1200
1200 1160
1160
1135
1135
1000
1000
species
800
800
Number ofofspecies
600
600
Number
400
400
262
262
228
228
200
200
125
125
57
57
3 77 11
11 21
21
00
Amphibians
Amphibians Reptiles
Reptiles Fish
Fish Mammals
Mammals Birds
Birds Lichens
Lichens Bryophytes
Bryophytes Vascular
Vascular Fungi
Fungi Beetles
Beetles
plants
plants
Figure 1. Number of species in different life-form groups recorded in the Warra Long-Term Ecological Research
(LTER) site, southern Tasmania (www.warra.com). The number of species shown for the different life-forms is not
based on equal sampling effort for each life-form across the range of ecological zones present in Warra. The numbers
of species shown for vascular plants and lichens, in particular, are likely to be underestimates.
Crown-retraction
Crown-retraction
Stage
Stage of crown
of crown
development
development Crown-deepening
90
90 Crown-lifting
Crown-lifting
(metres)
range (metres)
60
60
Height range
30
Height
30
00
0-4
0-4 5-6
5-6 7-10
7-10 15-30
15-30 40-80
40-80 100-200
100-200 200-400
200-400+
Age: time
Age: since disturbance
time since (years)
disturbance (years)
Figure 2. Stages in the development of Eucalyptus regnans across its natural life-span (illustrated as height
ranges at particular age-classes). Adapted from Ashton (1975).
Figure 3. The three distinct phases of crown development in eucalypts: crown-lifting (left), crown-deepening
(centre) and crown-retraction (right).
The terms “regrowth” and “mature” are Large eucalypt logs can persist on the forest
widely used in forestry to group growth floor for a long time: studies in southern
stages. The crown-lifting and transition to Tasmania have found that the progress of
the crown-deepening phase correspond eucalypt logs through these five stages of
with regrowth, while mature corresponds decay and on to the soil organic matter pool
with the majority of the crown-deepening may take more than two centuries (Grove
and crown-retraction phase. The term et al. 2009). Because of their longevity and
“over-mature” corresponds with the crown- the ongoing injection of fresh CWD, the
retraction phase. volumes of CWD on the floor of temperate
wet eucalypt forests can be among the
Throughout the natural life-span of a cohort largest globally, commonly exceeding
of eucalypts, a proportion of the standing 800 m3 ha-1 (Grove and Meggs 2003).
trees (either dead or alive) fall over or suffer
stem breakage, and in doing so provide a
supply of downed logs to the floor of the Successional patterns in wood-decay fungi
forest. Once on the forest floor, the downed
logs, commonly called coarse woody Wood-decay fungi establish quite early in
debris (CWD), slowly decay until they are the life of a eucalypt. Studies in regrowth
eventually fully consumed and returned to forests by Wardlaw (1996, 2003) found
the soil organic matter pool. This process that, by age 20-40 years, more than 90% of
of decay follows a recognisable sequence of vigorous, unsuppressed E. obliqua, E. regnans
decay stages (Grove et al. 2009): and E. delegatensis trees had at least one
column of wood decay within the lower
• Decay class 1: Structurally intact or stem. Extensive columns of decay had
almost so; bark or small branches still developed in about 20% of these trees. The
attached; few signs of wood-decay; overwhelming majority of decay columns
wood mostly retains original colour. in these young trees become established
during the branch-shedding process via
Decay associated
with insect galleries Decay
in the stem entering through
(7% of all origins) roots or lower stem
(butt rot)
(8% of all origins)
Decay entering
through the stubs of
dead branches
Decay associated with insect (52% of all origins)
galleries in dead branches
(13% of all origins)
Decay entering through the
crotch of dead branches
(13% of all origins)
Figure 4. The origins of decay columns that had established in the stems of young (20-40 year old) Eucalyptus
spp. in Tasmania. Based on Wardlaw (2003).
69 y.o.
69 y.o. 105 y.o.
105 y.o. >150
150 y.o.y.o.
Dark
Darkblocky
blockyfibrous
fibrous rot
rot
rot
Brownrot
Brown
Dark blocky
Dark crumbly
blocky crumblyrot
rot (wet)
(wet)
Dark blocky
Dark crumbly
blocky crumblyrot
rot (dry)
(dry)
Combination pocket
Combination pocket and dark rot
and dark rot
Small
Smallpocket
pocket rot
rot
rot
White rot
Pale
Palespongy
spongy rot
rot
Pale
Palestringy
stringy rot
rot
Discoloured
Discoloured wood
wood
No
No rot
rot
0
0 1
1 22 33 44 5
5 6
6
Number
Numberof of
trees
trees
Figure 5. Frequency of occurrence of rotten wood types in six trees each of 69-year-old regrowth, 105-year-old
regrowth, and >150-year-old mature E. obliqua. Adapted from Figure 5.3.4 in Hopkins (2007).
Mudguts (BR)
25 20 15 10 5 0 5 10 15 20
Number of logs
Figure 6. Frequency of rotten wood types found in 21 large (left) and 21 small (right) E. obliqua logs, all in an
intermediate stage of decomposition. Rotten wood types have been grouped according to the region in the log they
occur. Adapted from Figure 4.4 in Yee (2005). (BR) = brown rot types; (WR) = white rot types.
69-year-old trees
(56 species of beetle)
>150-year-old
trees
(115 species of
beetle)
105-year-old trees
(72 species of beetle)
Figure 7. Venn diagram showing the total number of saproxylic beetle species extracted from six living E. obliqua
trees in each of three age classes (young = 69 years old, medium-aged = 105 years old and mature = >150 years old).
Adapted from Figure 5.1 in Harrison (2007).
Stringyrot
Stringy rot
Smallpocket
Small pocketrot
rot
Discolouredwood
Discoloured wood
Cerambycidlarvae
Cerambycid larvaedamage
damage
Termitedamage
Termite damage
Combinationpocket
Combination pocketand
andbrown
brownrot
rot
Dry brown
brown pocket rot
Brown rot
cubic rot
Brown rot
Red-brownblock
Red-borwn blockfibrous
fibrousrot
rot
Wetbrown
Wet browncubic
cubicrot
rot
Brownmudgut
Brown mudgutrot
rot
00 22 4
4 66 88 10
10 12
12 14
14 16
16
Number ofofbeetle
Number beetlespecies
species
Figure 8. Number of saproxylic beetle species collected from different rotten wood types occurring in 18 E. obliqua
trees across a range of ages. Figure 6.4 in Harrison (2007).
Fibrous
Fibroussurface
surface rot (WR)
rot (WR)
Surface
Jelly
Jelly surface rot
surface rot
Wet
Wet cracks
cracks Localised
Pale
Palepocket
pocket rot (WR)
rot (WR)
Pale
Palestringy
stringy rot (WR)
rot (WR)
Outer heartwood
Yellow
Yellowdry
dry slaty rot
slaty rot
Dark
Darkcubic
cubicfriable
friable rot (BR)
rot (BR)
Discoloured
Discoloured wood
wood Heartwood
Dark
Darkblocky
blockyfibrous
fibrous rot (BR)
rot (BR)
Innerhartwood
Inner heartwood
Dark blocky,
Dark blocky,dry
drycrumbly
crumbly rot (BR)
(BR)
Mudguts (BR)
Mudguts (BR)
0
0 2
2 44 66 88 10
10 12
12 14
14 16
16
Number
Numberof beetle species
of beetle species
Figure 9. Number of saproxylic beetle species that were recovered on more than two occasions each for particular
types and locations of rot in small and large E. obliqua logs. Adapted from Table 5.1 in Yee (2005). (BR) = brown
rot types; (WR) = white rot types.
on habitat that develops in mature trees confirmed that this log-dwelling species
(and large logs arising from them) is also has a strong association with brown rot
reflected in the preponderance of this group in the centre of logs (Belinda Yaxley, pers.
among European red-listed species – nearly comm.).
45% of Sweden’s 1000+ known saproxylic
beetle species are red-listed (Jonsell and
Nordlander 2002). Tasmania, with a much Interdependencies among eucalypts, wood-
shorter history of forestry, is fortunate to decay fungi and saproxylic beetles
have very few CWD-dependent species
listed as endangered. In the southern forests, In providing habitat for wood-decay fungi
where we know most about the biodiversity and saproxylic beetles, characteristics of
dependent upon mature trees and CWD, eucalypts during their development are of
only one saproxylic beetle species, Lissotes fundamental importance. We would expect
menalcas, is listed as vulnerable, chiefly patterns in branching characteristics to be
because of its restricted distribution (Meggs a key driver of assemblage composition for
and Taylor 1999). Recent research has wood-decay fungi and saproxylic beetles,
because of the importance of branches as
Alcorn, P. J. (2002). The effects of light availability, canopy gap size and within gap position on the growth
of Eucalyptus obliqua seedlings. Honours thesis, School of Resources, Environment and Society.
Canberra, Australian National University.
Ashton, D.H. (1975). The root and shoot development of Eucalyptus regnans F. Muell. Australian Journal of
Botany 23: 867-887.
Ashton, D.H. (1976). The development of even-aged stands of Eucalyptus regnans F. Muell. in Central
Victoria. Australian Journal of Botany 24: 397–414.
Bar-Ness, Y.D. (2005). Crown structure and the canopy arthropod biodiversity of 100 year-old and old-growth
Tasmanian Eucalyptus obliqua. MSc Thesis, University of Tasmania.
Bland, D.E. (1960). Methanol lignin from Eucalyptus regnans F. Muell. and its purification by
countercurrent distribution. Biochemistry Journal 75: 195-201.
Davison, E.M. and Tay, F.C.S. (2008). Causes of incipient rot and rot in regrowth Eucalyptus diversicolor
(karri) trees. Plant Pathology 57: 1097-1102.
Edmonds, R.L. and Marra, J.L. (1999). Decomposition of woody material: nutrient dynamics,
invertebrate / fungi relationships and management in northwest forests. In: Meurisse, R.T.,
Ypsilantis, W.G. and Seybold, C. (Editors) Proceedings: Pacific Northwest Forest and Rangeland
Soil Organism Symposium. General Technical Report PNW-GTR-461. USDA Forest Service, Pacific
Northwest Research Station, Portland Oregon.
Elliott, H.J., Ohmart, C.P. and Wylie, F.R. (1998). Insect pests of Australian Forests: Ecology and Management.
Inkata Press, Melbourne, Australia.
Forestry Tasmania (2007). Sustainable high quality eucalypt sawlog supply for Tasmanian State forest. Forestry
Tasmania, Hobart.
Forestry Tasmania (2008). Sustainability Charter: Forest Management Plan 2008. Forestry Tasmania, Hobart.
Grove, S.J. (2002). Saproxylic insect ecology and the sustainable management of forests. Annual Review of
Ecology and Systematics 33: 1-23.
Grove, S.G. (2006). What lives under logs in Tasmanian eucalypt forest? The Tasmanian Naturalist 128:
23-25.
Grove, S. J. and J. Meggs. (2003). Coarse woody debris biodiversity and management: a review with
particular reference to Tasmanian wet eucalypt forests. Australian Forestry 66: 258-272.
Grove, S.J., Stamm, L. and Barry, C. (2009). Log decomposition rates in Tasmanian Eucalyptus obliqua
determined using an indirect chronosequence approach. Forest Ecology and Management 258:
389-397.
Hawksworth, D.L., Kirk, P.M., Sutton, B.C. and Pegler, D.N. (1995). Ainsworth and Bisby’s Dictionary of
Fungi. Eighth Edition. CAB International, Wallingford, UK.
Harrison, K. (2007). Saproxylic beetles associated with habitat features in Eucalyptus obliqua trees in the wet
eucalypt forests of southern Tasmania. PhD Thesis, University of Tasmania.
Highley, T.L. (1982). Influence of type and amount of lignin on decay by Coriolus versicolor. Canadian
Journal of Forest Research 12: 435-438.
Higuchi, T. (2002). Biochemistry of wood components: Biosynthesis and microbial degradation of lignin.
Wood Research 89: 43-51.
Hopkins, A.J.M., Harrison, K.S., Grove, S.J., Wardlaw, T.J. and Mohammed, C.L. (2006). Wood-decay
fungi and saproxylic beetles associated with living Eucalyptus obliqua trees: early results from
studies at the Warra LTER Site, Tasmania. Tasforests 16: 111-122.
Hopkins, A.J.M. (2007). The taxonomy and ecology of wood decay fungi in Eucalyptus obliqua trees and logs in
the wet sclerophyll forests of southern Tasmania. PhD Thesis, University of Tasmania.
Jacobs, M.R. (1955). Growth Habits of the Eucalypts. Forestry and Timber Bureau, Canberra.
Jackson, W.D. (1968). Fire, air, water and earth: an elemental ecology of Tasmania. Proceedings of the
Ecological Society of Australia, 3: 9-16.
Jonsell, M. and Nordlander, G. (2002). Insects in polypore fungi as indicator species: a comparison
between different forest sites differing in amounts and continuity of dead wood. Forest Ecology and
Management 157: 101-118.
Lavelle, P., Bignell, D., Lepage, M., Wolters, V., Roger, P., Ineson, P., Heal, O.W. and Dhillion, S. (1997).
Soil function in a changing world: The role of invertebrate ecosystem engineers. European Journal of
Soil Biology 33: 159-193.