How to Avoid Communication Breakdowns in Translation or Interpretation?

by Sahar Farrahi Avval

Islamic Azad University, Shahreza Branch, Isfahan, Iran

Abstract
It happens to all people while communicating (speaking or writing), that they are unable to
get their messages across and express what they mean and what they understand (called
Communication Breakdowns). Through communication, people send and receive messages
and negotiate meaning (Rubin and Thompson, 1994). Generally speaking, communication
breakdowns may happen to anybody communicating in a language other than their
dominant language. This problem, surely, can be solved, but how?
In this article, we will attempt to show you how and when breakdowns happen during the
communication process and show you the measures by which you can overcome
breakdowns to improve the effectiveness of communication in both speaking and writing
(including translation), bearing in mind that translation itself is a kind and way of
communication.
Key words: communicating, communication breakdowns, negotiate meaning, translation

1- Introduction
n this section, first, we will provide some definitions of communication and
communication breakdowns offered by scholars in the field and show you when
communication breakdowns occur; then, in the following sections, we will provide tips to
overcome communication breakdowns during the act of communication.
Culture refers to a group's
shared values and
conventions, which act as
mental guidelines for
orienting people's thoughts
and behavior.

Communication has different forms and it takes place in

different situations. For example, you can communicate with
others with your body gesture. You can also communicate
with other people by speaking or by typing an email. But in
this article, by communication we mean translation. After
providing some definitions for communication, we will
provide some statements regarding translation as a
communication process.

1-1 Communication
People communicate to satisfy their needs. Communication can be carried out through
different methods but the most effective method is through language.

Communication is defined as: the exchange of ideas, information, etc., between two or more
individuals. In an act of communication there is usually at least one speaker or sender, a
MESSAGE which is transmitted, and an individual or individuals for whom this message is
intended (the receiver),( Rihards and Schmidt, 2002).
In CLT, "communication" means using language to make requests, give advice, agree and
disagree, complain, praise, to try to persuade people to do things, and so on, (O'Neill, 2000).

1-2 Translation as a communication process

From the teleological point of view, translation is a process of communication; the objective
of translating is to impart the information contained in the original text to the foreign reader
( Levy, 1967 as cited in Hatim and Munday, 2004).
Translation is a communication process that involves the transfer of a message from a
source language to a target language. Text linguistics, which is concerned with the way the
parts of text are organized and related to one another in order to form a meaningful whole,
is useful for the analysis of the translation process and the transfer of meaning from one
language to another ( Darwish, 2003).
Hatim and Mason (1997) consider translation as "an act of communication which attempts
to relay, across cultural and linguistic boundaries, another act of communication." In most
cases, according to Houbert (1998 as cited in Ordudari, 2008), "translation is to be
understood as the process whereby a message expressed in a specific source language is
linguistically transformed in order to be understood by readers of the target language".
Through translation, the meaning moves between languages and by translation, new ideas,
cultural notions, new technologies, etc. are allowed to be transmitted into other cultures
and societies. By translation, people of different countries can communicate to share
information.

1-3 Communication breakdowns

While communicating (speaking, regardless of whether it is our native language or a second
language, writing, or translating), some breakdown in our speaking and getting across our
meaning will occur because of the lack and weakness of the communicator's knowledge of
vocabulary or grammar. These breakdowns are called "communication breakdowns or
difficulties" because they create problems while exchanging information between
interlocutors. Communication breakdowns occur frequently and are unavoidable and can
happen under specific conditions. Communication breakdowns in translation/ interpretation
are the result of deficiency in one or more of the following:
1. Language competence
2. Knowledge of grammar and vocabulary of the target language
3. Cultural differences and socio-cultural backgrounds

4. Punctuation (in translation)

5. Feedback from the interlocutors
6. Characteristics of the receivers

2- How to avoid communication breakdowns

2-1 A good language competence
In the act of communication, no matter what language is spoken, between or among people
of different languages, one of the most important competences is the ability to use
communication strategies (CS), i.e., strategies to overcome communication breakdowns
caused by inadequate competence.
To understand better what competence and communication strategies are, let us provide
some brief definitions.

2-1- 1 Competence
Competence as Richards and Schmidt (2002, 93) state is "the implicit system of rules that
constitutes a person's knowledge of a language. This includes a person's ability to create and
understand sentences, including sentences they have never heard before, knowledge of
what are and what are not sentences of a particular language, and the ability to recognize
ambiguous and deviant sentences.
By competence, Chomsky means the shared knowledge of the ideal speaker-listener set in a
completely homogenous speech community. Such underlying knowledge allows the speaker
to produce and the listener to understand an infinite set of sentences out of a finite set of
rules.
Here, we prefer to replace the term" competence" with the term "language competence" to
make it more specific.
Since 1960s, various models of language competence have emerged, proposed by Hymes,
Canale, Swain, Bachman, Brown, Cummins, Stern, Hansegard, van Ek, Moirand, Schachter, et
al. ( Li and Ping, 2007).
Most of the researchers and applied linguists (Hymes, Canale, Swain, Bachman, Brown,
Stern, Hansegard, et al.) hold that linguistic knowledge/grammatical competence is the basic
component of language competence. Canale & Swain (1980) state that grammatical
competence is the ability to use the forms of the language (sounds, words, and sentence
structure).
We limit ourselves here to a definition of competence by Savignon (1972,
1997).Competence is defined in terms of the expression, interpretation, and negotiation of

meaning and looks from both psycholinguistic and sociocultural perspectives in second
language acquisition (SLA) research to account for its development.

2-1-2 Communication strategies (CSs)

CSs, as was mentioned above, are tactics or strategies used to overcome communication
breakdowns caused by the inadequate competence.
According to Tarone (1981), communication strategy is a mutual attempt of two
interlocutors to agree on a meaning in situations where the requisite meaning structures are
not shared. The earliest study in this field is the taxonomic approach by Tarone (1977; 1981).
Her methodology has served as a basis for subsequent studies of communication strategies,
resulting in further typologies. (Bialystok 1990). She suggested CS typology based on output
differences in the task-based interaction between native speakers (NS) and non-native
speakers (NNSs).
To be more acquainted with CSs, here, we bring some typologies offered by some scholars
of the field.
A model by Tarone (1977, 1983 as cited in Kongsom 2009) has been offered as follows:

Table 2.1 Tarone's taxonomy of CSs (1977, 1983)

1. Avoidance
a Topic avoidance
b Message abandonment
2. Paraphrase
a Approximation
b Word coinage
c Circumlocution
3. Conscious transfer
a Literal translation
b Language switch
4. Appeal for assistance
5. Mime
Another model is offered proposed by Faerch and Kasper (1983 as sited in Kongsom 2009),
as seen in Table 2.2.

Table 2.2 Faerch and Kasper's taxonomy of CSs

(1) Avoidance
(1.1) Formal reduction:
1.1.1 Phonological
1.1.2 Morphological
1.1.3 Grammar
(1.2) Functional reduction:
1.2.1 Actional
1.2.2 Propositional
1.2.3 Modal
(2) Achievement
(2.1) Non-cooperative:
2.1.1.1 Codeswitching
2.1.1.2 Foreignizing
2.1.2 Interlanguage strategies:
2.1.2.1 Substitution
2.1.2.2 Generalization

2.1.2.3 Exemplification
2.1.2.4 Word-coining
2.1.2.5 Restructuring
2.1.2.6 Description
2.1.3 Non-linguistic strategies:

2.1.3.1 Mime
2.1.3.2 Imitation
(2.2) Cooperative:
2.2.1 Appeals

Different scholars have proposed different taxonomies but they have many elements in
common and named differently.

2-2 Knowledge of grammar and vocabulary

Grammar is the structural foundation of our ability to express ourselves. The more we are
aware of how it works, the more we can monitor the meaning and effectiveness of the way
we and others use language (Nordquist, 2010).
In our Glossary of Grammatical and Rhetorical Terms (Nordquist, 2010) you'll find two
definitions of grammar:
1. The systematic study and description of a language.
2. A set of rules and examples dealing with the syntax and word structures of a
language, usually intended as an aid to the learning of that language.
Language is a set of words combining together to carry the meaning. Not all sets of words
can carry the meaning, so words should be combined based on specific structures or rules.
These rules are called grammar. Each language has its own rules. The study of grammar all
by itself will not necessarily make you a better writer. But by gaining a clearer understanding
of how your language works, you should also gain greater control over the way you shape
words into sentences and sentences into paragraphs. In short, studying grammar may help
you become a more effective writer. The choice of words influences the degree to which the
receivers can understand the translator/ interpreter. Great attention should be paid to every
single characteristic of the words through which communication is carried out by the
translator/ interpreter.

2-3 cultural differences and socio-cultural backgrounds

Culture is a set of beliefs, ideas, attitudes, customs, behaviors, festivals, cuisine and clothes
styles. But on a deeper level we can consider culture as the organizer of all these elements.
Culture actually refers to a group's shared values and conventions, which act as mental
guidelines for orienting people's thoughts and behavior. (House, 2009 as cited in Karimipur
2009).

The National Center for Cultural Competence defines culture as an "integrated pattern of
human behavior that includes thoughts, communications, languages, practices, beliefs,
values, customs, courtesies, rituals, manners of interacting and roles, relationships and
expected behaviors of a racial, ethnic, religious or social group; and the ability to transmit
the above to succeeding generations" (Goode, Sockalingam, Brown, & Jones, 2000 as sited in
Peterson and Coltrane 2003). This means that language is not only part of how we define
culture; it also reflects culture.
Thus, the culture associated with a language cannot be learned in a few lessons about
celebrations, folk songs, or costumes of the area in which the language is spoken. Culture is
a much broader concept that is inherently tied to many of the linguistic concepts taught in
second language classes and Language learners need to be aware, for example, of the
culturally appropriate ways to address people, express gratitude, make requests, and agree
or disagree with someone (Peterson and Coltrane 2003).
Although common culture and common language facilitate trade between people (Lasear,
1995), we do not unify cultures in translation or interpretation. We state that one of
problematic areas in communication via translation can be the cultural differences between
the culture of speaker or translator and that of his/ her audience.
There are many ways to correct this problem. While a new cultural concept is introduced by
the translator/ interpreter or speaker, he/she should bear in mind that this category may be
alien or new to the reader or listener. Here, the translator/ interpreter should try his/her
best to clarify this concept. He/she can make use of different strategies to explain this new
cultural concept to the reader or listener.
In many countries there are different cultures, social classes, and languages which makes it
hard for the people of a particular country to communicate with each other because every
person's culture reflects his/her way of thinking and ideology. The problem is, of course,
more acute when dealing with cultural differences between nations?
The translator/ interpreter should be good reader of the text from the foreign culture
he/she is going to translate. He/she should be acquainted with cultural issues of that
language and country to be able to transmit them in the target language.
If cultural notions are not transmitted correctly to the reader or listener, a communication
gap or breakdown will occur.

2-4 Punctuation (in translation)

Punctuation is everything in written language other than the actual letters or numbers,
including punctuation marks, inter-word spaces, and indentation. Punctuation marks
are symbols that direct the reader to the way of reading and understanding the text.
Sometimes a hesitation in speaking or a comma in writing can lead to totally different
meanings. Not all differences will be radical, but sometimes small differences can lead to
important misunderstandings and gaps.

In interpretation, hesitation in the right place can lead to the ideal understanding and no
hesitation can lead to breakdown in communication.

2-5 Feedback from the interlocutors

The reactions or feedback that the translator/interpreter gets from the receivers, especially
in interpretation can guide you to reach your goal or can misguide you.
In translation (written form), it is not always possible for the translator to correct the
problems of translation which lead to breakdown in communication. But in interpretation,
the feedback from the interlocutor)s) can help the interpreter to correct him/herself
whenever a gap or breakdown takes place during the communication process. This feedback
can be an eye contact or a nod.

2-6 Characteristics of the audience

Most of the time, the age and gender of the audience can guide the translator to a specific
way of translation. Sometimes one original text is translated for different receivers based on
their age. For example, the book "Little Prince" has been translated in Iran by translators
such as Shamloo, Najafi and Ghazi based on different age groups. It is the way of narration
and the choice of words and structures of a language that differentiate the texts prepared
for adults or children. It is the job of the translator to observe this in addition to other
factors to make a translation suitable for children or adults. Sometimes a book is written for
a specific gender. The translator should be very careful to transfer those elements
implemented in the original text into the target text to attract the same gender in the target
language. So based on the skopos theory, the purpose and aim of translation can determine
the special way it should be for a special gender or age group.

Conclusion
People who are proficient in grammar and have a vast vocabulary are not necessarily good
communicators. Such people may also be faced with communication breakdowns because a
good knowledge of grammar and vocabulary is not enough to overcome the unavoidable
gaps and misunderstandings that occur during the communication process. Good language
competence, knowing cultural differences, good knowledge of grammar, vocabulary and
punctuation, paying attention to the feedback, age and gender of the receivers are the tools
in the hand of the translator/ interpreter that help to save a translation/ interpretation as
communication process from breakdowns.

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Copyright Translation Journal and the Author, 2011

URL: http://translationjournal.net/journal/56breakdown.htm
Last updated on: 05/20/2014 04:05:03