurelyelasticmaterial'sreactiontoaloadingcycle.[1]
Specifically,viscoelasticityisamolecularrearrangement.Whenastressisappliedtoaviscoelastic
materialsuchasapolymer,partsofthelongpolymerchainchangepositions.Thismovementor
rearrangementiscalledCreep.Polymersremainasolidmaterialevenwhenthesepartsoftheirchains
arerearranginginordertoaccompanythestress,andasthis
occurs,itcreatesabackstressinthematerial.Whenthe
backstressisthesamemagnitudeastheappliedstress,the
materialnolongercreeps.Whentheoriginalstressistaken
away,theaccumulatedbackstresseswillcausethepolymer
toreturntoitsoriginalform.Thematerialcreeps,which
givestheprefixvisco,andthematerialfullyrecovers,
whichgivesthesuffixelasticity.[2]

Typesofviscoelasticity
Linearviscoelasticityiswhenthefunctionisseparablein
bothcreepresponseandload.Alllinearviscoelasticmodels
canberepresentedbyaVolterraequationconnectingstress
andstrain:

a)Appliedstrainandb)inducedstressas
functionsoftimeforaviscoelastic
material.

or

where
tistime
isstress
isstrain
and

areinstantaneouselasticmoduliforcreepandrelaxation

K(t)isthecreepfunction
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F(t)istherelaxationfunction
Linearviscoelasticityisusuallyapplicable
onlyforsmalldeformations.
Nonlinearviscoelasticityiswhenthe
functionisnotseparable.Itusuallyhappens
whenthedeformationsarelargeorifthe
materialchangesitspropertiesunder
deformations.
Ananelasticmaterialisaspecialcaseofa
viscoelasticmaterial:ananelasticmaterial
willfullyrecovertoitsoriginalstateonthe
removalofload.

Dynamicmodulus

Stressstraincurvesforapurelyelasticmaterial(a)anda
viscoelasticmaterial(b).Theredareaisahysteresisloop
andshowstheamountofenergylost(asheat)inaloading
andunloadingcycle.Itisequalto

,where is

stressand isstrain. [1]

Viscoelasticityisstudiedusingdynamicmechanicalanalysis,applyingasmalloscillatorystressand
measuringtheresultingstrain.
Purelyelasticmaterialshavestressandstraininphase,sothattheresponseofonecausedbythe
otherisimmediate.
Inpurelyviscousmaterials,strainlagsstressbya90degreephaselag.
Viscoelasticmaterialsexhibitbehaviorsomewhereinthemiddleofthesetwotypesofmaterial,
exhibitingsomelaginstrain.
ComplexDynamicmodulusGcanbeusedtorepresenttherelationsbetweentheoscillatingstressand
strain:

where

where

and

isthestoragemodulusand

isthelossmodulus:

aretheamplitudesofstressandstrainand isthephaseshiftbetweenthem.

Constitutivemodelsoflinearviscoelasticity
Viscoelasticmaterials,suchasamorphouspolymers,semicrystallinepolymers,andbiopolymers,canbe
modeledinordertodeterminetheirstressorstraininteractionsaswellastheirtemporaldependencies.
Thesemodels,whichincludetheMaxwellmodel,theKelvinVoigtmodel,andtheStandardLinear
SolidModel,areusedtopredictamaterial'sresponseunderdifferentloadingconditions.Viscoelastic
behaviorhaselasticandviscouscomponentsmodeledaslinearcombinationsofspringsanddashpots,
respectively.Eachmodeldiffersinthearrangementoftheseelements,andalloftheseviscoelastic
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modelscanbeequivalentlymodeledaselectricalcircuits.Inanequivalentelectricalcircuit,stressis
representedbycurrent,andstrainratebyvoltage.Theelasticmodulusofaspringisanalogoustoa
circuit'scapacitance(itstoresenergy)andtheviscosityofadashpottoacircuit'sresistance(itdissipates
energy).
Theelasticcomponents,aspreviouslymentioned,canbemodeledasspringsofelasticconstantE,given
theformula:

whereisthestress,Eistheelasticmodulusofthematerial,andisthestrainthatoccursunderthe
givenstress,similartoHooke'sLaw.
Theviscouscomponentscanbemodeledasdashpotssuchthatthestressstrainraterelationshipcanbe
givenas,

whereisthestress,istheviscosityofthematerial,andd/dtisthetimederivativeofstrain.
Therelationshipbetweenstressandstraincanbesimplifiedforspecificstressrates.Forhighstress
states/shorttimeperiods,thetimederivativecomponentsofthestressstrainrelationshipdominate.A
dashpotresistschangesinlength,andinahighstressstateitcanbeapproximatedasarigidrod.Sincea
rigidrodcannotbestretchedpastitsoriginallength,nostrainisaddedtothesystem[3]
Conversely,forlowstressstates/longertimeperiods,thetimederivativecomponentsarenegligibleand
thedashpotcanbeeffectivelyremovedfromthesysteman"open"circuit.Asaresult,onlythespring
connectedinparalleltothedashpotwillcontributetothetotalstraininthesystem[3]

Maxwellmodel
TheMaxwellmodelcanberepresentedbyapurelyviscousdamper
andapurelyelasticspringconnectedinseries,asshowninthe
diagram.Themodelcanberepresentedbythefollowingequation:
.

Maxwellmodel

Underthismodel,ifthematerialisputunderaconstantstrain,thestressesgraduallyrelax.Whena
materialisputunderaconstantstress,thestrainhastwocomponents.First,anelasticcomponentoccurs
instantaneously,correspondingtothespring,andrelaxesimmediatelyuponreleaseofthestress.The
secondisaviscouscomponentthatgrowswithtimeaslongasthestressisapplied.TheMaxwellmodel
predictsthatstressdecaysexponentiallywithtime,whichisaccurateformostpolymers.Onelimitation
ofthismodelisthatitdoesnotpredictcreepaccurately.TheMaxwellmodelforcreeporconstantstress
conditionspostulatesthatstrainwillincreaselinearlywithtime.However,polymersforthemostpart
showthestrainratetobedecreasingwithtime.[2]
Applicationstosoftsolids:thermoplasticpolymersinthevicinityoftheirmeltingtemperature,fresh
concrete(neglectingitsaging),numerousmetalsatatemperatureclosetotheirmeltingpoint.
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KelvinVoigtmodel
TheKelvinVoigtmodel,alsoknownastheVoigtmodel,consistsofa
NewtoniandamperandHookeanelasticspringconnectedinparallel,asshown
inthepicture.Itisusedtoexplainthecreepbehaviourofpolymers.
Theconstitutiverelationisexpressedasalinearfirstorderdifferentialequation:
Schematic
representationof
KelvinVoigt
model.

Thismodelrepresentsasolidundergoingreversible,viscoelasticstrain.Upon
applicationofaconstantstress,thematerialdeformsatadecreasingrate,
asymptoticallyapproachingthesteadystatestrain.Whenthestressisreleased,thematerialgradually
relaxestoitsundeformedstate.Atconstantstress(creep),theModelisquiterealisticasitpredictsstrain
totendto/Eastimecontinuestoinfinity.SimilartotheMaxwellmodel,theKelvinVoigtmodelalso
haslimitations.Themodelisextremelygoodwithmodellingcreepinmaterials,butwithregardsto
relaxationthemodelismuchlessaccurate.
Applications:organicpolymers,rubber,woodwhentheloadisnottoohigh.

Standardlinearsolidmodel
TheStandardLinearSolidModeleffectivelycombinestheMaxwell
ModelandaHookeanspringinparallel.Aviscousmaterialis
modeledasaspringandadashpotinserieswitheachother,bothof
whichareinparallelwithalonespring.Forthismodel,the
governingconstitutiverelationis:

Schematicrepresentationofthe
StandardLinearSolidmodel.

Underaconstantstress,themodeledmaterialwillinstantaneously
deformtosomestrain,whichistheelasticportionofthestrain,and
afterthatitwillcontinuetodeformandasymptoticallyapproachasteadystatestrain.Thislastportionis
theviscouspartofthestrain.AlthoughtheStandardLinearSolidModelismoreaccuratethanthe
MaxwellandKelvinVoigtmodelsinpredictingmaterialresponses,mathematicallyitreturnsinaccurate
resultsforstrainunderspecificloadingconditionsandisratherdifficulttocalculate.

GeneralizedMaxwellModel
TheGeneralizedMaxwellmodelalsoknownastheMaxwellWiechertmodel(afterJamesClerk
MaxwellandEWiechert[4][5])isthemostgeneralformofthelinearmodelforviscoelasticity.Ittakes
intoaccountthattherelaxationdoesnotoccuratasingletime,butatadistributionoftimes.Dueto
molecularsegmentsofdifferentlengthswithshorteronescontributinglessthanlongerones,thereisa
varyingtimedistribution.TheWiechertmodelshowsthisbyhavingasmanyspringdashpotMaxwell
elementsasarenecessarytoaccuratelyrepresentthedistribution.Thefigureontherightshowsthe
generalisedWiechertmodel[6]Applications:metalsandalloysattemperatureslowerthanonequarter
oftheirabsolutemeltingtemperature(expressedinK).
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Pronyseries
Inaonedimensionalrelaxationtest,thematerialissubjectedtoasuddenstrainthatiskeptconstantover
thedurationofthetest,andthestressismeasuredovertime.Theinitialstressisduetotheelastic
responseofthematerial.Then,thestressrelaxesovertimeduetotheviscouseffectsinthematerial.
Typically,eitheratensile,compressive,bulkcompression,orshearstrainisapplied.Theresultingstress
vs.timedatacanbefittedwithanumberofequations,calledmodels.Onlythenotationchanges
dependingofthetypeofstrainapplied:tensilecompressiverelaxationisdenoted ,shearisdenoted ,
bulkisdenoted .ThePronyseriesfortheshearrelaxationis

where
isthelongtermmodulusoncethe
materialistotallyrelaxed, aretherelaxationtimes
(nottobeconfusedwith inthediagram)the
highertheirvalues,thelongerittakesforthestress
torelax.Thedataisfittedwiththeequationbyusing
aminimizationalgorithmthatadjusttheparameters(
)tominimizetheerrorbetweenthe
predictedanddatavalues.[7]
Analternativeformisobtainednotingthatthe
elasticmodulusisrelatedtothelongtermmodulus
by

SchematicofMaxwellWiechertModel

Therefore,

Thisformisconvenientwhentheelasticshearmodulus isobtainedfromdataindependentfromthe
relaxationdata,and/orforcomputerimplementation,whenitisdesiredtospecifytheelasticproperties
separatelyfromtheviscousproperties,asin.[8]
Acreepexperimentisusuallyeasiertoperformthanarelaxationone,somostdataisavailableas
(creep)compliancevs.time.[9]Unfortunately,thereisnoknownclosedformforthe(creep)compliance
intermsofthecoefficientofthePronyseries.So,ifonehascreepdata,itisnoteasytogetthe
coefficientsofthe(relaxation)Pronyseries,whichareneededforexamplein.[8]Anexpedientwayto
obtainthesecoefficientsisthefollowing.First,fitthecreepdatawithamodelthathasclosedform
solutionsinbothcomplianceandrelaxationforexampletheMaxwellKelvinmodel(eq.7.187.19)in
[10]ortheStandardSolidModel(eq.7.207.21)in[10](section7.1.3).Oncetheparametersofthecreep
modelareknown,producerelaxationpseudodatawiththeconjugaterelaxationmodelforthesame
timesoftheoriginaldata.Finally,fitthepseudodatawiththePronyseries.

Effectoftemperatureonviscoelasticbehavior

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Thesecondarybondsofapolymerconstantlybreakandreformduetothermalmotion.Applicationofa
stressfavorssomeconformationsoverothers,sothemoleculesofthepolymerwillgradually"flow"into
thefavoredconformationsovertime.[11]Becausethermalmotionisonefactorcontributingtothe
deformationofpolymers,viscoelasticpropertieschangewithincreasingordecreasingtemperature.In
mostcases,thecreepmodulus,definedastheratioofappliedstresstothetimedependentstrain,
decreaseswithincreasingtemperature.Generallyspeaking,anincreaseintemperaturecorrelatestoa
logarithmicdecreaseinthetimerequiredtoimpartequalstrainunderaconstantstress.Inotherwords,it
takeslessworktostretchaviscoelasticmaterialanequaldistanceatahighertemperaturethanitdoesat
alowertemperature.

Viscoelasticcreep
Whensubjectedtoastepconstantstress,viscoelastic
materialsexperienceatimedependentincreaseinstrain.
Thisphenomenonisknownasviscoelasticcreep.
Atatime ,aviscoelasticmaterialisloadedwithaconstant
stressthatismaintainedforasufficientlylongtimeperiod.
Thematerialrespondstothestresswithastrainthat
increasesuntilthematerialultimatelyfails,ifitisa
viscoelasticliquid.If,ontheotherhand,itisaviscoelastic
solid,itmayormaynotfaildependingontheappliedstress
versusthematerial'sultimateresistance.Whenthestressis
maintainedforashortertimeperiod,thematerialundergoes
aninitialstrainuntilatime ,afterwhichthestrain
immediatelydecreases(discontinuity)thengradually
decreasesattimes
toaresidualstrain.
Viscoelasticcreepdatacanbepresentedbyplottingthe
creepmodulus(constantappliedstressdividedbytotal
strainataparticulartime)asafunctionoftime.[12]Belowits
criticalstress,theviscoelasticcreepmodulusisindependent
ofstressapplied.Afamilyofcurvesdescribingstrainversus
timeresponsetovariousappliedstressmayberepresented
byasingleviscoelasticcreepmodulusversustimecurveif
theappliedstressesarebelowthematerial'scriticalstress
value.

a)Appliedstressandb)inducedstrain(b)
asfunctionsoftimeoverashortperiodfor
aviscoelasticmaterial.

Viscoelasticcreepisimportantwhenconsideringlongtermstructuraldesign.Givenloadingand
temperatureconditions,designerscanchoosematerialsthatbestsuitcomponentlifetimes.

Measuringviscoelasticity
Thoughtherearemanyinstrumentsthattestthemechanicalandviscoelasticresponseofmaterials,
broadbandviscoelasticspectroscopy(BVS)andresonantultrasoundspectroscopy(RUS)aremore
commonlyusedtotestviscoelasticbehaviorbecausetheycanbeusedaboveandbelowambient
temperaturesandaremorespecifictotestingviscoelasticity.Thesetwoinstrumentsemployadamping
mechanismatvariousfrequenciesandtimerangeswithnoappealtotimetemperaturesuperposition.[13]
UsingBVSandRUStostudythemechanicalpropertiesofmaterialsisimportanttounderstandinghow
amaterialexhibitingviscoelasticitywillperform.[13]
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Seealso
Viscosity
Elasticity
BloodViscoelasticity
Viscoplasticity
Binghamplastic
Polymer
Creep
Stressrelaxation
Hysteresis
Biomaterial
Biomechanics
RubberElasticity
Rheology
Glasstransition
ConstantViscosityElastic(Boger)Fluids

References
1. ^abcdefghijMeyersandChawla(1999):"MechanicalBehaviorofMaterials",98103.
2. ^abcdMcCrum,Buckley,andBucknell(2003):"PrinciplesofPolymerEngineering,"117176.
3. ^abVanVliet,KrystynJ.(2006)"3.032MechanicalBehaviorofMaterials"
(http://stellar.mit.edu/S/course/3/fa06/3.032/index.html)
4. ^Wiechert,E(1889)"UeberelastischeNachwirkung",Dissertation,KnigsbergUniversity,Germany
5. ^Wiechert,E(1893)"GesetzederelastischenNachwirkungfrconstanteTemperatur",AnnalenderPhysik,
286,335348,546570
6. ^Roylance,David(2001)"EngineeringViscoelasticity",1415
7. ^E.J.Barbero.TimetemperatureageSuperpositionPrincipleforPredictingLongtermResponseofLinear
ViscoelasticMaterials,chapter2inCreepandfatigueinpolymermatrixcomposites.Woodhead,2011.[1]
(http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/1439852367/booksoncomposite).
8. ^abSimulia.AbaqusAnalysisUser'sManual,19.7.1Timedomainvicoelasticity,6.10edition,2010
9. ^ComputerAidedMaterialPreselectionbyUniformStandards(http://www.campusplastics.com/)
10. ^abE.J.Barbero.FiniteElementAnalysisofCompositeMaterials.CRCPress,BocaRaton,Florida,2007.
[2](http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/1420054333/booksoncomposite)
11. ^S.A.Baeurle,A.Hotta,A.A.Gusev,Polymer47,62436253(2006).
12. ^Rosato,etal.(2001):"PlasticsDesignHandbook",6364.
13. ^abRodLakes(1998).Viscoelasticsolids.CRCPress.ISBN0849396581.

SilbeyandAlberty(2001):PhysicalChemistry,857.JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.
AllenandThomas(1999):TheStructureofMaterials,51.
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Crandaletal.(1999):AnIntroductiontotheMechanicsofSolids348
J.LemaitreandJ.L.Chaboche(1994)Mechanicsofsolidmaterials
Yu.Dimitrienko(2011)NonlinearcontinuummechanicsandLargeInelasticDeformations,
Springer,772p
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