CPL Instruments

CPL
INSTRUMENTS
CPL Instruments
CPL DOC 5
Revision 1/1/2001
FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE

Version 5
INDEX
CPL INSTRUMENTS
1. Air Data Instruments
2. Gyroscopes
3. Other Instruments
4. Magnetism
5. Compasses
1
33
57
71
97
Annex A Sample Exams

Annex B Answers to Questions
117
143
Copyright
2001, Flight Training College of Africa
All Rights Reserved. No part of this manual may be reproduced in any manner
whatsoever including electronic, photographic, photocopying, facsimile, or stored in
a retrieval system, without the prior permission of Flight Training College of Africa.
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CHAPTER 1
AIR DATA INSTRUMENTS
The pressure instruments are :
ASI
MACHMETER
ALTIMETER
VSI
Pitot and Static Sources

The pressure instruments which require consideration for this syllabus are the altimeter, the
vertical speed indicator (VSI), the airspeed indicator (ASI), the machmeter, the combined
ASI/machmeter and the central air data computer (CADC). As a first step it is necessary to
look briefly at the devices which are used to measure the static pressure which is fed to all of
the above, and the pitot pressure which is fed to the ASI, the machmeter, the combined
ASI/machmeter and the CADC.
Static Pressure
Static pressure is the ambient air pressure at a given
point in the atmosphere. Considering an aircraft at
rest in still air conditions, this ambient pressure acts
equally on all points of the aircraft. Above shows one
method of measuring static pressure, using a static
head. The head consists of a tube with its forward
end sealed and holes or slots cut into the side. The
ideal situation is that the head always lies in line with
the direction of relative air flow and therefore the
pressure sensed is independent of any increase of
pressure caused by the aircrafts speed through the
air. A static head may be incorporated with the pitot
head as shown further on.
Static vents are more commonly used in modern
aircraft to detect static pressure. A static vent consists
of a smooth plate with a small hole in the middle. The
plate is mounted flush with the aircraft skin at a point
where the air flow is relatively undisturbed by the
airframe structure itself. This is to ensure that, as far
as possible, the static pressure sensed at the vent will
be pure ambient pressure, which is free of errors
caused by the presence of the aircraft or the speed of
the aircraft through the air. It is normal to mount two
static vents, one on each side of the aircraft, thereby
cancelling errors in the sensed pressure caused by
aircraft yaw.
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It is normal to incorporate an emergency static source into the static line plumbing. In the
event that the static head or the static vents become blocked the emergency static source
can be selected by the pilot. This alternate source is located at some sheltered position
outside the pressure hull. The pressure sensed at this source is unlikely to represent
accurately the ambient air pressure, since it will almost certainly be influenced by the aircraft
structure.
In some unpressurised aircraft an alternate static source is provided inside the cockpit.
It should be noted that, unless it is otherwise stated in the flight manual for the aircraft, the
static pressure sensed within the cockpit will be lower than the true static pressure due to
aerodynamic suction. The effect of this artificially low static pressure is that both the
pressure altimeter and the airspeed indicator will overread with the emergency static source
selected.
Pitot Pressure
The composition of pitot pressure, and the use made of it, is fully discussed in the chapters
dealing with the airspeed indicator and the machmeter. If the aircraft is at rest in still air
conditions the pressure sensed at the pitot tube will be the static pressure already discussed.
A pitot tube like the static head, faces forward into the airflow. In flight the pressure sensed at
the pitot tube will be increased due to the aircrafts forward speed. The two elements of the
pitot pressure will therefore be:
a.
b.
the static pressure, and

the dynamic pressure, or pitot excess pressure.
It is the dynamic pressure which is proportional to the aircrafts forward speed.

Since an emergency pitot tube cannot be fitted at a sheltered point of the aircraft, with any
hope of success, it is normal to incorporate a heating element into the tube to prevent
blockage due to ice formation. Any water ingested by the system is allowed to drain from the
tube through drain holes and is prevented from travelling downstream through the plumbing
by means of traps and valves.
The incorrect measurement of static pressure is known as position or pressure error. The
static head and the combined pitot/static head are more prone to this error than are static
vents. The magnitude of the error depends on the airspeed and the aircraft attitude. The
error is likely to be largest at high angles of attack when some dynamic pressure is
generated at the static sensor. Flight manuals will normally provide correction values for this
error for different flap settings.
Manoeuvre errors are the result of temporary fluctuations in static pressure which occur
when the angle of attack of the aircraft is changing, principally when flaps and landing gear
are raised or lowered. Manoeuvre errors normally cause lag in pressure instruments
(including air data computers) and may persist for several seconds after the change of
configuration/movement of a control surface has been completed, the higher the aircraft
altitude the longer the error will persist. Although changes in pitch attitude are the primary
source of manoeuvre errors, rolling and yawing manoeuvres can also give rise to this
problem.
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THE AIRSPEED INDICATOR (ASI)
White arc
Green arc
Yellow arc
stall full flap to max flap speed

from clean stall to normal operating speed
from normal operating speed to never exceed speed
The principle of operation of the ASI is the measurement of two pressures: PITOT and
STATIC.
D + S
P - S
The ASI continually subtracts the static pressure from the pitot pressure giving the Aircraft's
airspeed.
DYNAMIC PRESSURE IS DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL TO AIRSPEED.
The ASI is calibrated according to ISA conditions. Therefore any departure from ISA will
cause an incorrect IAS. Most of the time, the atmosphere does not conform to ISA. This is
the reason why the IAS and TAS are very often different.
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ERRORS
a.
Instrument Error
This is due to small manufacturing imperfections and the fact that a small capsule
movement gives a large pointer deflection. A correction card is supplied.
b.
Pressure / Position Error

Approximately 95 % of this error can be eliminated by placing 2 static vents (one on
either side of the A/C). The location of the pitot tube on the A/C will affect the reading
and the type of manoeuvre that is being flown. A correction card is also supplied for
this error.
c.
Density Error
The ASI as stated before, is calibrated for ISA. Most of the time, the density will not
reduce according to ISA. Therefore an error will be present. This can be corrected
for by the ARISTO or the PATHFINDER. The pathfinder will do it automatically for
you.
PATHFINDER: use the ACTUAL TAS function.

P.A. 12000'
IOAT. - 8 C
RAS 183 KTS
TAS = 220ish KTS
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d.
Compressibility Error
At speeds above 300 Kts, the air will be compressed. It will cause the dynamic
pressure at the pitot head to be greater than it should, resulting in an OVERREAD of
IAS. The error is small at sea level (dense air), but increases with altitude.
The temperature of compressed air is higher so a correction will have to be made.

It can be done automatically for you on the PATHFINDER
SUMMARY OF ERRORS
INDICATED AIRSPEED (IAS) POSITION/INSTRUMENT ERROR
RAS/CAS
RECTIFIED AIRSPEED (RAS) - COMPRESSIBILITY
EAS
EQUIVALENT AIRSPEED (EAS) + DENSITY
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TAS
(TRUE AIRSPEED)

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LEAKS
If the pitot tube develops a leak, the ASI will UNDERREAD, because the pitot pressure is too
low.
BLOCKAGES
CLIMBING
Pitot Blocked - ASI
OVERREADS
Static Blocked - ASI
UNDERREADS
DESCENDING
Pitot Blocked - ASI
UNDERREADS
Static Blocked - ASI
OVERREADS
A good way to put this to memory is to use the following diagram:
OVER READ
UNDER READ
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THE MACHMETER
As an aircraft approaches the speed of sound, it experiences severe adverse aerodynamic

effects. Thus a pilot needs warning that he is approaching the speed of sound. However,
the speed of sound varies with temperature therefore it is different at various altitudes.
The MACHMETER solves this problem because it indicates the ratio of the airspeed to the
local speed of sound (LSS) at that altitude (TEMPERATURE).
The result is that the pointer movement is proportional to the ratio of the movements of the
two capsules that is, (P-S)S, or Mach number.
MACH N =
LSS = 38.945
TAS
LSS
COAT + 273
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ERRORS
The only errors are Position/Pressure errors.
Density Error
The density factor appears above and below the equation so it is cancelled out.
Temperature Error
Is eliminated with the density error.
Compressibility Error
This depends on the ratio of Dynamic pressure and static pressure and is catered for in the
equation.
LEAKS AND BLOCKAGES
Exactly the same as the ASI.
THE MACHMETER INDICATOR
The machmeter indicator incorporates:
A normal ASI needle.
A machmeter of the rotating drum type.
A Vmo (Max Operating Speed) needle. BARBERS POLE. The Vmo needle
(Barbers Pole) adjusts itself to the changing altitude thus giving the correct Vmo for
that altitude.
RAS - TAS - MACH N RELATIONSHIP FOR CLIMBING AND DESCENDING
Bear in mind:
LSS always decreases with altitude.
MACH N =
TAS
LSS
ASI UNDERREADS with altitude.

For descending, the results are reversed.
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Constant Mach Climb:

LSS decreases
TAS decreases
RAS decreases
Constant TAS Climb:
LSS decreases
MACH N increases
RAS decreases
Constant RAS Climb:
LSS decreases
TAS increases
MACH N increases
CALCULATIONS
Flight Computer
Mach index against temperature on the airspeed window.
Mach number on the inner scale.
TAS on the outer scale.
LOOK RIGHT TO ME
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PATHFINDER
Use the PLAN MACH# function if you have OAT (SAT).
Use the ACTUAL MACH# function if you have IOAT (TAT).
FORMULA
MACH#
TAS
LSS
LSS
38.945
COAT + 273
Example 1
LSS
600 nm/hour
TAS
450 Kts
M#
M#
TAS
LSS
M#
450
600
M#
0.75
Example 2
LSS
1100 feet/sec
M#
0.73
TAS
TAS
M# x LSS
TAS
0.73 (1100 60 60)

6080
TAS
476 Kts
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Example 3
A/c A
M# 0.815
A/c B
M# 0.76
TAS 500 Kts
a)
What is the flight level under ISA conditions?
b)
What is the TAS of A/c B?
c)
Use the Flight Computer to find the Temperature (-25 C) and TAS (466 Kts)
of ACFT B.
d)
Then: Sea level

Flight level
Temp Change
=
=
=
+ 15 C
- 25 C
40 C at 1.98 C per 1000' = FL 202
Example 4
An A/c flying at a constant FL, reduces power that results in a reduction of TAS by 60 Kts and
M# by 0.1. What is the FL?
M#
TAS
LSS
0.1
60
LSS
LSS
600 nm/hour
600 Kts
600
38.945
-273
Sea Level
Flight Level
Temp Change
38.945 x COAT +273
COAT
- 35 C
=
=
=
+ 15 C
- 35 C
50 C at 1.98 C/1000'
FL252
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Example 5
A/c at FL 330 COAT - 40 C
M# 0.82
The A/c RAS?

(a)
(b)
(c)
RAS 253
RAS 276
RAS 292
First use PLAN M# to get TAS 488 (because it is COAT).

Then use REQ CAS with TAS = 488 CAS = ?.
Example 6
An A/c flies from a warm airmass to a cold airmass at a constant FL and RAS.
The M# will:
(a)
Increase
(b)
Decrease
(c)
Remain Constant
Answer :
M#
TAS
LSS
so as the temperature drops, the TAS and LSS will drop at the same
ratio thus keeping the M# constant
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THE ALTIMETER
The Altimeter is actually just a simple barometer that has been calibrated at ISA to indicate
altitude instead of pressure.
Note the bi-metallic strip to cater for changes in temperature.
A sensitive altimeter is just the same as above, but incorporates a few more capsules to give
a greater movement for a given pressure change. A barometer setting facility enables height
above any pressure datum to be set.
ERRORS
a.
Instrument Error
Because the rate of pressure drop with altitude is not constant, the instrument error is
magnified at higher levels. Hence the greater separation at higher Flight Levels
(2000' above FL290).
b.

The errors are caused in the same way as the ASI and a correction card is supplied.
c.
Barometric Error
This error is catered for by providing a facility to set the QNH on the 'millibar
subscale'.
d.
Time Lag Error

Gears and linkages cause the altimeter pointer to lag. It takes time for a pressure
Change to be registered.
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DURING A RAPID CLIMB
THE ALTIMETER LAGS
- UNDERREADS.
DURING A RAPID DESCENT
THE ALTIMETER LAGS
- OVERREADS.
ALTITUDE / PRESSURE RELATIONSHIP

FROM HIGH TO LOW - CAREFUL GO
If going from an area of high pressure to an area of low pressure - the altimeter will
OVERREAD and you will be lower than indicated.
TEMPERATURE / PRESSURE RELATIONSHIP

FROM WARM TO COLD - DON'T BE BOLD
If going from an area of warm air to an area of cold air - the altimeter will OVERREAD and
you will be lower than indicated.
Indicated Altitude
Altimeter Over
reads
920mb
True Height
3000ft
1020mb
Cold Air
1020mb
Standard
Air
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BLOCKAGES
If the static vent blocks, old static will remain trapped and no change in altitude will shown.
PRESSURE SETTINGS AND DEFINITIONS
QNH: Mean Sea level pressure. Airfield pressure reduced to sea level pressure by ISA.
1hPa = 30'.
QFE: Pressure at airfield. QFE set - Altimeter reads HEIGHT above airfield elevation. QFE
set on the ground - Altimeter reads zero.
QNE: Pressure according to 1013.25 hPa level. QNE set - Altimeter reads PRESSURE
ALTITUDE (Flight level).
NB
The Altimeter always reads ALTITUDE/HEIGHT/LEVEL above the datum which you
have set on the subscale.
TRANSITION ALTITUDE:
Altitude at which you set 1013.25 hPa in the vicinity of an airfield.
TRANSITION LEVEL:
Obtained from ATC. At transition level, set QNH.
TRANSITION LAYER:
The airspace between the transition altitude and the transition level.
TRUE ALTITUDE
The temperature being different to ISA, will cause the QNH altitude and the True Altitude to
be different. ( Use the wiz-wheel to calculate the corrected altitude for mean sea level. )
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ABSOLUTE ALTITUDE (OR HEIGHT)

The height of an A/c above the surface immediately below it.
Can be read directly off a RADIO ALTIMETER
OR
ABSOLUTE ALTITUDE = TRUE ALTITUDE - GROUND ELEVATION.
DENSITY ALTITUDE
Is the height in the ISA where the prevailing density will occur. It is a function of temperature
and is used for A/c performance.
FOR EVERY 1 C ABOVE ISA
D.A. = 120' HIGHER THAN P.A.
D.A. = PA + (120 X DEV from ISA)
ALTIMETER TOLERANCE
+ 50' at Sea Level.
+ 12' per 1000' of airfield elevation above sea level.
e.g.
J.S. ELEVATION
=
=
=
5500'
50 + (5.5 x 12)
116' PLUS OR MINUS
ALTITUDE ALERTING SYSTEM

It is coupled to the Altimeter and provides audio and visual warning.
During climb or descent, the warning goes off 800' before the selected level.
In level flight, the warning will go off when 200' either side of the selected level.
ALTIMETER / TRANSPONDER LINK
The transponder will relay the A/c P.A. regardless of the subscale setting.
RANGE is -1000' PA to 127000' PA.
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THE SERVO ASSISTED ALTIMETER
Principle of Operation
1.
Pressure sensing capsules are coupled mechanically to an electrical E and I pick-off

assembly.
2.
Movement of the aneroid capsules is transmitted through a linkage to the "I" bar of
the E and I inductive pick-up.
3.
The amplitude of the AC voltage output from the secondary windings depends on the
degree of deflection of the "I" bar, which is a function of pressure change. Polarity of
the output signal will depend on whether the capsules expand or contract.
4.
The output signal is amplified and used to drive a motor whose speed and direction of
rotation will depend on the amplitude and phase of the signal. The motor drives the
gear train, which rotates the height digital counters and the pointer. The motor also
drives, through gearing, a cam that imparts an angular movement to a cam follower.
5.
The "E" bar of the inductive pick-off is attached to the follower. Sense of movement is
such that the "E" bar is driven until it reaches a position where the air gaps between
"E" and "I" bars are again equal, thus completing the servo-loop.
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SUB-SCALE SETTING
1)
Sub-scale setting moves worm - displaces E Bar.
2)
Current at E Bar goes to Amp/motor - drives pointers.
3)
Motor also drives cam - restores E Bar to null position.
4)
Needle now indicates new height above sub-scale datum.
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THE VSI
The VSI uses the principle of differential pressure to indicate a rate of climb or descent.
During climb or descent, current static pressure goes to the capsule. But it has to go through
the metering unit (choke) to get into the VSI chamber. Thus the static outside the capsule is
slightly older - causing a pressure differential. The pressure differential causes expansion
or contraction of the capsule. This is fed via a suitable system of linkages and levers to the
indicator needle.
ERRORS
(a)
Time Lag Error

Is caused by delay of differential pressures being registered.
(b)

During certain manoeuvres, turbulence may reach static vent causing
inaccurate readings.
(c)
Blockages
Any blockage - VSI reads ZERO.
BEFORE TAKE-OFF
VFR
the VSI may show an error.
IFR
the VSI must be corrected before T/O.
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ALTERNATE STATIC SOURCE

This is for use if the main static source becomes blocked. Usually the source is located in
the cabin, but the pressure in the cabin can be up to 10 hPa lower than the true static.
Therefore:
Altimeter will overread by 300 ft.

ASI will overread (reduced static).
VSI will show a momentary rate of climb then return to zero.
THE IVSI (INSTANTANEOUS VSI)
The main function of the IVSI is to overcome the time lag error at the beginning of a climb or
descent. The IVSI utilises 2 plungers or accelerometers. These are connected to the static
pressure line.
When a climb or descent is initiated, the pistons are displaced by the inertia of the vertical
acceleration force and create an immediate pressure change inside the capsule and an
immediate indication by the IVSI pointer. The effect is only temporary and the actual static
pressure from the metering unit takes over after a few seconds.
Machmeter Questions
1.
At flight level 330 the RAS of an aircraft is 285kt. The temperature deviation from the
standard is -12C (JSA). Use your computer to determine:
1.
The TAS
a)
b)
c)
d)
2.
564 kts
454 kts
530 kts
480 kts
The local speed of sound

a)
b)
c)
d)
480 kts
530 kts
564 kts
629 kts
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3.
The mach number

a)
b)
c)
d)
2.
Calculate , without using the computer , the altitude in the standard atmosphere at
which 470kt TAS corresponds to Mach 0.82.
a)
b)
c)
d)
+1
-46
-24
-15
If an aircraft climbs from sea level to 30 000ft in the standard atmosphere at a

constant mach number, what would the TAS do?
a)
b)
c)
d)
650 kts
394 kts
875 kts
592 kts
An aircraft is at FL350, TAS 463kt at Mach 0.79 when the temperature deviation from
standard is +9C . Without using the computer give the temperature deviation at
FL 310 which at Mach 0.79 would give a TAS of 463kt.
a)
b)
c)
d)
FL283
FL207
FL360
FL310
If a decrease of 0.13 in the Mach number results in a decrease of 77kt in the TAS
what is the real speed of sound?
a)
b)
c)
d)
.75
.80
1.02
.85
increase
decrease
stay constant
none of the above
When climbing in the standard atmosphere at a constant RAS, state whether the
Mach number would:
a)
b)
c)
d)
increase
remain constant
decrease
non of the above
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Air Data Computer (ADC)

Although pilots have been provided with information on the instrument panel on the aircrafts
speed, altitude, engine performance, etc. by individual instrument dials since the earliest
days of flying, from World War Two onwards the outputs of the sensors for these instruments
(e.g. the pitot head) have also been tapped for other purposes associated with the conduct of
the flight.
The Air data Computer (ADC) is a dedicated item of equipment used specifically to collect
and distribute such in-flight measurements. The analogue Air Data Computers introduced
into civil aircraft over thirty years ago are now being phased out to be replaced by digital
ADCs. The block schematic diagram shows the general input to and output from an ADC.
Pressure sensing is accomplished by two pressure transducers, one sensing static pressure
and the other sensing both pitot and static pressures within the computed air speed module.
The Mach speed module and true air speed (TAS) module are pure signal generating
devices, which are supplied with air speed and altitude data from the respective modules.
Static air temperature data required for computing TAS is sensed by a temperature probe
and is routed to the TAS module through the Mach speed module.
There is also a facility for a configuration module to be plugged into the circuit to provide
information on the specific aircraft type such as V MO, etc. and a switch interlock to isolate
control of the ADCs self test feature (see BIT below) unless the aircraft is on the ground.
The outputs are to flight deck displays as described later in Electronic Flight Instrument
Systems (EFIS), Flight Management Systems (FMS), etc.
Primarily, the equipment is installed in the aircrafts electronic bay where it is cooled by
natural convection, but the Built-in-Test (BIT) facility can be operated from a switch on the
flight deck when the aircraft is on the ground (sometimes effectively at below a set airspeed)
usually protected by a strut switch.
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Although Air Data Computers have a high degree of reliability, the function of the BIT facility
is to check for the correct performance of the equipment both before and during flight.
Power-up BIT
When power is re-applied to the unit after an interval, this test makes a comprehensive check
of the microprocessor, its memory store and the air data functions.
Continuous BIT:
The check is carried out automatically, without interfering with the operation of the ADC, and
it does so at very short intervals (e.g. once every second) for all stages of the process, from
input to output.
Maintenance BIT
The same BIT facility enables a maintenance check to be made when the aircraft is on the
ground by the selection on the equipment of a TEST or a TEST/HISTORY switch, to show
both current failures and any which may have occurred on the preceding flight(s).
Apart from the BIT facility, used by the maintenance crew on the ground, an Air Data
Computer has no user controls or adjustments. It may have a remote flight deck ADC
WARN lamp to alert pilots to the appearance of a malfunction flag on the instrument panel.
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General Questions
1.
If the Pitot Head and Static Vent were blocked by ice, which instruments would be
affected?
a)
b)
c)
2.
If the Pitot head is blocked, what airspeed indication can he expected?

a)
b)
c)
3.
IAS corrected for instrument and pressure error.

IAS corrected for density error.
IAS corrected for density and compressibility errors.
An aircraft is maintaining FL 120 in cloud. The ASI reading falls to zero. The most
probable cause is:
a)
b)
c)
7.
ASI, Altimeter and VSI.

ASI and VSI.
ASI only.
Rectified Airspeed is:

a)
b)
c)
6.
Zero
High
Low
If the Pitot opening is blocked, which instruments would be affected (separate static
vent)?
a)
b)
c)
5.
No change of IAS in level flight, even with large power changes.

A decrease of IAS during a climb.
Constant IAS during a descent.
If the static vent became blocked during a descent the ASI would read:
a)
b)
c)
4.
ASI, Altimeter and Slip indicator.

Altimeter, VSI and ASI would give inaccurate readings.
The ASI would under read.
Static vent blocked by ice.

Pitot head and static vent blocked by ice.
ASI malfunction.
An aircraft is flying from a cold air mass into a warm air mass. The TAS and true
altitude will:
a)
b)
c)
TAS increases, true altitude decreases.

TAS decreases, true altitude increases.
Both increases.
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8.
An aircraft flying from warm air to cold air at a constant TAS. The RAS would:
a)
b)
c)
9.
Pressure altitude 10000 feet OAT + 3 C. What is Density Altitude?

a)
b)
c)
10.
Remain constant
Increase
Decrease
11000 ft
12300 ft
9200 ft
Pressure Altitude
QNH Altitude
OAT
15000 ft
15600 ft
+ 10 C
What is true altitude?

a)
b)
c)
11.
15900 ft
16450 ft
17100 ft
Pressure Altitude
QNH Altitude
OAT
Terrain elevation
8000 ft
7500 ft
+ 30 C
5700 ft
The approximate absolute altitude is:

a)
b)
c)
12.
500 ft
1800 ft
2650 ft
Airfield Elevation
4000 ft
OAT+15C
QNH995hPa
What is Density Altitude?

a)
b)
c)
13.
5000 ft
5600 ft
6200 ft
An aircraft leaves FL 160 for an approach and landing at an airfield. The pilot will set
QNH at the:
a)
b)
c)
Transition Layer.
Transition level.
Transition Altitude.
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14.
Transition altitude is obtained from:

a)
b)
c)
15.
Transition level is obtained from:

a)
b)
c)
16.
QNH
QFE
1013.25 hPa
If while in level flight, it becomes necessary to use an alternate source of static

pressure vented inside the aircraft, with the cabin pressure being lower than static,
the following variations in instrument indication would be expected:
a)
b)
c)
19.
At the Pitot head which encounters relatively undisturbed air.

In the cockpit where it is not influenced by a variable angle of attack.
One on each side of the aircraft where the system will compensate for
variation of aircraft attitude.
Pressure Altitude at an airfield is indicated by an altimeter when the barometric subscale is set to:
a)
b)
c)
18.
ATC or VOR ATIS.

Jeppesen or Aerad flight guides.
1500 feet above airfield elevation.
The location of the static vent which could provide the most accurate measurement
of static pressure under variable flight conditions is:
a)
b)
c)
17.
ATC or VOR ATIS.

Jeppesen or Aerad flight guides.
1500 feet above airfield elevation.
the altimeter will read higher than normal, airspeed will not change and the
vertical-speed indicator will momentarily show a descent;
the altimeter will read higher than normal, airspeed greater than normal and
the vertical-speed indicator will momentarily show a climb;
the altimeter will read lower than normal, airspeed greater than normal and
the vertical-speed indicator will momentarily show a climb and then a descent.
Assume that an aeroplane at 17000 FT AMSL has a cabin pressure equal to an

altitude of 7000 FT. If the pitot static tubes break at a point within the cockpit, the
altimeter would read:
a)
b)
c)
10000 FT (7000 ft + 3000 ft) which is the allowance for pressure differential;
17000 ft;
The cabin pressure altitude, i.e. 7000 ft.
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20.
If an altimeter indicates 3500 feet with QNH 1004.7 hPa set, what is the pressure
altitude?
a)
b)
c)
21.
An altimeter is set to 1010.9 hPa. The aircraft lands at an airfield (elevation 772 feet
AMSL, QNH 1016.1 hPa). What will the altimeter read on landing?
a)
b)
c)
22.
Descending
Climbing
Maintaining altitude
An aircraft levels out after a rapid descent. The altimeter would:

a)
b)
c)
25.
1700 ft
900 ft
400 ft
An aircraft flies from Johannesburg (QNH 1020) to Durban (QNH 995) at FL 100. In
the cruise the aircraft is:
a)
b)
c)
24.
932 ft
160 ft
612 ft
En route at FL 270, the altimeter is set correctly. On the descent the pilot fails to reset
the altimeter to QNH 1026.1. If the airfield elevation is 1300 feet, what will the
altimeter indicate after landing?
a)
b)
c)
23.
3755 ft
3500 ft
3160 ft
Read correctly.
Overread for a brief period.
Underread for a brief period.
An airfield, elevation 3000 feet, has a pressure altitude of 3500 feet. What is the
QNH?
a)
b)
c)
1029.9 hPa
1013.2 hPa
996.5 hPa
What is the QFE?

a)
b)
c)
896.5 hPa
913.s hPa
879.8 hPa
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26.
An aircraft is flying at FL 120, the QNH is 995 hPa. What clearance has the aircraft
over high ground 1982 metres AMSL?
a)
b)
c)
27.
An aircraft heading 003 (M), drift 10 left, has to pass over high ground that is 2200
metres AMSL. Minimum clearance over the high ground is 2000 feet, QNH 1025 hPa.
What is the lowest IFR flight level?
a)
b)
c)
28.
Increase
Decrease
Remain constant.
Climbing at a constant Mach number, the RAS will:

a)
b)
c)
32.
Increase
Decrease
Remain constant.
An aircraft descends from FL 410 to FL 200 at a constant Mach number. The TAS will:
a)
b)
c)
31.
Local Speed of sound decreases and the RAS decreases.

Local Speed of sound decreases and the Mach No. decreases.
Local Speed of sound increases and the Mach No. increases.
An aircraft flying at FL 330, Mach 0.82 flies into a colder airmass. The TAS will:
a)
b)
c)
30.
FL090
FL100
FL105
An aircraft maintains a constant TAS of 350 kts in the climb:

a)
b)
c)
29.
4950 feet
6050 feet
6250 feet
Increase
Decrease
Remain constant.
As air density increases, the ASI compressibility error will:

a)
b)
c)
Increase
Decrease
Remain constant.
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33.
The local speed of sound is 1050 ft/sec. What is the TAS of an aircraft flying at Mach
0.84?
a)
b)
c)
34.
Calculate the altitude in the ISA where a TAS of 480 kts equals Mach 0.82.
a)
b)
c)
35.
FL290
FL310
FL330
An aircraft flies from a cold air mass into a warm air mass at a constant FL and RAS.
The mach number will:
a)
b)
c)
37.
29000 ft
31500 ft
34000 ft
An aircraft is flying at a constant Flight Level. An increase in power results in the

Mach number increasing by 0.15 and the TAS by 87 knots, the aircraft is flying at:
a)
b)
c)
36.
TAS 502
TAS 512
TAS 522
Increase
Decrease
Remain Constant
For an aircraft flying at Mach 0.82 at FL 350, COAT - 35 C, the RAS would be:
a)
b)
c)
251 kts
264 kts
279 kts
38.
If the static vent becomes blocked during a climb the machmeter will:
a)
overread;
b)
read correctly;
c)
underread.
39.
Ambient static pressure is fed to the ASI in flight to:

a)
b)
c)
40.
will:
Cancel dynamic pressure in the pitot tube.

Subtract the static pressure from the dynamic pressure.
Cancel static pressure entering the instrument diaphragm through the pitot
tube.
The static vent is blocked.

a)
b)
c)
If the glass covering the VSI is broken, the instrument
Read correctly.
Read zero under all conditions.
Readings will be reversed.
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41.
During a pre-flight check the VSI shows 100 ft/min climb. You may:
a)
b)
c)
42.
The ASI has a pressure error of + 5 knots at IAS 130 kts. At this airspeed the VSI
would:
a)
b)
c)
43.
Density, compressibility and pressure errors.

Position, density and barometric errors.
Temperature, compressibility and density errors.
An aircraft leaves airfield X (elevation 510 feet) with the QFE 999 hPa set on the
altimeter, enroute to Y (510 nm from X) where the QNH is 1025 hPa. A spot height
(450 metres AMSL) 114 nm from X is cleared by 2000 feet. What was the altimeter
reading over the spot height?
a)
b)
c)
48.
Increase with altitude.

Decrease with altitude.
Increase with increase of density.
The Principle and Operation of the Machmeter precludes the following errors:
a)
b)
c)
47.
higher than true altitude;

lower than true altitude;
the same as true altitude.
ASI compressibility error will increase with increase of TAS and:

a)
b)
c)
46.
actual barometric pressure measured at the station;

actual barometric pressure measured at sea level;
Station's barometric pressure corrected to mean sea level pressure.
When ambient temperature is warmer than standard at a particular altitude, the

altimeter will indicate:
a)
b)
c)
45.
Over read
Read correctly
Under read
The reported QNH of a given station is the:

a)
b)
c)
44.
Fly in IFR conditions and allow for the error.

Have the VSI adjusted before flight.
Fly in IFR conditions and ignore the error.
2906 feet
3476 feet
4046 feet
Airfield A
Elevation 2100 feet QFE930hPa
Airfield B
Elevation 1200 feet
A pilot sets airfield elevation on his altimeter prior to take-off from A. On landing at B
the altimeter reads 1500 feet. What is the QNH at B?
a)
b)
c)
QNH 990
QNH 1010
1013.2
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49.
An aircraft leaves A (elevation 540 feet) with QFE 1008 set on the altimeter, enroute
to B (1000 nm from A, QNH 1000 hPa). A spot height 232 metres AMSL, 250 nm from
A is cleared by 1500 feet. What was the altimeter reading over the spot height?
a)
b)
c)
50.
An aircraft leaves Y, airfield pressure 960 hPa, and the altimeter reads airfield
elevation of 1860 feet. The aircraft lands at Z (elevation 1000 feet) where the
altimeter reads 1270 feet. What is the QNH at Z?
a)
b)
c)
51.
1916 feet
2261 feet
2606 feet
QNH 1013
QNH 1022
QNH 1031
During a pre-flight check the following details were noted:

Airfield Elevation
Apron Elevation
Height of static vent above ground
Altimeter reading (QFE set)
5000 feet
4980 feet
25 feet
45 feet
What is the instrument error?

a)
b)
c)
52.
The Instantaneous Vertical Speed Indicator incorporates an accelerometer unit. The

pistons of the accelerometer unit are connected:
a)
b)
c)
53.
directly to the VSI needle to give an instantaneous deflection when a climb or

a descent is initiated;
directly to the capsule by a leaf spring which exerts or relieves pressure on the
capsule when a climb or a descent is initiated;
to the static pressure tube leading to the capsule and their movement creates
an immediate pressure change inside the capsule when a climb or descent is
initiated.
In the servo altimeter the servo motor drives the:

a)
b)
c)
54.
40 ft under read
05 ft under read
40 ft over read
amplifier and the induction pick-off;

the counters and the cam;
the I-bar.
By changing from QNH to QNE on a servo assisted Altimeter:

a)
b)
c)
The motor drives the "E" bar sensing an error, then amplified and fed to the
counter.
The anvil moves the worm gear, changing the air gaps between the "E" and "I"
bars.
The "I" bar moves, changing the air gaps between the "E" and "I" bars.
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55.
If the static pressure ports iced over while descending from altitude, the airspeed
indicator would read:
a)
b)
c)
High
Low
Correctly.
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CHAPTER 2
GYROSCOPES
A spinning gyro has 2 properties:
RIGIDITY
PRECESSION
RIGIDITY
The ability of a gyro to maintain its axis aligned with a fixed point in space.
R
S
I
F
SI
F
Rotational Speed (Greater speed - greater rigidity).

Moment of Inertia (Greater mass - greater rigidity).
Force (Greater force applied - less rigidity).
PRECESSION
If a force is applied to a spinning gyro, it acts at 90 to the point of application in the direction
of spin.
PRECESSION TRIES TO OVERCOME RIGIDITY AND
RIGIDITY TRIES TO OVERCOME PRECESSION.
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TYPES OF GYROS
Gyro types depend on the number of planes of freedom of movement.
movement is achieved by mounting the gyro in gimbal rings.
Freedom of
Space Gyro
Freedom of movement in all 3 planes.(Fore/aft-athwarthships and vertical). This type of gyro
is of no use in aviation. We need a gyro that is fixed in at least one plane to give a reference
datum.
Tied Gyro (DI)
A space gyro with freedom of movement in 3 planes, but tied to a reference point.
Earth Gyro (AH)
A gyro controlled by the earth's gravity.
Rate Gyro (T & S)
A gyro having freedom of movement in 1 plane only.
Gyroscopic Wander
Due to its rigidity, the spin axis of a perfect gyro should continue to point in a fixed direction.
Any movement of the spin axis away from this fixed direction is known as gyro wander.
Depending on the direction in which the spin axis moves, the gyro may be said to be drifting
or toppling.
Gyro drift occurs whenever the spin axis moves in a horizontal plane,
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Gyro topple occurs whenever the spin axis moves in a vertical plane,
A gyro whose spin axis is vertically mounted cannot drift, but can only topple.
Real Wander
Whenever the spin axis actually moves relative to a fixed point in space, the gyro is said to
be suffering real wander, that is to say real drift, real topple or a composite of both.
Such real wander may be deliberately induced or may be due to mechanical imperfections in
the gyro assembly, for example:
a)
An imperfectly balanced gyro wheel.
b)
Imperfectly balanced gimbals.
c)
Uneven friction loadings at the bearings.
Apparent Wander
Whenever the spin axis of a perfect gyro (with no real wander) appears to an Earth bound
observer to be changing direction, the gyro is said to be suffering from apparent wander.
The diagram on the next page shows apparent drift. The spin axis of a perfect gyro is aligned
with true north at time A. The gyro continues to remain perfectly rigid relative to a fixed point
in space, however with the passage of time (A2, A3, A4) the spin axis appears to an Earth
bound observer to be drifting away from true north. Appreciate that the gyro is stationary on
the Earth, it is the Earth which is moving about its own spin axis.
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Apparent drift does not occur at the equator, since the meridians are parallel. At the poles
the rate of apparent drift is equal to the rate of Earth rotation (15 per hour),
The formula for the apparent drift (due to Earth rotation) is:
RATE OF APPARENT DRIFT
15 x THE SINE OF THE LATITUDE /HOUR
Conversely apparent topple is calculated using the formula:

RATE OF APPARENT TOPPLE = 15 x THE COSINE OF THE LATITUDE /HOUR
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Since it is zero at the poles, but occurs at the maximum rate of 15 per hour at the
equator,
Apparent wander (either drift or topple) also occurs whenever the gyro is transported east or
west across the surface of the Earth. This apparent wander is specifically termed transport
wander.
Gyros can be air driven but electrically driven gyros are more advantageous due to:
More efficient - higher speeds at all altitudes.
Operational speed is attained much quicker.
Case can be sealed so no impurities to clog gyro.
Heat generated by the motor, maintains a stable operating temperature, thus
increasing the useful life of the bearings.
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THE DIRECTION GYRO (DGI)
TIED GYRO
Tied to North
HORIZONTAL AXIS N/S
The gyro has freedom of movement of 360 in the horizontal plane, but is restricted to 55
freedom of movement either side of the vertical plane. This is to prevent damage to the
gimbal rings.
HIGH RPM
The gyro spins at + 12000 RPM because:
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION = RIGIDITY
The A/c turns in the horizontal plane. The gyro assembly and gimbals remain directed at a
fixed point in space. So the A/c turns about the rigid gyro and heading is indicated.
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PRINCIPLE OF CONTROL = PRECESSION

To give a reference for change of heading, the gyro must always be maintained in the A/c
horizontal axis. (not true horizontal). Therefore, to indicate a change of heading in a banked
turn, the gyro must be precesses back into the A/c horizontal axis. Also if the A/c flies from
the equator to the pole, its horizontal axis changes by 90, so the gyro will have to be
precessed by 90.
GYRO WANDER
The DGI suffers from 4 factors that cause TOTAL DRIFT.
REAL WANDER
EARTH ROTATION WANDER
LATITUDE NUT CORRECTION
TRANSPORT WANDER
TOTAL DRIFT
Real Wander
Nothing can be done about this because it is due to asymmetric friction etc.
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Earth Rotation Wander
NORTHERN HEMISPHERE
SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE
DGI READING DECREASE AT

15 Sin Lat/HR
DGI READING INCREASE AT

15 Sin Lat/HR
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Latitude Nut Correction
To counteract the effect of EARTH ROTATION WANDER, we use a LATITUDE RIDER NUT.
It imposes a precessional force on the DGI which is equal and opposite to ERW at that
latitude. This continually lines up the fixed point in space with magnetic North, effectively
making the Earth stand still.
NORTHERN HEMISPHERE : NUT SCREWED INWARDS
SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE : NUT SCREWED OUTWARDS
It must be remembered that because APPARENT WANDER changes with latitude, the
latitude rider nut is set for a specific latitude only. Any departure from this latitude and
precession will not equal wander and headings will increase or decrease.
TRANSPORT WANDER
The latitude rider nut has cancelled out ERW and basically stopped the earth from turning.
However, if an A/c flies from one meridian to another, (TRANSPORT), the fixed point in
space will not coincide with the Magnetic North and the result will be TRANSPORT
WANDER.
The magnitude of Transport Wander will equal the magnitude of Convergency.
Therefore an A/c flying along the equator will experience zero transport wander.
Dgi headings
increase
Dgi headings
decrease
Dgi headings
decrease
Dgi headings
increase
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If travelling EXACTLY east or west:

Transport wander = Groundspeed Kt x tan latitude /hr
60
Any other track:
Transport wander = d long x Sin mean lat
Flight time
TOTAL DRIFT = REAL DRIFT + APPARENT DRIFT
*
These factors are all calculated in DRIFT PER HOUR.
If a problem is over several hours, remember to multiply the degrees of drift by

the number of hours.
RING LASER GYRO

The ring laser gyro (RLG) is just about as different from a conventional gyro as it is possible
to get. The RLG operates on the principle of the relative movement of two beams of laser
light, whereas a conventional gyro operates on the principle of stored mechanical energy
(inertia). RLGs are a solid state alternative to the conventional rate integrating gyro.
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ARTIFICIAL HORIZON
The (AH) is an EARTH GYRO

VERTICAL AXIS
HIGH RPM
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION - RIGIDITY
PRINCIPLE OF CONTROL - PRECESSION
EARTH GYRO
It is controlled by earth's gravity.
VERTICAL AXIS
And has freedom of movement in all 3 planes
HIGH RPM
+ 15000 RPM for air models.
It has this high RPM because:
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION IS RIGIDITY
The A/c pitches and rolls around the gyro system which is rigid, giving instantaneous
reference to pitch and bank.
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PRINCIPLE OF CONTROL IN PRECESSION

The gyro axis is kept in the vertical (true vertical) plane by the PENDULOUS VANE UNIT
which provides the necessary precessional force if the gyro has toppled.
The pendulous unit has 4 exhaust ports. Air exits here after spinning the gyro. Each port is
half closed by a vane which lies to the left as you look at the port. After the gyro topples, the
vanes remain in the vertical. One of the vanes will cover its port, and no air escapes here.
There is a pressure force here which is precessed through 90 and erects the gyro. The rate
of precession is kept low so that when the vanes are disturbed by turbulence, the
precessional force on the gyro is negligible.
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AH INDICATOR
The miniature A/c is fixed to the outer gimbal. The horizon bar, through the guide pin is
linked directly to the gyro (inner gimbal). If the A/c descends, the horizon bar moves up
causing our little A/c to appear below the horizon and vice versa for climbing. A similar thing
occurs when the A/c banks and the horizon bar, linked to the gyro, rotates around the little
A/c.
GYRO ERRORS
The Gyro suffers from 2 errors:
(a)
(b)
Acceleration Error.
Turning Error.
The causes of these errors are:

(a)
(b)
PENDULOSITY. (bottom of unit heavy)

ERECTION (precession by vanes)
PENDULOSITY
In acceleration (and deceleration). The pendulous unit makes the rotor bottom heavy, and
the bottom of the unit is subject to inertial forces generated by acceleration and deceleration.
In a turn, the pendulous unit suffers from centrifugal force which provides a processional
force to the gyro.
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ERECTION
In acceleration (and deceleration), The vanes should remain in the true vertical and keep the
gyro axis vertical. During acceleration both longitudinal side vanes are thrown back, with the
result that the right side opens and the left side closes. Reaction is a force which provides
an erectional force which precesses the gyro.
In a turn, the vanes suffer from centrifugal force which causes an erectional force, which
precesses the gyro.
ACCELERATION ERROR
- CLIMBING RIGHT BANK
DECELERATION ERROR
- DESCENDING LEFT BANK
TURNING ERROR TO LEFT
- REDUCTION IN LEFT BANK
TURNING ERROR TO RIGHT
- REDUCTION IN RIGHT BANK
NOTE: The effect of pendulosity and erection increases the error to a maximum at 180 turn,
thereafter reducing to zero.
The reason is because the effect of pendulosity opens and closes the opposite two
vanes which erection error opens and closes. This causes an erectional force which
is correct and nullifies the 2 errors after a while.
THE ELECTRICAL ARTIFICIAL HORIZON
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Once again, the gyro is controlled through precession. This precessional force is achieved
by levelling switches and a torque motor.
The levelling switches are at 90 to their respective axis and the torque motor applies a
correcting torque at 90 to the respective axis.
e.g.
GYRO DISPLACEMENT IN PITCH
Levelling switch on roll axis (90 to Pitch Axis).

Torque motor on roll axis (90 to Pitch Axis).
The opposite applies to gyro displacement in roll.
Mercury switches and their placements and use
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THE STANDBY AH
Major airlines today do not use the conventional AH, but instead, they all have Flight
Directors. It is controlled by a remote gyro or inputs from the INS. Now in case of an
electrical failure, a STANDBY AH is employed.
It is an electrically driven gyro that is powered by 115 volt - 3 phase AC from a static invertor.
It is guaranteed of electrical power because it is linked to the 28 Volt DC Battery Busbar (Hot
Bus).
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TURN AND SLIP INDICATOR

The Turn and slip indicator are 2 separate instruments:
Turn Indicator
Slip Indicator
Turn Indicator is a :
- Gyroscope
- Mechanical
RATE GYRO
HORIZONTAL AXIS
LOW RPM
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION - PRECESSION
RATE GYRO:
Freedom of movement is in one plane only - Rolling Plane.

Some books say it has freedom of movement in a second plane - plane of rotation. The
instrument measures the rate of turn in the 3rd plane at right angles to the other 2.
HORIZONTAL AXIS:
The axis of the gyro is mounted athwartships.
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LOW RPM:
The gyro spins at 9000 RPM. This low RPM because:
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION IS PRECESSION
The instrument measures the precessional rate of the gyro and indicates it as a turn.
OPERATION
As the A/c turns, the gyro wants to remain in the horizontal, but is forced to remain in the A/c
athwarthsips axis. This force is precessed and causes the gyro to tilt.
GYRO TILT IS DUE TO PRIMARY PRECESSION CAUSED BY THE A/C TURNING.
The gyro now experiences a secondary precessional force from the springs. When primary
and secondary precessional forces are equal, a steady turn is indicated.
The secondary precessional force returns the gyro to its original position once the turn is
stopped.
The turn indicator is usually electrically driven to provide a back up in case of AH and DGI
failure resulting from loss of suction.
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TURN INDICATOR ERRORS

Springs
The springs are adjusted to a rate one turn. Any other rate will provide inaccuracies.
Rotor Speed
The turn indicator is calibrated for a given rotor speed only.
ROTOR SPEED TOO LOW
Primary precession less than secondary precession -
LESSER RATE OF TURN

INDICATED.
ROTOR SPEED TOO HIGH

Primary precession greater than secondary precession -
GREATER RATE OF TURN

INDICATED.
TO CALCULATE THE RADIUS AND ANGLE OF BANK OF A TURN

TAS 240 Kts
RATE 1 TURN
RATE 1 TURN = 2 mins.
a)
What is the radius of the turn?
b)
What is the bank angle required?
Answers
a)
Circ
240 x 6080' x
Circ
48640'
Circ
2r
circ
2
48640
2
7741'
2
60
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b.
Tan =
Tan =
or
V2
gr
0.66
33.39
V
G
r
405.33 (ft/sec)
32.2 x 7741
Tan =
10 % of TAS + 7
TAS
+ 7
10
= 24 + 7
= 31
= speed
= gravity 32.2 ft/sec
= radius
THE TURN INDICATOR IS THE ONLY INSTRUMENT THAT CAN ACCOMMODATE

UNLIMITED PITCH WITHOUT TOPPLING.
SERVICEABILITY CHECK:
While taxing, check:
Needle in direction of turn.

Ball out of turn.
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Questions
1.
The rigidity of a spinning wheel is directly proportional to:

a)
b)
c)
2.
Aircraft level, ball central, turn needle central.

Aircraft level, turn needle central, ball central, fluid in tube.
Aircraft not level, turn needle and ball displaced.
What indications should you get from the Turn and Slip indicator during taxi?
a)
b)
c)
7.
18 degrees
25 degrees
30 degrees
The Turn and Slip indicator pre-flight check consists of:

a)
b)
c)
6.
The miniature aircraft would indicate a descent.

The miniature aircraft would indicate a climb.
The miniature aircraft would indicate a climb and bank.
What is the approximate angle of bank for a rate one turn at 110 knots?
a)
b)
c)
5.
90 degree turn;
180 degree turn;
270 degree turn.
When an aircraft is rapidly accelerated in straight and level flight, or at take-off, what
inherent precession characteristic will be displayed on the attitude indicator?
a)
b)
c)
4.
CAA
Errors in both pitch and bank indication on an attitude indicator are usually at a
maximum as the aircraft rolls out of a:
a)
b)
c)
3.
the speed of rotation and indirectly proportional to the mass of the rotor;
the moment of inertia and inversely proportional to the speed of rotation;
the speed of rotation and inversely proportional to the moment of inertia.
The needle and ball should move freely in the direction of the turn.
The ball moves opposite to the turn and the needle deflects in the direction of
the turn.
The ball deflects opposite to the turn and the needle remains central.
The effect of decreasing rotor speed in the turn and slip indicator will cause:
a)
b)
c)
the turn indicator to over-read and the slip indicator to under-read;

the turn indicator to under-indicate the angle of bank but will not effect the slip
indicator;
the turn indicator to under-read the rate of turn.
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8.
The angle of tilt of the rate gyro in a turn indicator is due to:
a)
b)
c)
9.
To complete a 360 turn using the Turn Co-ordinator, takes 131 seconds. The rotor
speed is:
a)
b)
c)
10.
Directional Gyro and Artificial Horizon.

Directional Gyro and Turn indicator.
Artificial Horizon and Turn indicator.
An Artificial Horizon employs a;

a)
b)
c)
15.
Total instrument failure.

Turn indicator failure. Slip indicator serviceable.
Turn indicator underreads, slip not affected.
The principle of rigidity is used for the operation of the following gyroscopic
instruments:
a)
b)
c)
14.
Turn indicator overreads.

Turn indicator and Slip underreads.
Turn indicator underreads, slip not affected.
A warning flag appears on an electrical Turn and Slip indicator, this means:
a)
b)
c)
13.
Rotor speed and inversely proportional to rotor mass.

Gyro inertia and inversely proportional to rotor speed.
Gyro inertia and rotor speed.
If the rotational speed of the Turn and Slip gyro rotor is below the calibrated speed
the:
a)
b)
c)
12.
High
Low
Correct
The rigidity of a gyro is directly proportional to:

a)
b)
c)
11.
the force in the horizontal plane generated by secondary precession balancing

the tilt caused by primary precession;
the tension of the control spring opposing the angular tilt of the gyro;
primary precession which is generated by an aeroplanes rate of turn.
Tied gyro
Earth gyro
Rate gyro
One characteristic that a properly functioning gyro depends upon for operation is the:
a)
b)
c)
Resistance to deflection of the gyro rotor.

Ability to resist precession at 90 degrees to an applied force.
Position of the gyro axis relative to the Earth's axis.
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16.
The Latitude Rider nut of a DGI compensates for:

a)
b)
c)
17.
The Latitude Rider nut of a DGI is set to give zero drift due to the Earth's rotation at
30S. The gyro readings will:
a)
b)
c)
18.
pressure altimeter;
heading indicator (DGI);
vertical-speed indicator.
The air driven Artificial Horizon erection error is due to:

a)
b)
c)
22.
+7.5 degrees per hour.

+7.5 degrees per minute.
-7.5 degrees per hour.
If a vacuum gauge indicates the pressure to be lower than the minimum limit, the airoperated instruments that would be affected, are:
a)
b)
c)
21.
must be adjusted outwards;

must be adjusted inwards;
is not adjusted since the latitude nut can only be used to correct for apparent
wander in the northern hemisphere.
What is earth rotation wander at 30 degrees S?

a)
b)
c)
20.
Increase when flying North from 30 S.

Increase when flying South from 30 S.
Remain correct when flying East or West along the 30 S parallel.
The rotor of the DGI spins up and away from the pilot when 090 is indicated. The
latitude compensation nut situated on the near right hand side of the inner gimbal
from the gyro axis, has been set to give zero drift on the ground at the equator. To
compensate for earth rotation at 30 S the latitude compensating nut:
a)
b)
c)
19.
Real wander.
Earth rotation wander.
Transport wander.
Centrifugal Force acting at the bottom of the pendulous unit.

Centrifugal Force displacing the vanes.
Wear and tear of the gimbal bearings.
The DGI, Artificial Horizon and Turn indicator are:

a)
b)
c)
Rate, Earth and Tied gyros respectively.

Tied, Rate and Earth gyros respectively.
Tied, Earth and Rate gyros respectively.
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23.
Erection errors in an air driven Gyro Horizon Indicator are due to:
a)
b)
c)
24.
In an electrically driven artificial horizon, the axis wander about the pitch axis is
controlled by:
a)
b)
c)
25.
A mercury switch at right angles to the pitch axis inducing torque about the roll
axis.
A mercury switch parallel to the pitch axis inducing torque about the pitch
axis.
A mercury switch at right angles to the roll axis inducing torque about the pitch
axis.
During a stabilised climbing turn at a constant rate, the instruments which indicate the
correct pitch and bank are the:
a)
b)
c)
26.
Loss of gyro rigidity due to the reduction in rotor speed at high altitudes.
The movement of the pendulous vanes during aircraft accelerations and
manoeuvres.
The displacement of the pendulous gyro casing during acceleration or a turn.
vertical-speed indicator and turn-and-slip indicator;

altimeter and turn-and-slip indicator;
attitude indicator and turn-and-slip indicator.
A RMI (Radio Magnetic Indicator) displays a warning flag which indicates a compass
failure. The radio bearing pointers:
a)
b)
c)
are not to be used;

can be used to home to an NDB;
can be used to home to an NDB and a VOR station.
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CHAPTER 3
OTHER INSTRUMENTS
ANGLE OF ATTACK INDICATOR
An angle of attack indicator is mainly used with high performance aircraft.

A wing will stall at a given angle of attack, regardless of A/C altitude, gross weight or
airspeed.
Angle of attack indicators may be of the Vane Type (stall warning or of a Slotted Probe Type.
FLIGHT DATA RECORDERS
Flight Data Recorders have to measure at least the following 7 Mandatory parameters:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
Time (UTC or elapsed time).

Pressure Altitude.
Airspeed (RAS).
Vertical Acceleration.
Magnetic Heading.
Pitch Attitude.
Cockpit Voice Recorder (CVR).
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TEMPERATURE
It would appear at first glance that measuring the temperature outside the aircraft is a simple
matter of introducing a thermometer bulb into the air and noting the reading on a suitable
indicator. However as aircraft speeds increase and air compressibility become significant, the
situation becomes complicated by the fact that the temperature sensed at the bulb bears no
resemblance to the free air temperature.
Low Speed Thermometers
For aircraft flying at true airspeeds below about 150 kt, relatively simple thermometers are
sufficient to measure the outside air temperature.
The bimetallic thermometer is probably the simplest of aircraft thermometers. A helical
bimetallic element which twists with temperature changes is encased in a tube.
The twisting of the helix drives a pointer over a scale. The thermometer is mounted on the
windscreen or fuselage with the tube protruding into the airstream and the dial visible to the
pilot. A bimetallic thermometer is shown below.
Where it is not feasible to use a bimetallic thermometer, remote bulb thermometers may be
used, and these can be either liquid or vapour filled.
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A remote bulb system is illustrated schematically :
With a liquid filled system the bulb, capillary and Bourdon tube are completely filled with
liquid. The expansion of the liquid with increasing temperature causes the Bourdon tube to
straighten. This action is transferred to a pointer by a mechanical linkage. A decrease of
temperature will have the reverse effect. The bulb is located at a suitable position in the free
air stream.
With a vapour filled system the bulb is filled with a small quantity of volatile liquid and the
capillary and Bourdon tube with vapour. As the fluid in the bulb expands and contracts with
change of temperature, the pressure of the vapour in the capillary tube and in the Bourdon
tube changes, again modifying the shape of the Bourdon tube. With this system atmospheric
pressure changes will cause indicator errors since the Bourdon tube will suffer from a
changing inside/outside pressure ratio.
At true airspeeds above 150 kt the systems described above are not sufficiently accurate,
and it is now necessary to use electrical thermometers. These fall into two categories,
depending on the type of sensing element which is employed.
With a coil resistance sensor, the resistance of a nickel or platinum coil, which changes at a
rate which is proportional to the change in absolute temperature, is measured. The change in
resistance is small but stable.
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With a semiconductor (thermistor) sensor, the change in resistance for a given temperature
change is greater than with a coil sensor, but unfortunately it is difficult to obtain constant
resistance/temperature characteristics from one thermistor to another.
A simple method of converting resistance change to an indication of temperature is to include
the coil or thermistor in a circuit with a fixed voltage of known value. The current flowing in
the circuit will change as the resistance of the sensor changes, and this current is measured
by a milli-ammeter. Changing temperature causes changing resistance which causes
changing current flow, and therefore the face of the milli-ammeter can be calibrated in C
rather than milli-amps.
A more accurate method than that described in the previous paragraph employs a servo
indicator. In this system, the resistance of the sensing element is included in a self-balancing
(Wheatstone) bridge. The principle of operation is that of balancing resistances. The
resistance of the sensor is matched by a variable resistance (a potentiometer) in which the
wiper arm is positioned by a servo loop. The amount of movement of the wiper arm is
consequently a measure of the temperature change, and it is the movement of the wiper arm
which is used to position the needle on the temperature gauge. The advantage of this system
is that changes in the sensor circuit voltage will not affect the accuracy of the system.
Regardless of whichever of the two systems described above is used, it is important that the
current flow through the sensor is minimal, since a current flowing through a circuit within
which there is resistance will itself cause a temperature rise.
A Rosemount probe (or total air temperature probe).
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The probe has a small resistance coil surrounded by concentric cylinders and is mounted on
a streamlined strut 50 mm or so off the aircraft skin. Being small, the element reacts quickly
to temperature changes and being at some distance from the aircraft skin, the coil is not
unduly affected by skin temperature. The probe is open at the front end while a smaller
orifice at the rear allows the probe to continuously sample new air, although the airflow
through the probe is quite slow because of the restrictions within it.
The probe has an integral heating element fitted to it to prevent icing. The heater is of the self
compensating type in that, as the temperature rises, so does the element resistance and
therefore the heater current is reduced. The heater obviously affects the temperature sensed
by the sensor, however the resultant error is small enough to be acceptable, being in the
order of 1C at Mach 0.1 and 0.15C at Mach 1.0.
True and Measured Temperature
Static air temperature (SAT) is the correct temperature of the ambient air and is sometimes
referred to as the corrected or true outside air temperature.
Unfortunately, especially at high speeds, the effect of compressibility means that the
temperature which is sensed will be considerably higher (warmer) than the static air
temperature.
Total air temperature (TAT) is the temperature of air which has been brought virtually to
rest, and which has suffered the full effect of heating due to compressibility. The difference
between the static air temperature and the total air temperature is sometimes referred to as
the stagnation rise. The proportion of the stagnation temperature which is sensed is known
as the recovery factor or K value.
The type of thermometer employed will govern the percentage of the stagnation temperature
rise which is sensed. With a Rosemount probe the K factor is normally assumed to be 1.0,
which is why the device is sometimes called the total air temperature probe.
With bimetallic or liquid/vapour filled thermometers (and electrical thermometers of a more
basic type than the Rosemount probe) the K value is normally in the order of 0.75 to 0.85. In
this case the measured temperature is the temperature of air which has been brought only
partially to rest. Now the measured temperature is known as the ram air temperature (RAT),
and the difference between the static air temperature and the measured temperature (RAT)
as the ram rise.
RAT Sensor
The majority of temperature sensors are however, of the platinum wire element type, the
element being contained either in a probe mounted in what is termed a flush bulb
configuration. In this type of sensor, a probe is used for SAT measurement with the probe
protruding through a hole in the aircraft skin. The sensing element is mounted flush with the
aircraft skin (flush bulb) and senses RAT. The recovery factor for this type of sensor varies
from 0.75 to 0.90, depending on aircraft geometry and location of the bulb.
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Static air temperature can be derived from the measured temperature using the formula
given below:
Ts=
where Ts
Tm
M
K
Tm
1 + (0.2 x K x M2)
=
=
=
=
SAT in degrees absolute

measured temperature in degrees absolute
Mach number
recovery factor
The table below gives an easier way of converting Rosemount probe readings to SAT. Similar
tables can be produced for other types of thermometers, however they must take account of
the lower K value.
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As the speed of the aircraft increases, the effect of kinetic heating of the sensing element by
the airflow over it will tend to increase. Further complications occur when a sensing bulb is
mounted flush with the aircraft skin, as the sensor will tend to register a combination of skin
temperature and air temperature.
Additionally, unless the bulb is shrouded, direct sunlight will give rise to an artificially high
reading. Finally, on flying from cloud to clear air, the temperature which is sensed will be
artificially low for the period taken for the moisture to evaporate from the bulb or the sensing
element within the Rosemount probe. The probe of the bimetallic thermometer cannot be
shrouded and is necessarily mounted adjacent to the fuselage skin, this type of thermometer
will therefore suffer from all of these errors. The liquid/vapour filled thermometer bulb must
again be mounted on the aircraft skin, however the bulb can be shrouded to prevent direct
sunlight reaching the bulb. The effect of kinetic heating which is suffered at the low speeds
associated with aircraft using bimetallic or liquid/vapour filled thermometers will be small. The
Rosemount probe is both shrouded and mounted remotely from the aircraft skin. The effect
of kinetic heating within the Rosemount probe is minimised by virtue of the fact that the
airflow through the probe is slowed by virtue of the restrictions within it.
RECOVERY FACTOR
If the thermometer has a recovery factor of 0.8, then it is measuring SAT + 80% of the RAM
RISE.
If the recovery factor is ZERO, it is measuring SAT only.
If the recovery factor is 1.0, it is measuring TAT (Rosemount Probe).
TAT (Total Air Temperature)
This is SAT + 100 % RAM RISE.
EXAMPLE:
SAT
-20 C
RECOVERY FACTOR
80 %
RAM RISE
10 C
What is the Ram Air Temperature (RAT)?

RAT
A useful formula
=
=
=
=
SAT = RAT
SAT + % of RAM RISE

(-20) + (80 % of 10)
-20 + 8
- 12 C
TAS
100
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FLIGHT DIRECTOR SYSTEMS

A typical system consists of:
Flight Director Computer
This is the heart of the system. Information is received from various sources before being
displayed.
Flight Director Indicator

Presents a forward looking view of the A/c in pitch and roll (similar to an AH). It is electrically
driven by signals from a remote vertical gyro.
Horizontal Situation Indicator

Presents a planform view on the navigational situation, such as heading radial and glide path
(similar to an RMI)
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FLIGHT MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS (FMS)

In a light aircraft on an early solo cross-country flight exercise, flight management means
much careful preliminary studying of maps of the route, the facilities available, the weather
forecast, ATC limitations and the aircrafts performance before the pilot compiles the fight
plan and seeks clearance. On the modern airliner, operating on a scheduled or a nonscheduled flight, to a strict timetable and often in marginal weather conditions, the
airmanship decisions required for a safe, comfortable and efficiently-conducted flight have
been significantly eased for far more complex conditions by Electronic Flight management
Systems (FMS). Such FMS embrace all the parameters that concern the solo student
together with the greater sophistication of a modern larger passenger transport aircraft.
FMS has been described as pilot-interactive navigational computing and display systems
designed to assist in flying an aircraft with maximum economy and safety to a previously
planned route defined both laterally and vertically.
The increased use in airborne applications of compact, high-speed computers enables FMS
to provide fuel-efficient aircraft operation together with navigational guidance reducing flightcrew workloads especially in terminal airport areas.
Flight Management Systems basically consist of two units the flight management computer
unit (FMC) and the control/display unit (CDU).
The computer unit is the store for the
navigational data base and performs the functions of:
flight planning
optimum performance computation
navigation and position determination
air data and navigation sensor selection
guidance and steering, laterally and vertically
self testing
The data base of an FMC is very comprehensive, typically including information relating
mainly to the navigational features in the aircrafts field of operations, tailored to the particular
operators company procedures. the operator usually updates the information every 28 days
by means of a cassette loader. The data base for example would include:
Airports (identified by their ICAO 4-letter code):
latitude and longitude, runways, approach aid frequencies and idents, decision heights,
SIDs and STARs;
Waypoints (identified by name):
latitude and longitude, magnetic variation, associated holding procedures;
Navaids (identified by name):
type, latitude and longitude, frequency, elevation, associated holding procedures;
Airways (identified by name);
Routes;
MORA (minimum off-route altitudes);
Performance;
aircraft type including lift, drag, engine fuel flows, engine thrusts, performance factors.
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In large airlines, twin (or 3) flight management systems are fitted. They will accept and
compare information such that data entered into No. 1 FMS will be passed to the No. 2 FMS
and data entered into the No. 2 FMS will be passed to the No. 1 FMS.
Control / Display Unit (CDU)
A typical CDU is shown with the cathode ray tube presenting the information above the
keyboard.
For simplicity, apart from its control outputs, the FMS computer may be looked upon as a
book. The chapters and pages of the book are selected by the keys on the CDU and the
contents displayed on the CRT. In most cases, the displayed information can be changed by
the pilots in terms of modifying existing data or inserting new data.
Above the CRT are light sensors controlling an automatic brilliance circuit which maintains
the brightness of the display relative to the ambient light. (The keyboard also has a manual
brightness control. This control has another function too in that when it is switched to OFF,
all of the keys are inhibited.) The Flight Management System itself has no ON/OFF switch
becoming live as soon as power is applied to the bus bar serving it. Typically, this part of the
CDU has the enunciators for the main flight phases: climb (CLB), cruise (CRZ), descent
(DES) and approach (APP) while below the CRT there are enunciators giving additional
system status information.
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Annunciators
These are lights which alert the crew when a charge of FMS conditions occur, typically being:
MSG (Message), DSPY (Display), FAIL, OFST (Offset).
Message (MSG)
The FMS can generate advisory are alert messages which are displayed on the
scratch pad and illuminate the MSG light. Any information that was in the scratch
pad is temporarily suppressed. When the MSG is cleared by the crew, the data
returns and the MSG light goes out.
A typical ALERT message would be NO
SIGNAL FROM ***** meaning that a particular procedure specified Navaid is not
valid, while an ADVISORY message would be for example, NOT IN DATA BASE
meaning that the computer has searched the data base and cannot find the entered
ident.
Display (DSPY)
This light illuminates white if the page displayed is not related to the active (current)
flight plan leg or to the current operational performance mode.
Fail
This illuminates as an AMBER light if certain FMS functions fail.
Offset (OFST)
Illuminates as a white light when a parallel of-set is in use (i.e. the aeroplane is flying
parallel to, but a fixed distance from, the pre-programmed FMS track).
Clear and Delete keys (CLR/DEL)
The CLR key only clears data in the scratch pad. Momentarily pressed, it clears the
characters one at a time from the right. Held down for a second or so, it will clear the
whole entry. The same key will also clear any system-generated messages and
extinguish the MSG annunciator.
The DEL key will only operate on certain pages and certain lines and for which a
particular drill has to be followed.
Function keys
EXEC (Execute) used when a change is made to an active V-NAV or L-NAV mode.
To make the change effective, the EXEC key must be pressed. The light bar in the
key illuminates while the proposed change is being made and by pressing the key the
change is incorporated and the light extinguished.
NEXT PAGE and PREV PAGE.
Used so that the CDU displays respectively, the next higher page number or next
lower page number of the selected chapter.
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Mode Keys
The purpose of these keys is to enable direct selection of certain pages to be made,
as opposed to using line select keys. they will probably include:
INIT REF (Initialisation / Reference) - for setting up pre-flight;
RTE (Route) - to display the current segment of route being flown;
CLB (Climb) - to display the page for the active climb mode;
CRZ (Cruise) - to display the page for the active cruise mode;
DES (Descent) - to display the page for the active descent mode;
DIR/INTC (Direct / Intercept) - to display the page(s) so the route can be changed to
fly direct to a position or intercept facility;
LEGS - to display the details of each leg of the flight plan;
DEP ARR (Departure / Arrival) - to display SIDs etc., depending upon the current
phase of the flight;
HOLD - to display a page for establishing a holding point;
PROG (Progress) - to display how the flight is progressing, for example distance to
and ETA next way point, fuel remaining, etc.;
FIX - to display pages which enable the crew to obtain a fix by the interception of the
present route with a selected radial from a navigation aid.
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AUTOPILOTS
Modem auto pilots use a RATE-RATE system.
This means that: THE RATE OF CHANGE = THE RATE OF CORRECTION.
The advantages of the rate gyros are:
a)
Rapid detection of small attitude changes is possible, as the rate of change is

sensed and not the amount of change.
b)
Smooth corrective action is possible without over correcting because signals

to the correcting servos are at a rate proportional to the rate of change.
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CHAPTER 4
MAGNETISM
Terrestrial Magnetism
The Earth is surrounded by a weak magnetic field which culminates at two magnetic poles
lying beneath the surface, at points fairly close to the true north and south poles.
Presently, the north magnetic pole is situated near Hudson Bay (Canada), and the south
magnetic pole near Victoria Land (Antarctica). These poles are not in fact stationary, but
rotate very slowly about the true poles in a clockwise direction once every 960 years. This
gives rise to the annual change in variation which is termed the secular change.
The reasons for the existence of the Earths magnetic field are still under investigation. It is
believed that the field is produced electrically within the Earths core. It is sufficient to accept
that the effect is as if an extremely large bar magnet were located within the Earth with its
extremities at the magnetic poles, as shown below.
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Because of the irregularity of the terrestrial magnetic field, the magnetic lines of force are of
varying direction and strength. Above you can see diagrammatically the Earths magnetic
field. Note that at the magnetic poles the lines of force are vertical, whilst at points
equidistant from the magnetic poles the lines of force are horizontal. A line drawn through
points where the lines of force are horizontal is known as the magnetic equator. It is normally
acceptable to consider the magnetic equator to be co-incident with the geographic equator.
The north magnetic pole is, by convention, normally shown as a blue pole, and the south
magnetic pole as a red pole. Remember that unlike poles attract, therefore a freely
suspended magnet will come to rest with its red (northseeking end) pointing towards the
north magnetic pole.
A problem arises because a freely suspended magnet will lie in the plane of the terrestrial
magnetic lines of force and, as is already known, the magnetic force field approaches the
vertical at high magnetic latitudes. Consequently, in the northern hemisphere, the north
seeking end of a freely suspended magnet will dip below the horizontal. Conversely, in the
southern hemisphere the south seeking end will dip below the horizontal. Only at the
magnetic equator will the compass needle be horizontal. Another way of defining the
magnetic equator is, therefore, as a line joining points of zero dip. This line is other-wise
known as the aclinal line. A line joining points of equal dip is called an isoclinal line.
It is the strength of the horizontal component of the Earths magnetic field which governs the
compass needles ability to point positively towards the magnetic poles.
At any given magnetic latitude the Earths magnetic field may be resolved into horizontal and
vertical components.
Obviously at the magnetic equator a compass needle will be highly directive, since the
horizontal component (H) is equal to the total force (T). As the magnetic latitude is increased
the horizontal component decreases in magnitude, and the compass becomes unreliable. In
fact, the magnets used in aircraft compasses are induced to lie close to the horizontal rather
than in the plane of the total magnetic force field, as discussed shortly.
However, except at low latitudes, a residual angle of dip still remains, and it is for this reason
that aircraft magnetic compasses are not generally considered to be usable at latitudes in
excess of 70.
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Variation
The magnets of a perfect compass will point to magnetic north rather than true north unless
the aircraft, the true poles and the magnetic poles all lie on the same meridian. In all other
cases there will be an angle subtended at the aircraft between true north and magnetic north,
and this angle is termed variation.
If magnetic north lies to the west of true north, the variation is westerly, as illustrated below.
Conversely, if magnetic north lies to the east of true north, the variation is easterly.
Variation is shown on aeronautical maps and charts by isogonals, which join points of equal
variation. Since the magnetic poles are moving, the value of the variation at a point on the
Earth will change slowly with the passage of time. The isogonals on all charts should
therefore be updated as instructed on the chart. In general isogonals tend to converge at the
north and south magnetic poles.
A line joining points of zero variation is known as an agonic line.
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Note that variation will change with change of geographic position but not with change of
aircraft heading. The maximum possible value of variation is 180, which would be
experienced when the aircraft is between the true and magnetic poles.
Deviation
It is unlikely that the magnets in an aircraft compass will point exactly towards magnetic
north. The aircraft and its equipment will produce a separate magnetic field which will tend to
deflect the magnets by, hopefully, only a few degrees at most.
The direction in which the magnets point under the influence of the combined terrestrial and
aircraft magnetic fields is termed compass north, and the angle between magnetic north and
compass north is termed compass deviation.
If compass north lies to the west of magnetic north the deviation is westerly (or negative) as
shown below on the left. If the compass north lies to the east of magnetic north the deviation
is easterly (or positive) as shown below on the right.
Note that, unlike variation, deviation changes with change of aircraft heading. Deviation in
an aircraft compass is reduced to a minimum by conducting a compass swing. Residual
deviations are then recorded on a compass deviation card, which is mounted in the aircraft.
The compass swing is discussed at a later stage.
Example 1
Draw a diagram to illustrate an aircraft on a heading of 046(T), variation 15E, deviation 2.
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Solution:
Aircraft Magnetism
Up to this point we have discussed compass deviation and its effects without examining its
origin. Deviation of a compass occurs because an aircraft has its own magnetic field which
of course distorts the Earths magnetic field in the vicinity of the compass magnets or
detector unit. Compensating for this deviating influence (as much as possible) is the function
of the compass swing. Before looking at compass swinging procedures we will consider the
factors involved in aircraft magnetism.
Sources of Aircraft Magnetism
Permeability is expressed as the ratio between the strength (or flux density) of the
magnetised material and the field strength of the magnetising influence. In other words, any
material with a high permeability is easily magnetised. Iron (ferrous) based materials have a
high permeability and therefore magnetism is easily induced into them. Materials such as
aluminium, brass, copper, plastic, rubber and carbon fibre are nonmagnetic and cannot be
magnetised. Unfortunately it would be extremely expensive if not impossible to produce an
aeroplane that did not contain any magnetic material.
Magnetic material can be classed as either hard or soft iron.
Hard iron components can be considered to be permanently magnetised. If a hard iron
element is magnetised, the magnetic field, which has been induced into it, will decay only
very slowly.
Soft iron elements suffer only from temporary magnetism, they act as magnets only when an
external magnetic force is present. Soft iron elements behave in this way because they offer
a lower resistance (termed reluctance when considering magnetic flux) to the external
magnetic field than does the surrounding air. The external magnetic force field therefore
prefers to flow through the soft iron component and this produces an enhanced magnetic
force field within the component.
An aircraft structure will invariably contain both hard and soft iron materials and will therefore
exhibit both hard and soft iron magnetic characteristics.
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Hard iron magnetism makes up the permanent magnetic field of the aircraft. It is created
during the manufacture and the subsequent life of the aircraft through various means, for
example a lightning strike is likely to increase hard iron magnetism and its effect will decay
only slowly over months or years. Since hard iron exists in its own right (independently of the
Earths magnetic field) its strength is not affected by the aircrafts heading or latitude
changes.
Soft iron magnetism is temporary and present only when an external magnetic field (primarily
the Earths own magnetic field) is present. Obviously the Earths magnetic field is always
there, however the relative magnitudes of the two components of the Earths field (the
horizontal H component and the vertical Z component) will vary as the latitude at which the
aircraft is operating changes.
Like the Earths magnetic field, the aircrafts soft iron field is considered in terms of two
separate components; horizontal and vertical soft iron. The strength of each is dependant on
the relative strengths of the Earths H and Z components. It is the aircrafts vertical soft iron
(VSI) component that is primarily responsible for causing soft iron deviation in the compass
and therefore the higher the magnetic latitude the greater the strength of the VSI component.
As with hard iron, the strength of the soft iron components is independent of the aircrafts
heading.
Deviating Effects of Hard and Soft Iron
A compass magnet system or flux detector relies on the strength of the horizontal component
of the Earths magnetic field to provide the directionality of the compass.
Regardless of any other influences this directionality is strongest at the magnetic equator and
becomes weaker as the H component of the Earths magnetic field diminishes with
increasing latitude.
If aircraft hard iron is superimposed on this pattern, we now have two competing influences
on the compass magnets or detector unit. The H component of the Earths field (which gives
the compass its directionality) is diminishing with latitude but the strength of any deviating
hard iron component remains constant. The deviation (on any given heading) caused by
hard iron will therefore increase with an increase of operating latitude.
Now forget the hard iron influence and consider the interrelationship between a vertical soft
iron component and the Earths H field (remember that it is the Earths H field which gives the
compass its directionality and the VSI component which is trying to deviate the compass).
Now the deviating influence of this VSI component will increase with increase in magnetic
latitude on two counts. Firstly the strength of the Earths H component is decreasing with
increasing latitude and secondly the strength of the aircrafts VSI component is increasing
(under the influence of the increasing strength of the Earths Z field component).
Obviously this discussion of hard iron and soft iron is very much abbreviated, however the
points that have been covered appear to satisfy the present syllabus.
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Aircraft Magnetism Components

It is convenient to consider the effect of the aircrafts magnetic field by imagining that the
complex fields have been replaced by bar magnets of appropriate strength and polarity, one
lying along the fore and aft (longitudinal) axis and the other lying along the athwartships
(lateral) axis of the aircraft.
A mythical bar magnet lying in the fore and aft axis is known as hard iron component P (+P
north or blue pole in the nose). This in turn is influenced by the vertical soft iron component
cZ. The combination of these two-give rise to the deviating force which is known as coefficient B.
Similarly it is the mythical bar magnet lying athwart ships axis is known as hard iron
component Q (+Q north or blue pole in the right wing). This in turn is influenced by the
vertical soft iron component fZ. The combination of these two give rise to the deviating force
which is known as co-efficient C.
Hard iron vertical component R has a negligible effect on a compass in straight and level
flight.
Co-efficient A is caused by any misalignment of the direct reading compass lubber line or the
gyro compass detector unit with the aircrafts fore and aft axis.
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The Compass Swing

Before we venture further into compass swings, a reminder on some important points:
a)
Deviation is the angular difference between magnetic heading and compass heading.
b)
Deviation is caused by the effect of the magnetic or magnetised elements of the

aircraft itself upon the compass magnets (in a direct reading compass) or upon the
detector unit (in a gyro magnetic compass). Deviation may also be caused by
mis-alignment of the direct reading compass lubber line or of the gyro compass
detector with the aircrafts fore and aft axis.
c)
Deviation is not constant. It changes with change of heading and with change of
magnetic latitude.
d)
Deviation is said to be westerly (or negative) if compass north lies to the west of
magnetic north. In this event the compass heading will be greater than the magnetic
heading (deviation west compass heading best). Alternatively deviation is said to be
easterly (or positive) if compass north lies to the east of magnetic north. In this event
the compass heading will be less than the magnetic heading (deviation east compass
heading least).
e)
Deviation is mathematically expressed as the correction that is required to convert the

compass reading to the correct magnetic value (with easterly deviation the compass
reading is less than the magnetic heading and therefore the deviation is given a
positive value).
In the notes which follow the first step will be to consider the way in which the deviating
forces within the aircraft are quantified. The next step will be to learn how to minimise these
deviating forces by means of the compass swing.
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Coefficient A
For a direct reading compass to correctly indicate magnetic heading two criteria must be
realised:
a)
The aircraft must exert no magnetic influence on the compass magnets.
b)
The lubber line of the compass must be correctly aligned with the aircraft fore and aft
axis.
With a gyro magnetic compass again the aircraft must exert no magnetic influence on the
sensing element (the detector unit), and now the detector unit (rather than the lubber line)
must be correctly aligned with the aircraft fore and aft axis.
In the diagram below the aircraft is heading 360 (M). The aircraft is assumed to have no
deviating magnetic fields to affect the compass, and therefore the magnets within the
compass are pointing to magnetic north and are aligned with the aircraft fore and aft axis.
Unfortunately the lubber line is misaligned with respect to the aircraft fore and aft axis and so
the compass, in this case, is reading 350
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On the diagram on the left hand side above it shows the same aircraft on a heading of
270(M), and the compass is now reading 260. The compass is still in error by 10 and is
still under reading. In this case a constant deviation of 10 east (+) exists on all headings and
at all latitudes because of the misalignment of the lubber line.
The deviation caused by co-efficient A in the above example may be graphically illustrated as
shown below.
Coefficient B
(Hard iron P and Soft Iron cZ)
Assume for the moment that a single bar magnet lying along the aircraft fore and aft axis
represents the sum of all the magnetic influences within the aircraft. The deviating influence
of this mythical bar magnet would depend upon the aircrafts heading.
Below you can see such a bar magnet with its south seeking end in the nose of the aircraft.
The aircraft is heading 360(M) and all other deviating factors (co-efficients A and C) are
ignored. The bar magnet which represents the aircrafts own magnetic field is lying parallel
to the sensing magnets within the direct reading compass and therefore no deviation is
evident on this heading.
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On part (b) above you can see the same aircraft on a heading of 090(M). Remembering
that unlike poles attract whilst like poles repel it should be a simple matter to appreciate why
the compass sensing magnets have aligned themselves with a compass north which lies to
the right of magnetic north.
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Part (c) of the above shows the aircraft on a heading of 180(M) and again the bar magnet
representing the aircrafts magnetic field causes no deviation at the compass.
Part (d) shows the aircraft on a heading of 270(M), and now compass north lies to the left of
magnetic north.
Finally the bottom diagram shows the graphical representation of the deviation due to a
co-efficient +B on all headings. The maximum deviation in this case is assumed to be 10.
Deviation due to co-efficient B varies as a function of the sine of the aircrafts
magnetic heading.
Because it is co-efficient +B which is considered the sine relationship means that the value of
deviation is maximum and positive on east and maximum but negative on west. Were we to
repeat the process for a co-efficient B (with the northseeking end of our mythical bar
magnet in the nose of the aircraft) the deviation would be maximum but negative on east and
maximum and positive on west.
Fortunately you are now permitted the use of basic scientific calculators in the examination
and these smart machines will supply the correct sign (+ or -) for the sine of the heading.
The formula which equates the deviation due to a coefficient B to the value (and sign) of
that coefficient is:
The deviation due to coefficient B
Coefficient C
Co-efficient B x sine heading
(Hard iron Q and Soft Iron fZ)
Assume for the moment that the sum of all the magnetic influences within the aircraft is
represented by a single bar magnet lying along the aircraft lateral axis. The deviating
influence of this mythical bar magnet would again depend upon the aircrafts heading.
In the diagram part (a) shows such a bar magnet with its southseeking end in the
starboard wing of the aircraft. The aircraft is heading 360(M) and all other deviating factors
(co-efficients A and B) are ignored. The bar magnet which represents the aircrafts own
magnetic field is lying at 90 to the Earths field and therefore deviation is at a maximum.
Part (b) shows the same aircraft on a heading of 090(M). Now the aircrafts magnetic field
lies parallel to the Earths magnetic field and there is no deviation.
Part (c) shows that the deviation on 180(M) the deviation is again at a maximum but now in
the opposite direction to that suffered on north.
Part (d) shows that the deviation on 270(M) is again zero.
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And finally part (e) shows the graphical representation of the deviation due to a co-efficient
+C on all headings. The maximum deviation in this case is assumed to be 10.
Deviation due to co-efficient C varies as a function of the cosine of the aircrafts magnetic
heading.
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Because it is coefficient +C which is considered the cosine relationship means that the
value of deviation is maximum and positive on north and maximum but negative on south.
Were we to repeat the process for a co-efficient - C (with the northseeking end of our
mythical bar magnet in the starboard wing of the aircraft) the deviation would be negative on
north and positive on south.
The formula which equates the deviation due to a coefficient C to the value (and sign) of
that co-efficient is:
The deviation due to co-efficient C
Co-efficient C x cosine heading
Deviation on Any Heading

From the foregoing it is evident that the total deviation on any heading is a combination of co
efficients A, B and C. The formula for calculating the total deviation on any heading is:
Deviation on any heading
A + (B x sin heading) + (C x cos heading)
Another useful formula is:

Dev on N + Dev on S = Dev on E + Dev on W
Use your calculator to solve the following examples.
Example 1
Given that co-efficient A is -0.5, co-efficient B is 1.5 and co-efficient C is +0.5, determine
the total deviation on a heading of 253(C).
Deviation on 253
Sin 253
Cos 253
=
=
=
A + (B.sin 253) + (C.cos 253)

-0.956
-0.292
Deviation on 253
=
=
=
-0.5 + (-1.5 x-0.956) + (+0.5 x -0.292)

-0.5 + (+1.43) + (-0.14)
+0.79
Example 2
Given that co-efficient A is +1, co-efficient B is 1 and co-efficient C is +2,
determine the total deviation on a heading of 240 (c).
Deviation on 240
Sin 240
Cos 240
Deviation on 240
=
=
=
=
A + (B.sin 240 + (C.cos 240)

-0.866
-0.5
+1 + (-1 x -0.866) + (+2 x -0.5)
=
=
+1 + (+0.866) + (-1)
+ 0.866
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Example 3
Given that co-efficient A is 2, what would be the signs of co-efficients B and C, given that
the heading on which the maximum deviation occurs is 330 (C)?
Solution:
Deviation on any heading
A + (B x sin heading) + (C cos heading)
The maximum deviation will occur on a heading where the signs of the deviations caused by
co-efficients A, B and C are all the same. Co-efficient A is 2 and therefore the deviation
caused by co-efficient A is negative on all headings.
The deviation caused by co-efficient B must be negative on 330. In order to achieve this,
co-efficient B must be a positive value (sin 330 = -0.5).
The deviation caused by co-efficient C must also be negative on 330. In order to achieve
this, co-efficient C must be a negative value (cos 330 = +0.866).
Example 4
Deviation on 130 (C)
Deviation on 230 (C)
=
=
4W
8E
What is deviation on 315 (C)

a)
b)
c)
- 1,2
+3,3
- 4,7
Knowing that deviation on 130 is 4W and 230 is 8E, draw the problem as a sine curve,
starting at 0 at Nth, draw to a pretty good scale and presto magic you have the answer
(yes I know the diagram doesnt start at 0, so just ignore that little error!)
So the answer is around 315
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Compass Swinging
In order to minimise the compass deviation it is necessary to keep the aircrafts own
magnetic field as small as possible. This is considered at the design stage and influences
the choice of materials used, and the design and location of electrical equipment.
Having minimised the deviating effect of the aircraft on the compass at the design stage, it is
periodically necessary to compass swing the aircraft. During this procedure the magnitude
and direction of the remaining deviations are measured on various headings. These
deviations are then reduced by producing magnetic fields within the compass which are
hopefully equal in magnitude but opposite in polarity to the aircrafts own magnetic fields.
Compass swings are carried out in a surveyed area which is relatively clear of external
magnetic influences such as might be caused by underground electric cables. During the
compass swing, normal flying conditions are simulated as far as possible, with the engines
running and all electrical services switched on.
Compass swings should be carried out on the following occasions:
a)
On installation of the compass.
b)
Periodically as specified in the relevant CAR
c)
Whenever the accuracy of the compass is in doubt.
d)
When the compass has been subjected to shock (such as a heavy landing).
e)
Following a lightning strike.
f)
If the aircraft has been left standing on one heading for a long period of time.
g)
Following a move to a new magnetic latitude.
h)
Following any significant modification, repair or replacement of a component

containing significant amounts of magnetic materials (such as an engine
change).
i)
Following any significant addition of, or modification to, electrical or

radio/navigation systems.
j)
Prior to flight, following the loading or off-loading of a cargo containing

significant amounts of ferro-magnetic materials.
There are many procedures for measuring the magnitude of the co-efficients affecting an
aircraft compass. Most of these techniques involve an accurate datum compass, the reading
of which is compared with the reading of the aircraft compass on various headings.
If the datum compass is to give an accurate reading with reference to magnetic north it must
itself be free from any deviating magnetic fields. The person who is aligning the datum
compass and taking the readings should therefore remove all metal objects from his person
before the swing. If you are so involved, and normally wear a trouser belt with a metal
buckle, think ahead!
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In order to compare the reading of the datum compass with that of the aircraft compass(es)
the datum compass is sighted along the aircrafts fore and aft axis. With larger aircraft this is
normally achieved by suspending sighting rods vertically beneath the aircraft. At a distance
of a least 50 metres from the aircraft the hair lines of the datum compass are aligned with the
sighting rods. The reading of the datum compass is then noted.
There are many ways of completing a compass swing, for the purpose of this syllabus we
need to consider only a simple four point swing.
The Correcting Swing
The swing is commenced on a cardinal heading, it does not matter which cardinal.
We will start on a heading of east, that is to say a compass heading which is fairly close to
090, it does not have to be exact. In this case the next comparison between aircraft and
datum compass would be made on south, and the next on west. It is then necessary to stop,
calculate the value of co-efficient B, and adjust the aircraft compass if necessary.
Returning to co-efficient B description it should convince the reader that deviation caused
solely by co-efficient B is a maximum on headings of east and west, and is of equal
magnitude and opposite sign on these headings.
Coefficient C will not affect the readings on headings of east and west. Co-efficient A is
effectively eliminated from the formulae for co-efficient B and C since it will cause equal
deviation or all headings.
The formula for calculating co-efficient B is:
Co-efficient B
Deviation on east - Deviation on west

2
Let us now put figures to this swing and see just how simple the procedure really is:
A/c Compass
089
182
272
358
Landing Compass
091
179
268
359
From the above figures the deviation is calculated. Appreciate that the aircraft compass
readings are in effect compass headings (subject to deviation) and that the datum compass
readings are in effect magnetic headings (the datum compass is remote from the aircraft and
is therefore free from deviation).
NB Remember that, if the aircraft compass heading is least deviation is east (+) and that, if
the aircraft compass heading is best deviation is west (-).
A/c Compass
089
182
272
358
Landing Compass
091
179
268
359
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Using the formula:

Co-efficient B
Deviation on east - Deviation on west

2
+2 - -4
2
+3
It may be necessary to correct for co-efficient B at this stage (if it is outside limits), and this
procedure will be covered shortly.
Continuing with the swing the aircraft compass and datum compass readings are now taken
on a heading which is close to north.
The logic which gave us our simple formula for co-efficient B will also give the following
simple formula for co-efficient C:
Co-efficient C
Deviation on north - Deviation on south

2
Continuing with the swing:

A/c Compass
089
182
272
358
Landing Compass
091
179
268
359
Deviation
+2
- 3
- 4
+1
Using the formula:

Co-efficient C
=
=
Deviation on north - Deviation on south

2
+1 - -3
2
+2
Again a correction for co-efficient C could be made here if required.

The formula for calculating coefficient A is:
Co-efficient A
Sum of observed deviations

The number of observations
in this case the sum of the deviations

Coefficient A
=
=
[(+2) + (-3) + (4) + (+1)] is 4

-4
4
-1
If necessary, co-efficient A can be removed at this stage, the method will be discussed
shortly.
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In the event that any of the three co-efficients are outside limits and have been removed, a
further four point correcting swing will be required and hopefully the co-efficients will now be
within limits.
Example 2
Using the following readings which were obtained during the swing of a direct reading
compass, determine the values of coefficients A, B and C.
A/c Compass
359
090
180
269
Landing Compass
000
086
175
273
Solution:
A/c Compass
359
090
180
269
Landing Compass
000
086
175
273
Coefficient A
Sum of observed deviations

The number of observations
In this case the sum of the deviations

Coefficient A
=
=
Deviation
+1
- 4
- 5
+4
[(+1) + (-4) + (-5) + (+4)] is -4
-4
4
-1
Co-efficient B
= Dev E Dev W
2
=
-8
2
=
-4
Co-efficient C
= Dev N Dev S
2
=
+6
2
=
+3
Removing Co-efficients A, B and C

The principles for removing co-efficients are the same, regardless of whether it is a direct
reading compass or a gyro magnetic compass which is considered.
Co-efficient A results from misalignment. Co-efficient A errors are therefore removed by realignment of the lubber line in the direct reading compass, or the detector unit in the gyro
magnetic system.
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Errors due to co-efficients B and C are minimised by deliberately introducing magnetic fields
which have an equal but opposite effect to that of the aircrafts own magnetic fields. This is
achieved by means of scissor magnets in direct reading compasses and electro magnets in
gyro slaved compasses.
Adjusting Direct Reading Compasses
It is the E type compass that is discussed in the following paragraphs. The compass is fitted
to its mountings using slotted channels that enable the entire compass to be rotated once the
retaining screws are loosened (using a non-magnetic screwdriver).
Co-efficient A can be removed on any heading, since it has the same deviating effect on all
headings.
If it is necessary to remove a positive (easterly) co-efficient A the compass is physically
rotated in a clockwise direction by the required number of degrees. This will cause the
compass reading to increase.
Example
A direct reading compass is found to have a co-efficient A of +2, and this is to be removed
on a compass heading of 329. What should the compass read after compensation, and
how is compensation achieved?
Solution
Co-efficient A = +2(east), the compass is therefore under-reading before compensation. It is
necessary to increase the compass reading to 331 (329 + 2) and this is achieved by
loosening the retaining screws (using non-magnetic tools) and rotating the body of the
compass in a clockwise direction until 331 appears under the lubber line. The retaining
screws are then secured without disturbing the reading.
Conversely, to remove a negative (westerly) co-efficient A the compass is rotated in an anticlockwise direction, and this causes the compass reading to decrease.
To remove co-efficients B and C scissor magnets are adjusted using grub screws located
under a cover on the instrument face. These scissor magnets are attached to the compass
casing and therefore change position relative to the sensing magnets as the aircraft alters
heading. Their effect upon the compass reading will therefore depend on the aircraft
heading, in much the same way as the aircraft magnetic fields causing deviations B and C.
In the diagram below you can see an aircraft with co-efficient +C represented by a magnet
with its south seeking end in the starboard wing. In the bottom half of the diagram you can
see the scissor magnets used to compensate for co-efficient C are in their neutral position.
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These two small scissor magnets have equal pole strengths and when set in the neutral
position they exert no influence on the pendulously suspended sensing magnets of the
compass.
As you have seen above the same aircraft, but now the scissor magnets have been adjusted
to compensate for deviations caused by the co-efficient +C.
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Example 2
A direct reading compass is found to have a co-efficient B of +4, and this is to be removed
on a westerly heading. Before compensation the compass is reading 272.
What should the compass read after compensation, and how is this compensation achieved?
Solution:
The compass should be made to read 268 (272 - 4) and this is achieved by turning the B
grub screw in an anti-clockwise direction. When removing co-efficient B on a easterly
heading obey the sign of the co-efficient to calculate heading after compensation. When
removing co-efficient B on a westerly heading reverse the sign of the co-efficient.
Note that the grub screw is turned in an anti-clockwise direction since, although the
correction is subtractive, the deviation being compensated is itself positive. The same logic
applies to compensation for co-efficient C, but now it is the C grub screw which is turned in
the appropriate direction. When removing co-efficient C on a northerly heading obey the sign
of the co-efficient to calculate heading after compensation. When removing co-efficient C on
a southerly heading reverse the sign of the co-efficient.
You are not now required to know how to adjust gyro slaved compasses.
Residual Deviation
Unfortunately, since neither the original assessment of co-efficients, nor the compensation,
will be totally accurate, small residual deviations will persist after compensation. It is
necessary to determine the values of these remaining deviations, and to tabulate them on
the compass deviation card that is then attached to the aircraft adjacent to the compass. It is
an airworthiness requirement that the residual deviation is stated at no more than 45
intervals on a deviation card which is to be located close to the compass in the case of a
direct reading compass (and close to the master compass indicator and to each remote
compass indicator, in the case of a gyro slaved compass).
There are two options available to determine the magnitude and sign of the residual
deviations in order to complete the deviation card. The first method is to conduct a
calibration swing.
The Calibration Swing
Having completed the correcting swing(s) and ensured that the residual values of the Coefficients are (now) within limits, a calibration swing is completed. This normally requires that
the deviations are observed on twelve headings 30 apart, which may include the four
cardinal heading observations from the final correcting swing. The observed deviations on
these twelve heading may be used in their raw state to complete the deviation card.
Mathematically Derived Residual Deviations
Unfortunately, when the raw data from a calibrating swing is used to determine the residual
deviations for the deviation card, these observed values may themselves be subject to error.
CARs may therefore dictate that a mathematical approach is used to determine the residual
deviations. For the sake of simplicity, the mathematics of residual deviation is considered
only on the cardinal headings in the following paragraphs. We will tackle the problem by
working step by step through the following example.
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Example
The following readings were obtained during the swing of a direct reading magnetic
compass:
Aircraft Compass
(compass heading)
359
092
181
268
Landing Compass
(magnetic heading)
004
091
184
273
a)
Determine the values of co-efficients A, B and C.
b)
Having compensated for co-efficients A, B and C determine the values of the residual
deviations remaining on the magnetic headings 004, 091, 184 and 273.
Solution
a)
The first step is to determine the values of the three co-efficients.

Aircraft Compass
359
092
181
268
Co-efficient A
b)
Landing Compass Deviation

004
+5
091
- 1
184
+3
273
+5
=
Sum of deviations
4
+3
Co-efficient B
- 3
Co-efficient C
+1
Now we need to step carefully through the calculation of the residual deviations,
assuming that the co-efficients determined above have been removed
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All that has happened in the table below is that the aircraft compass headings, datum
compass readings and the consequent deviations have been transferred to the first three
columns.
1
Comp
hdg
2
Mag
hdg
3
Deviation B4
compensation
Deviations
removed
A
359
092
181
268
004
091
184
273
7
Sum of
dev
remove
d
(4+5+6)
8
Residual
deviations
(3-7)
+5
-1
+3
+5
The next step is to consider the sign and the magnitude of the deviations which would have
been caused by the co-efficients A, B and C on the four headings, had they not been
removed.
Completing column 4 presents no problem, since the co-efficient A of +3 would have
resulted in a deviation of +3 on each heading.
When completing column 5 we need to consider the deviating influence that a co-efficient B
of 3 would have had on the four cardinal headings, had it not been removed. On north and
south this co-efficient would have exerted no deviating influence (the sine of 0 and 180 is
zero). On east the deviation caused by this co-efficient would have been maximum and
negative and on west maximum and positive.
When completing column 6 we need to consider the deviating influence that a co-efficient C
of +1 would have had on the four cardinal headings, had it not been removed. On east and
west this co-efficient would have exerted no deviating influence (the cosine of 090 and 270
is zero). On north the deviation caused by this co-efficient would have maximum and
positive and on south maximum and negative.
Please note that, since all of the headings considered are very close to the cardinal points, it
is acceptable to take the sine of small angles as zero, the cosine of the same angles as unity
(1), the sine of angles close to 90 as unity (1), and the cosine of the same angles as zero.
1
Comp
hdg
2
Mag
hdg
3
Deviation B4
compensation
359
092
181
268
004
091
184
273
+5
-1
+3
+5
Deviations
removed
A
+3
+3
+3
+3
B
0
-3
0
+3
7
Sum of dev
removed
(4+5+6)
8
Residual
deviations
(3-7)
C
+1
0
-1
0
The next step is to add algebraically the values given in columns 4, 5 and 6 for each of the
headings and to enter the sum of these deviations in column 7. The values in column 7
therefore represent the total deviation which would have been suffered on each of the
headings, due to co-efficients A, B and C, had these co-efficients not been removed.
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1
Comp
hdg
2
Mag
hdg
3
Deviation B4
compensation
359
092
181
268
004
091
184
273
+5
-1
+3
+5
Deviations
removed
A
+3
+3
+3
+3
B
0
-3
0
+3
C
+1
0
-1
0
7
Sum of dev
removed
(4+5+6)
8
Residual
deviations
(3-7)
+4
0
+2
+6
Finally,
by subtracting algebraically the values in column 7 from the values for the same
heading in column 3, the residual deviation is established for that heading. Column 3 gives
the deviation which was observed before the co-efficients were removed. Column 7 gives
the mathematical summation of the deviating effects of these co-efficients. By correcting for
these co-efficients we have reduced the original deviations (column 3) by the values in
column 7 to give the residual deviations in column 8.
Comp
hdg
Mag
hdg
Deviation B4
compensation
359
092
181
268
004
091
184
273
+5
-1
+3
+5
Deviations
removed
A
+3
+3
+3
+3
B
0
-3
0
+3
C
+1
0
-1
0
Sum of dev
removed
(4+5+6)
Residual
deviations
(3-7)
+4
0
+2
+6
+1
- 1
+1
- 1
One final example to consider before we leave the problems of residual deviation behind us.
Example (yes another)
The following readings were obtained during the swing of a direct reading magnetic
compass:
Compass Heading
359
090
180
269
Magnetic Heading
000
086
175
273
a)
Determine the values of co-efficients A, B and C.
b)
Determine the compass heading required, after compensation for co efficients A, B

and C, to obtain a true heading of 288 in a position where the local magnetic
variation is 15E.
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Solution
a)
b)
Co-efficient A
- 1
Co-efficient B
- 4
Co-efficient C
+3
The second part of this question is capable of inducing panic into some candidates
when encountered in the examination (normally the navigators, not the steely eyed
pilots with nerves of steel) because the heading given isnt a cardinal. By adjusting
the given true heading for variation the magnetic heading which was used in the
correcting swing is achieved end of panic.
Heading true
Variation
Heading magnetic
Comp
hdg
269
Mag
hdg
=
=
=
288
15E
273
Deviation B4
compensation
273
Heading magnetic
Deviation
Heading compass
+4
=
=
=
Deviations
removed
A
-1
+4
Sum of
dev
remove
d
(4+5+6)
+3
Residual
deviations
(3-7)
+1
273
+1
272
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CHAPTER 5
COMPASSES
THE DIRECT READING MAGNETIC COMPASS
An aircraft compass must satisfy 3 basic requirements:
Must lie horizontal.
Must be sensitive.
Must be Aperiodic.
Must Lie Horizontal
The directional force of the Earth's Total Field is H. Therefore, the needle must lie horizontal
for maximum efficiency.
In an actual case, the magnet still dips slightly towards the nearer pole.
residual Dip.
This is called
Residual Dip = + 3 at mid Latitudes.

Max Residual Dip = 30.
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Sensitivity
This is achieved by:
Using more than one magnet.
Using an iradium pivot and sapphire cup to reduce pivot friction.
Immersing the compass in a suitable liquid (silicon) to reduce friction and increase
buoyancy.
Aperiodicity
An aperiodic compass is one which takes up its direction immediately without oscillation.
This is achieved by:
Immersing the compass in a suitable liquid (Damping effect).
Damping Wires.
Magnets are made light as possible, and as short as possible to reduce their moment
of inertia.
OCCASIONS WHEN A COMPASS SHOULD BE SWUNG

Upon installation.
Every 12 months.
Newly registered a/c
After lightning strike.
After engine change.
When magnetic material is carried in a/c.
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ACCELERATION AND DECELERATION ERRORS

REMEMBER:
The Z force and C of G are on opposite sides of the pivot point. The Z force act on the side
of the nearer pole. The C of G is on the side of the equator. An acceleration is a force. The
equal and opposite force is inertia. Inertia acts on the C of G.
This causes an apparent turn when the aircraft accelerates or decelerates.
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Equator
There will be no error because - No Z.
Acceleration on E or W causes an apparent turn to the south.
ASDN
or SAND
Northern Hemisphere -
Errors Reversed
TURNING ERRORS
Turning errors are caused by 2 factors (they are additive).
Mechanical Error
The C of G is acted on by Centrifugal Force (C.F.) in a turn.
The error is MAX on N/S.
The Error is ZERO ON E/W.
Magnetic Error
During a turn, Weight will act in the aircraft's vertical, but the Z force of the
magnet, will continue to act in the true vertical. The two forces acting in
different planes, cause a couple that will have the same effect as the
mechanical error.
i.e. They are additive.
The Error is MAX on N/S.
The Error is ZERO on E/W.
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Southern Hemisphere
MN
340
Direction of
turn
CG
N
.
PIVOT
CF
force
Reaction
When making a turn through north the compass gives an indication of a turn in the correct
direction but at a much faster rate. The compass leads the aircraft.
To Rectify Combined Mechanical and Magnetic Error:
COMMAND RULE
ONUS Pilot must Overshoot on North and
TURNING
Left turn from 000 to 180
Right turn from 000 to 180
Left turn from 180 to 000
Right turn from 180 to 000
Undershoot on South.
(The ONUS is on the pilot)
COMPASS
LEADS
LEADS
LAGS
LAGS
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PILOT ACTION
UNDERSHOOT Roll out on 200.
UNDERSHOOT Roll out on 160.
OVERSHOOT
Roll out on 340.
OVERSHOOT
Roll out on 020.
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SUMMARY OF TURNING ERROR
Error is reversed in Northern Hemisphere.

SWIRL ERROR
In turns, friction between the liquid and the bowl sets a swirl in the same direction as the turn.
When The compass needle is turning in the same direction as the aircraft the swirl will add to
the turning error. When the compass needle is turning in the opposite direction to the aircraft
the swirl will reduce the turning error.
In Southern Hemisphere
turning through North Swirl reduces turning error

turning through South swirl increases turning error
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THE SPERRY GYROSCOPIC COMPASS SYSTEM

This system overcomes many of the problems associated with the direct reading magnetic
compass.
One unit placed for each pilot overcomes parallax error.
The detector unit is placed in the wing tip or tail so it does not suffer from Soft Iron
interference from cockpit.
Turning and acceleration errors are suppressed and not shown.
At very high latitudes, where H is small and therefore unreliable, the magnetic
component can be uncoupled and the compass becomes a pure D.I. (D.G. Switch).
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
The detector unit is fixed to the aircraft's fore/aft axis and it senses the direction of magnetic
North. It senses the direction of the Earth's Magnetic field passing through the detector unit.
Fluxvalve Theory
As can be seen here: Imparted Flux = Cos Heading

i.e.
Maximum Flux
Zero Flux
=
=
360 (Cos 360 = 1)

090 (Cos 090 = 0)
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But now we are faced with 2 problems:

We have to measure the amount of induced flux and interpret it as a heading.
This is done electro magnetically.
Now the problem is that electro magnetically we can only measure a changing flux. A
constant flux dies away immediately after being imparted.
The solution is as follows:
The AC current fed to the coil is 400 cycles per second (CPS). Thus there are 800 peaks
(positive and negative) when the earth's field is not induced and 800 zeros per second when
the earth's field is induced. This 800 times per second of induced earth's magnetic field is
what we need to measure direction (changing magnetic Flux).
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Ambiguity
The fluxvalve resolves heading according to the cosine of the induced current. Unfortunately,
there is ambiguity. The Cos 180 = Cos 360 and Cos 90 = Cos 270.
To solve this problem, the detector unit employs 3 fluxvalves at 120 apart. All 3 have a
common primary coil situated in the centre and the rest of the principles remain the same.
The resultant of the 3 induced currents, each resolved according to Cosine now give the
heading and there can be no ambiguity.
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The detector unit is usually mounted on a wing-tip and contains the fluxvalve. It is mounted
pendulously by a device known as a Hookes Joint and has + 25 freedom of movement in
pitch and roll.
It is fixed to the aircraft's fore/aft axis.
It is filled with oil for damping.
The casing has facilities to correct for Co-eff A, B and C.
For co-eff A the whole flux-valve is rotated.
For co-eff B and C the adjustment is made on the corrector box by turning the
B or C corrector screws.
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OPERATION OF CL-2
1)
3 stators in detector unit have induction according to magnetic heading.
2)
These 3 stators send identical current to 3 stators in signal selsyn A which is self
synchronous.
3)
Rotor in centre of Selsyn A is designed to be in null position to indicate true heading.
4)
If it is not in null position - there will be current induced in it.
5)
If there is current in the rotor - it transmits to precession amplifier.
6)
Precession amplifier interprets phase of signal - incorrect left/right. It amplifies the

signal, transforms it to D.C. and sends to precession coil.
Precession coil precesses Gyro.
7)
8)
9)
Gyro is linked to indicator needle - turns to correct heading. It is also linked to rotor
arm in Data selsyn B.
Rotor arm in Data selsyn B is fed by 400 CPS.
10)
These 3 stators are linked to 3 stators in Data selsyn C.
11)
Rotor in Data selsyn C has resultant current induced in it.
12)
Current goes to follow up amplifier.
13)
Follow up amplifier sends signal to motor.
14)
Motor turns C rotor to null position - No more signal to amplifier.
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15)
Rotor A is linked on same shaft as rotor C so it also moves to null position no

more signal to precession amp.
16)
The indicator on the Master Unit is also linked on the same shaft so it indicates the
correct heading.
Operation In A Turn
1)
When the A/C turns, the Gyro has rigidity.
2)
Gyro is linked to the indicator and indicates turn. Gyro is also linked to Rotor B.
3)
Selsyn B is duplicated in selsyn C.
4)
Motor is activated
5)
Now detector unit has turned with A/C Rotor A should still be in null position.
6)
If not, the whole system is precessed to indicate correctly.
-Turns rotor C to null.

-Turns rotor A to null.
-Turns Master indicator to hdg.
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CL-2 PRECESSION MECHANISM
1)
Rotor at Signal Selsyn is not in null position - current induced.
2)
Current activates precessional amplifier.
3)
Precession amp sends D.C. current to precession coil and it induces magnetic field.
4)
Like poles repel/unlike poles attract at horn magnets causing a force.
5)
Force precesses at gyro - moves horizontal bevel gear.
6)
Horizontal bevel gear moves vertical bevel gear.
7)
Vertical bevel gear rotates - turns rotor at signal selsyn to null position and also turns
indicator needle.
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Manual Synchronising
An annunciator indicates whether or not the compass is synchronised. When the system is
operating normally, alternate dots and crosses appear in the annunciator window. If for some
reason this is not the case, then just turn the synchronising knob until alternate dots and
crosses appear.
The precessional rate of the gyro is kept low (2 - 3 per minute). This is to correct for gyro
drift. i.e. To keep the gyro tied to the magnetic meridian.
TURNING AND ACCELERATION ERRORS
These errors are suppressed. The errors do not reach the indicators due to the slow
precessional rate (2 - 3 per minute). Therefore they are not corrected for, but only
suppressed.
The Erection Mechanism
The gyro in the CL 2 must be maintained horizontal and the erection mechanism ensures
this. It consists of a 2 phase torque motor with its stators mounted on the outer gimbal and a
levelling switch mounted on the inner gimbal. Commutator switches detect any topple of the
gyro (relative to the aircraft) and pass a signal to the torque motor which applies a
precessing force to the gyro to bring it back to level.
Important Points
1)
2)
3)
4)
The detector unit is fixed to the fore/aft axis of the A/C.

Gyroscopic rigidity provides Hdg control.
Precession corrects for errors and gyro drift.
Turning and acceleration errors are suppressed by the slow precessional rate of 2 3 per minute.
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QUESTIONS
1.
During the correcting swing of a direct reading magnetic compass the following
readings were noted.
MAGNETIC HEADING
359
090
181
269
COMPASS HEADING
001
088
179
273
Calculate the value of Coefficients A, B and C. What will the compass read after
compensation of Coefficients B and C on the Southerly and Westerly headings?
2.
The following figures appear on an aeroplane deviation card:

FOR MAGNETIC
STEER COMPASS
045
038
090
092
The compass heading to steer to maintain a heading of 075 (M) is:
a)
b)
c)
3.
072
074
076
During a compass swing the following reading were noted:

MAGNETIC HEADING
000
089
178
269
COMPASS HEADING
358
092
182
268
After correction for coefficients B and C, the compass reading on the westerly
heading was:
a)
b)
c)
4.
266
270
271
The following Coefficients apply to a particular compass system:

Co-eff A + 2
Co-eff B + 4
Co-eff C - 3
What deviation would you expect on heading 135 (C)?

a)
b)
b)
6.95
2.71
1.29
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5.
A compass system has Co-eff A + I and Co-eff B + 3. The deviation on heading 230
(C) is - 3. What is the value of Co-eff C?
a)
b)
c)
6.
Coefficient A+3 is corrected on heading 300 (C). What is the compass reading after
correction of Co-eff A?
a)
b)
c)
7.
-4.7
-1.5
+3.3
A direct reading magnetic compass has coefficients A, B and C only. Deviations on

000 (C) is 0. Deviation on 090 (C) is + 3. Coefficient C is +2. The deviation on
180 (C) is:
a)
b)
c)
10.
042 ( C )
045 ( C )
048 ( C )
Compass deviation on 130 (C) is 4 W.

Compass deviation on 230 (C) is 8 E.
Compass deviation on 315 (C) will be:
a)
b)
c)
9.
330 (C)
303 (C)
297 (C)
A compass system has Co-eff A -2, B-4, C+3. Required track 022 (T), Drift 7 left.
Variation 16W. The compass heading to steer will be:
a)
b)
c)
8.
+2.65
-9.82
-3.71
-2
-4
0
During a compass swing the following deviations were found.

HEADING COMPASSDEVIATION
000
090
180
0
-5
-4
The value of Coefficients A, B and C were:

a)
b)
c)
11.
A-3
A-2
A-2
B-3
B-3
B+2
C-2
C+2
C+2
An agonic line joins places of:

a)
b)
c)
Equal magnetic variation.

Zero magnetic variation.
Equal horizontal force H.
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12.
Variation is called Westerly when:

a)
b)
c)
13.
You are turning right from 150 (C) onto 220 (C) in the Southern Hemisphere. On what
compass heading would you roll out of the turn?
a)
b)
c)
14.
The aircraft accelerates on 000 (C).

The aircraft accelerates on 090 (C).
The aircraft decelerates on 270 (C).
The direct reading magnetic compass has magnetic correctors for:

a)
b)
c)
18.
The difference in the location of the Earth's Magnetic and Geographic Poles.
The angle of magnetic dip.
Aircraft magnetism distorting the Earth's magnetic field.
A magnetic compass will show an apparent turn to the North in the Southern
Hemisphere when:
a)
b)
c)
17.
145
170
195
Compass deviation is caused by:

a)
b)
c)
16.
210 ( C )
220 ( C )
230 ( C )
An aeroplane heading 030 (C) in the Southern Hemisphere, turns left onto 170 (C)
using a direct reading magnetic compass. The roll out of the turn should be initiated
on a compass heading off:
a)
b)
c)
15.
Magnetic North is to the West of True North.

True North is to the West of Magnetic North.
The Magnetic Meridian is to the West of Compass North.
Coefficient A, B and C.
Coefficients B and C only.
Coefficients B, C and R.
In regard to acceleration errors, they are caused because:

a)
b)
c)
The C. of G. of the magnet system is above the pivot.

The C. of G. of the magnet system lies between the pivot and the nearer pole.
The C. of G. lies between the pivot and the equator.
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19.
Select the true statement regarding the magnetic compass in the southern
hemisphere.
a)
b)
c)
20.
The magnetic system of a compass is suspended pendulously to counteract the effect

of component:
a)
b)
c)
21.
soft iron magnetic material.

permanent magnet.
hard iron.
Compass accuracy is greatest:

a)
b)
c)
26.
with the radio equipment off.

with the engine shut down.
with the engine running.
A magnetic material that is easily magnetised is called:

a)
b)
c)
25.
Fore and aft magnetism affecting Co eff. B.

Athwart ship magnetism affecting Co eff. B.
Fore and aft magnetism affecting Co eff. C.
A compass swing should be conducted:

a)
b)
c)
24.
Parameter P is positive.
Parameter Q is positive.
Parameter R is positive.
Parameter P is:
a)
b)
c)
23.
H
Z
P
An aircraft being manufactured in the Northern Hemisphere is parked facing South

West:
a)
b)
c)
22.
If on a westerly heading and the aircraft's speed is decreased, the aircraft will
indicate a turn to the north.
If on a northerly heading a turn is made toward the west, the compass will
indicate a turn in the opposite direction.
If on an easterly heading the aircraft is accelerated, the compass will indicate
a turn to the north.
in mid latitudes.
at the poles.
at magnetic equator.
The secular change in variation has a cycle of:

a)
b)
c)
96 years.
690 years.
960 years.
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27.
An aircraft constructed in South Africa has a red pole in the nose and right wing and
blue poles in the tail and left wing. The heading during construction was:
a)
b)
c)
28.
Which statement is true regarding magnetism:

a)
b)
c)
29.
of the change in the aircraft's hard iron magnetism.

of the change in the Earth's total force.
of the change in the strength of the Earth's directive force.
With reference to the Sperry Gyrosyn CL2 compass system. The precession rate of
the gyro is kept low in order to:
a)
b)
c)
34.
Low centre of gravity.

Compass liquid.
Powerful magnets.
Assuming the compass to be only affected by hard iron magnetism causing deviation,
if the latitude changed the deviation would change because:
a)
b)
c)
33.
Impermeable.
Permeable.
Saturated.
In direct reading magnetic compass, the effect of dip is counteracted by:

a)
b)
c)
32.
Direct reading compass.

Remote reading compass.
A standby compass.
When a magnet cannot be made any more magnetic, it is said to be:

a)
b)
c)
31.
compass deviation is the angular difference between true north and magnetic
north.
magnetic variation is the deflection of the compass needle which is caused by
magnetic attractions in the aircraft.
magnetic dip increases with an increase in latitude.
The type of compass least likely to suffer from parallax is:

a)
b)
c)
30.
045 degrees.
315 degrees.
135 degrees.
Maintain the gyro axis in the horizontal plane.

Suppress turning and acceleration errors.
Allow the master unit to follow the gyro unit.
The Sperry CL2 compass system remains synchronised in a turn because:

a)
b)
c)
The follow up motor keeps the compass synchronised.

The precession circuit is activated causing the gyro to follow the turn.
The signals from the detector unit to the signal selsyn change at the same
rate as the rotor of the signal selsyn turns.
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35.
The Sperry CL2 compass system does not indicate turning and acceleration errors
because of:
a)
b)
c)
36.
The Sperry CL2 compass system indicates aircraft heading by:

a)
b)
c)
37.
The annunciator circuits.

The slow precession rate of the gyro.
The Hooks joint suspension of the detector unit.
The detector unit senses the angle between the aircraft fore and aft axis and
the magnetic meridian.
The detector unit aligns itself with the magnetic meridian.
The signal selsyn measures aircraft heading.
During a turn the remote indicator of a CL2 compass remains synchronised with the
actual heading because:
a)
b)
c)
the horizontal gyro due to its rigidity drives the pointers keeping them aligned
with the heading;
error signals raised in the stators of the gyro unit data selsyn are repeated in
the stators of the master indicator;
the detector unit, signal selsyn stator and horizontal gyro, rotate with the
aircraft in the same direction at the same rate.
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ANNEX A
SAMPLE EXAMS
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Paper 1
1.
The Central Air Data Computer (CADC):

(a)
(b)
(c)
2.
Disregarding the effect of compressibility, at a constant IAS the ASI dynamic pressure
will be:
(a)
(b)
(c)
3.
rectifying and correcting for density error

correcting for instrument, density and temperature errors
correcting for instrument, pressure and position errors
An aeroplane is flying from a warm air mass to a cold air mass at a constant FL and
indicated airspeed. The TAS and true altitude will:
(a)
(b)
(c)
8.
cancel the static component of dynamic pressure

balance the static component of pitot pressure
subtract the static pressure from the dynamic pressure
True airspeed is calculated from indicated airspeed by:

(a)
(b)
(c)
7.
Cold and dry

Warm and moist
Warm and dry
Static pressure is supplied to the ASI in order to:

(a)
(b)
(c)
6.
overread
under read
fall to zero
Flying at a constant power setting, the highest indicated airspeed will occur when the
air is:
(a)
(b)
(c)
5.
the same at all altitudes

greatest at sea level
greatest at high altitude
If the pitot head and drain hole become blocked by ice during a climb the ASI would:
(a)
(b)
(c)
4.
corrects or reduces all pressure instrument errors

corrects the temperature error of the altimeter
eliminates the time lag error in pressure instruments
TAS increase and true altitude decrease

TAS decrease and true altitude increase
Both decrease
The principle and operation of the Machmeter excludes the following errors:
(a)
(b)
(c)
density, temperature and pressure errors

compressibility, temperature and density errors
temperature. position and density errors
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9.
An aircraft flying at Mach 0.82 where the local speed of sound is 1050 ft per second
has a TAS of.
(a)
(b)
(c)
10.
An aircraft flying from a cold air mass to a warm air mass at a constant FL and RAS
will experience:
(a)
(b)
(c)
11
overread
read correctly
under read
Altimeter instrument errors:

(a)
(b)
(c)
16.
559Kts
586Kts
573Kts
(a)
(b)
(c)
15.
the TAS and RAS will increase

the TAS and RAS will decrease
the TAS will increase and RAS decrease
At FL 410 in standard conditions the speed of sound is:

(a)
(b)
(c)
14.
32320 ft
34650 ft
36090 ft
For an aircraft climbing at a constant Mach No:

(a)
(b)
(c)
13.
an increase in mach number

no change in mach number
a decrease in mach number
The altitude in the ISA where TAS 471 Kts corresponds to Mach 0.81 is:
(a)
(b)
(c)
12.
490Kts
500Kts
510Kts
are constant throughout the range of the instrument

are maximum at sea level
increase with altitude
Altimeters indicate:
(a)
(b)
(c)
altitude above mean sea level

true altitude when corrected for non standard temperatures
altitude above the pressure level set on the altimeter
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17.
When the barometric pressure sub-scale setting of a servo assisted altimeter is

adjusted the altimeter pointer and counters are aligned by:
(a)
(b)
(c)
18.
direct high ratio gearing between the sub-scale and the pointers
mechanically changing the position of the E bar followed by electronic
realignment of the E bar
mechanically changing the position of the I bar followed by electronic
alignment of the E bar
An aeroplane flying at 1000 ft with QFE 982 hPa set on the altimeter is in the circuit at
an airfield (elevation 1200 ft). A second aeroplane at FL 40 is overflying the airfield.
The minimum vertical separation between the two aeroplanes would be:
(a)
(b)
(c)
19.
An aircraft heading 003 (M), drift 10 left, has to pass over high ground that is 2200
metres AMSL. Minimum clearance over the high ground is 2000 feet, QNH 1025 mbs.
The lowest IFR flight level is:
(a)
(b)
(c)
20.
speed of rotation and inversely proportional to the moment of inertia

mass of the rotor and inversely proportional to the rotational speed
moment of inertia and the rotor speed
The attitude indicator is the primary pitch instrument, other indications of pitch are
provided by:
(a)
(b)
(c)
23.
Rigidity in space
precession
gyro drift
The rigidity of a gyro is directly proportional to the:

(a)
(b)
(c)
22.
FL 090
FL 100
FL 105
The DGI Directional Gyro Indicator operates on the principle of.

(a)
(b)
(c)
21.
1554 ft
1800 ft
2070 ft
ASI and altimeter only

ASI and VSI only
ASI, VSI and altimeter
The gyroscopic instrument that cannot topple is the:

(a)
(b)
(c)
attitude indicator
turn indicator
directional gyro
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24.
Apparent wander of a directional gyro in a stationary aircraft will cause the readings
to:
(a)
(b)
(c)
25.
Precession or gyro drift of a DGI may be caused by:

(a)
(b)
(c)
26.
Pitch axis
Roll axis
Vertical axis
If an aircraft makes a 360 turn the magnitude of the turning errors of a air driven
artificial horizon are at a maximum at:
(a)
(b)
(c)
30.
displacement of the vanes covering the exhaust ports

centrifugal forces acting on the pendulous gyro casing
reduced gyro rigidity due to low suction
The artificial horizon outer gimbal has freedom of movement about the:
(a)
(b)
(c)
29.
pitch on north and excessive bank on west

pitch on east and excessive bank on south
pitch on west and excessive bank on north
The artificial horizon erection error is due to:

(a)
(b)
(c)
28.
gimbal friction, earth rotation and reduced rotor speed

earth rotation, transport wander and reduced moment of inertia
bearing friction, earth rotation and an applied force
The DGI gyro with the axis aligned north/south may topple due to excessive:
(a)
(b)
(c)
27.
increase in the northern hemisphere

decrease in the northern hemisphere
increase in both hemispheres
90 into the turn

180 into the turn
270 into the turn
In an electrically driven artificial horizon gyro wander about the pitch axis is controlled
by:
(a)
(b)
(c)
a mercury levelling switch at right angles to the pitch axis producing a torque
about the roll axis
a mercury levelling switch parallel to the pitch axis producing a torque about
the pitch axis
a mercury levelling switch at right angles to the roll axis producing a torque
about the roll axis
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31.
The rate gyro of the turn indicator has : (a)

(b)
(c)
32.
An aircraft enters a balanced rate 1 turn as indicated by the turn indicator. After two
minutes and 15 seconds the aircraft has turned through 360. The rotor speed of the
gyro is:
(a)
(b)
(c)
33.
freedom of movement in one plane only and indicates the angle of bank in a
turn using the principle of rigidity
freedom of movement in one plane only and indicates the rate of turn using
the principle of precession
freedom in two planes using the topple principle to measure angular velocity
in the yawing plane
Too high
correct
too low
During the swing of a Direct Reading Magnetic Compass the following readings were
recorded:
Magnetic Heading
Compass Heading
358
002
087
091
182
181
271
269
After correction for Coefficients B and C the compass reading on the Westerly
heading was:
(a)
(b)
(c)
34.
A direct reading magnetic compass has Coefficients A -2. B -3 and C +4 only. The
deviation on 155 (C) would be:
(a)
(b)
(c)
35.
271
272
273
0.5W
3.7W
6.9W
A compass has the following Coefficients :- A 2, B 3, C + 4.

During the compass swing a deviation of -4 was noted on heading 223(C).
After correction of Coefficients A, B and C the residual deviation on 223 (C) would be:
(a)
(b)
(c)
-1.1
+2.1
-3.6
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36.
A compass has Coefficients A. B and C only.

The following readings were recorded during a compass swing:
Landing Compass
003
088
180
Heading (C)
359
091
182
The Coefficients present in the compass are:

(a)
(b)
(c)
37.
The angle of dip and the speed of the aircraft

Magnetic latitude and aircraft heading
The mass of the magnets and the distance between the C of G and the pivot.
4W
1E
5E
The requirement of aperiodicity in a direct reading magnetic compass is achieved by

the use of.
(a)
(b)
(c)
42.
-B and -C
-B and +C
+B and -C
An aircraft is flying along a railway line that runs 122/302(T) on a map. Aircraft
heading 137 (C), drift 5 right, Variation 16W. Compass deviation is:
(a)
(b)
(c)
41.
A and C
B and C
B,C and A
The magnitude of acceleration errors of a direct reading magnetic compass depend

on:
(a)
(b)
(c)
40.
C-3
C-3
C-3
Magnetism in an aircraft is represented by a Red Pole that bears 315 relative from
the compass position. The Coefficients present are:
(a)
(b)
(c)
39.
B-4
B+2
B-2
A direct reading magnetic compass has magnetic correctors for Coefficients:

(a)
(b)
(c)
38.
A+1
A+1
A -1
Two or four short magnets suspended in a compass liquid

A low Centre of Gravity and two or four short magnets
A low Centre of Gravity and the magnet system suspended in a damping
liquid
The detector unit of the Sperry CL2 compass transmits electrical signals to the
master indicator signal selsyn:
(a)
(b)
(c)
which are proportional to the aircrafts heading

when the flux-valve is not aligned with magnetic north
when the annunciator indicates an unsynchronised state
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43.
The Sperry CL2 compass system is not affected by the turning and acceleration
errors of a direct reading compass due to:
(a)
(b)
(c)
44.
The Sperry CL2 compass remains synchronized with the aircraft heading in a turn
because:
(a)
(b)
(c)
45.
error signals sensed by data selsyn B are transmitted to data selsyn C

the detector unit turns at the same rate as the gyro
the gyro remains rigid and drives the compass pointers as the aircraft turns
about the gyro
An aircraft in the Southern Hemisphere turns left from 175 onto 350. The aircraft
should roll out of the turn on a heading of:
(a)
(b)
(c)
46.
the slow precession rate of the gyro

the gyro rigidity resisting the turning or acceleration forces
the detector unit being suspended by a Hookes joint
330
350
010
An aircraft heading 180(C) initiates a left turn onto 350(C) in the Southern
Hemisphere. Initially the compass will indicate a:
(a)
(b)
(c)
lesser amount of turn than is actually being made,

turn in the opposite direction,
greater amount of turn than is actually being made.
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Paper 2
1
The Central Air Data Computer (CADC) has a Static Air Temperature (SAT) input in
order to:
(a)
(b)
(c)
2.
If the static vent becomes blocked during a climb the ASI would:
(a)
(b)
(c)
3.
pitot pressure
dynamic pressure
dynamic + static pressure
If the pitot and drain hole of the ASI become blocked by ice:
(a)
(b)
(c)
5.
overread
under read
read correctly:
Movement of the ASI needle is proportional to:

(a)
(b)
(c)
4.
calculate the local speed of sound

calculate TAS from Mach number
correct the temperature error of the altimeter
the IAS would fall to zero

the IAS would under read during a climb
the IAS would remain constant in level flight
An aircraft flies a measured course of 5 nm between two pylons at 7000 ft pressure

altitude temperature 15C in 2 minutes 45 seconds: Flying the reverse course the
time is 2 minutes 19 seconds.
If the lAS was 100 Kts the ASI was under reading by:
(a)
(b)
(c)
6.
1Kt
3Kts
5Kts
Converting RAS to TAS using a navigational computer:

(a)
(b)
(c)
the TAS will always be higher than RAS

the TAS will be lower than RAS if density altitude is lower than pressure
altitude
the TAS will be higher than RAS if air density is higher than standard
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7.
The value of compressibility error of an ASI:

(a)
(b)
(c)
8.
ASI errors:
(a)
(b)
(c)
9.
31000 ft
34000 ft
37000 ft
An aircraft is flying at FL 330, OAT -35C, RAS 297 Kts. M 0.83. The EAS is:
(a)
(b)
(c)
13.
FL270
FL300
FL330
The altitude in the ISA where the local speed of sound is 975 Ft per second is:
(a)
(b)
(c)
12.
an airspeed capsule linked to a dashpot

an airspeed capsule and an altimeter capsule linked to a common axis
an airspeed capsule and an altimeter capsule, their axes 90 apart
An aircraft reduces power which results in the Mach No falling by 0.11 and the TAS
reducing by 64 Kts. The aircraft is flying at:
(a)
(b)
(c)
11.
increase with an increase in airspeed

are independent of airspeed
decrease with an increase in airspeed
The machmeter employs:

(a)
(b)
(c)
10.
increases with an increase of airspeed and altitude

increases with an increase of density
increases with an increase of airspeed and a decrease of altitude
260Kts
270Kts
280Kts
When the air temperature is higher than standard at altitude. the indication on an
altimeter with QNH set is:
(a)
(b)
(c)
higher than true altitude

lower than true altitude
the same as true altitude
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14.
The bi-metallic strip in an altimeter corrects for:

(a)
(b)
(c)
15.
non standard ISA temperatures

temperature rise due to compressibility
temperature changes in the instrument
Pressure Altitude
QNH Altitude
Temperature
Terrain Elevation
11000 ft
11500 ft
-5C
1265 Metres
The absolute altitude is:

(a)
(b)
(c)
16.
6975 ft
7428 ft
7860 ft
At an airfield (Elevation of 4325 ft. QNH 1007 hpas the Transition Altitude is 6000 ft
and the Transition Level is 70.
The height of the Transition Level above the airfield is:
(a)
(b)
(c)
17.
An aircraft flying at FL 130 where the QNH is 1022 hPa has to pass over high ground
2137 metres above mean sea level. The height of the aircraft above the high ground
will be:
(a)
(b)
(c)
18.
2489ft
2675ft
2861ft
5727 ft
6255 ft
6525 ft
An aircraft descends from FL 190 to land at an airfield 1325 feet AMSL where the
QNH is 1005.5 hPa. If the pilot was unable to set the QNH due to a jammed baro
setting control the altimeter reading on touchdown would be:
(a)
(b)
(c)
1556ft
1176ft
1094ft
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19.
A space gyro has:

(a)
(b)
(c)
20.
The term gyro drift applies to movement of the gyro axis in the:
(a)
(b)
(c)
21.
(b)
(c)
Rigidity to provide a reference datum and precession to maintain the gyro axis
in the aircrafts yawing plane
Rigidity to maintain the gyro axis in the horizontal and precession to correct for
earth rotational wander
Rigidity to keep the gyro axis aligned with magnetic north and precession to
control gyro drift
The transport wander of an DGI in an aircraft flying westbound in the southern

hemisphere will cause the DGI readings to:
(a)
(b)
(c)
25.
Real wander
Earth rotation wander
Transport wander
The gyroscope properties used by the directional gyro are:

(a)
24.
vertical having toppled through 180

horizontal with the axis north/south
horizontal with the axis east/west
The directional gyro rider nut corrects for:

(a)
(b)
(c)
23.
horizontal plane
vertical plane
both the horizontal and vertical planes
A perfectly balanced space gyro is spinning with its axis vertical at the equator. After
18 hours the gyro axis will be:
(a)
(b)
(c)
22.
freedom of movement in two planes, gyroscopic rigidity relative to space and

controlled by processional forces
freedom of movement in three planes, mounted in two gimbals and the
property of rigidity in space
freedom of movement in three planes. mounted in three gimbals and is
affected by processional forces
Increase
Remain constant as transport wander cancels earth rotation wander
Decrease
The latitude rider control of the DGI is:

(a)
(b)
(c)
four exhaust ports half covered by pendulous vanes

an adjustable weight attached to the inner gimbal
springs attached to the inner gimbal
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26.
The artificial horizon inner gimbal has freedom of movement about the:
(a)
(b)
(c)
27.
Bank indication in an artificial horizon is given by:

(a)
(b)
(c)
28.
the instrument has failed and is not to be used

the instrument may be used with caution
the turn indicator has failed but the slip indication is valid
(a)
(b)
(c)
33.
a false climb indicated

a lesser amount of bank indicated
a false descent indicated
A fail flag appears on an electrical turn and slip indicator which indicates that:
(a)
(b)
(c)
32.
At all times
At start up on the ground only
For straight and level flight only
The erection error of the suction type artificial horizon in a turn is:
(a)
(b)
(c)
31.
erection system cut-out switches

a constant speed gyro
less pendulosity
The fast erection system of an electrically driven artificial horizon may be used:
(a)
(b)
(c)
30.
movement of the sky plate attached to the outer gimbal

rotation of the outer gimbal about the longitudinal axis
movement of the AH casing about the outer gimbal and sky plate
The acceleration error of the electrically driven artificial horizon is less than the air
driven type because of:
(a)
(b)
(c)
29.
Pitch axis
Roll axis
Vertical axis
Primary precession produced by the angle of bank

Primary precession being balanced by secondary precession
Primary precession being balanced by the springs
In a balanced turn the angle of tilt of the rate gyro in the turn indicator:
(a)
(b)
(c)
Increases as the angle of bank increases and the airspeed decreases

Increases as the angle of bank decreases and the airspeed increases
Remains constant for a 25 angle of bank at any airspeed
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34.
The turn indicator uses a rate gyro, and including the spin axis has:
(a)
(b)
(c)
35.
An aircraft enters a balanced rate 1 turn as indicated by the turn indicator. After two
minutes the aircraft has turned through 3800. The rotor speed of the gyro is:
(a)
(b)
(c)
36.
too high
correct
too low
The main reason that the rate gyro of the turn indicator is electrically driven rather
than air driven is:
(a)
(b)
(c)
37.
freedom of movement in one plane only and indicates the angle of bank in a
turn using the principle of precession
freedom of movement in two planes using the topple principle to measure
angular velocity in the yawing plane
freedom of movement in two planes at 90 to each other and measures the
rate of turn in the third plane
to protect the gyro from moisture and dust in the air supply
to ensure a constant rotor speed
that a higher RPM gives greater rotor rigidity
During the swing of a Direct Reading magnetic (The compass the following readings
were recorded:
Landing Compass
000
087
179
271
Magnetic Heading
359
091
182
269
After correction for Coefficients B and C the compass reading on the Southerly
heading was:(a)
(b)
(c)
38.
A compass has Coefficients A B and C only. If Co-eff A is -2. Co-eff B is +2 and the
deviation on 305 (C) is -1 the value of Co-eff C is:
(a)
(b)
(c)
39.
180
181
184
-1.1
-2.9
+4.6
The purpose of the torque motor in the Sperry CL2 compass system is to:
(a)
(b)
(c)
Maintain the gyro axis North/South

Maintain the gyro spin axis in the Earths horizontal plane
Maintain the gyro spin axis in the aircrafts yawing plane
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40.
The annunciator circuit of the Sperry CL2 compass system:

(a)
(b)
(c)
41.
The Sperry CL2 detector unit contains three flux-valves mounted 120 apart instead of
a single flux-valve in order to:
(a)
(b)
(c)
42.
(c)
210(C)
220(C)
230(C)
A compass system has co-eff A -2. B -4. C +3. Required track 022 (T). Drift 7 left.
Variation 16 W. The compass heading to steer will be:
(a)
(b)
(c)
46.
Lesser amount of turn than is actually being made

Turn in the opposite direction
Greater amount of turn than is actually being made
An aircraft is turning right from 050 ( C ) onto 220 ( C ) in the Southern hemisphere.
On what compass heading should the aircraft roll out of the turn?
(a)
(b)
(c)
45.
The frequency of the AC current to the exciter coil

The value of component h of the Earths magnetic field and the direction at
which it intersects the flux-valve
The efficiency of the flux-valve collector horns
An aircraft heading 360 (C ) initiates a left turn onto 180 ( C ) in the Southern
hemisphere. Initially the compass will indicate a:
(a)
(b)
(c)
44.
Improve sensitivity
Resolve heading ambiguity
Neutralise the effect of component Z of the Earths magnetic field when the
aircraft is climbing or descending
The voltage induced into the secondary pick-off coils of a Sperry CL2 flux-valve is
proportional to:
(a)
(b)
43.
Indicates when the gyro axis is aligned 90 to the Magnetic meridian

Monitors the signals from the signal selsyn to the precession coil and indicates
that the gyro axis is aligned with the signal selsyn rotor
Monitors the synchronization state of the gyro and assists with manual
synchronization
042 (C)
045 (C)
048 (C)
A magnetic compass will show an apparent turn to the North in the Southern
hemisphere when.
(a)
(b)
(d)
The aircraft accelerates on 000 ( C)

The aircraft accelerates on 090 (C)
The aircraft decelerates on 270 (C)
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Paper 3
1.
An aeroplane heading 030 (C) in the Southern Hemisphere, turns left onto 170 (C)
using a direct reading magnetic compass. The roll out of the turn should be initiated
on a compass heading off:
a)
b)
c)
2.
145
170
195

FOR MAGNETIC
STEER COMPASS
045
090
038
092

a)
b)
c)
3.
072
074
076
During a compass swing the following reading were noted:

MAGNETIC HEADING
COMPASS HEADING
000
089
178
269
358
092
182
268
After correction for coefficients B and C, the compass reading on the westerly
heading was:
a)
b)
c)
4.
266
270
271
A compass is swung using the Relative bearing method. The magnetic bearing of a
distant object is 210 (M).
COMPASS HEADING
RELATIVE BEARING
359
090
179
272
Co-eff. A, B and C are:
a)
A = - 0.5
b)
A = + 0,5
c)
A = - 0,5
208
121
032
301
B = +2
B = +1
B = +1
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C = - 2
C = +2
Version 5
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5.
Co-eff. A -2, Co-eff. B + 2 and Co-eff. C + 3. The headings on which zero deviation
occurs are:
a)
b)
c)
6.
A direct reading magnetic compass has coefficients A, B and C only. Deviations on

000 (C) is 0. Deviation on 090 (C) is + 3. Co-efficient C is +2. The deviation on
180 (C) is:
a)
b)
c)
7.
-2
-4
0
A direct reading magnetic compass is affected by co-efficients B and C only, which

together cause a maximum deviation of 7 degrees West on heading 247 (C). The
respective values of co-efficients B and C are:
a)
b)
c)
8.
303,7 and 123,7

056,3 and 236,3
090,0 and 337,3
B 6,44 and C 2,73.

B 2,73 and C 6,44.
B -3,20 and C - 3,80.

FOR MAGNETIC
STEER COMPASS
065
110
058
112

a)
b)
c)
9.
The deviations of a direct reading magnetic compass effected only by coefficients B

and C are, 3 E on 230 (C) and 4 W on 130 (C), therefore the deviation on heading
315 (C) is:
a)
b)
c)
10.
092
094
096
7,5 W
3,3 E
7,5E
The magnetic system of a compass is suspended pendulously to counteract the effect

of component:
a)
b)
c)
H
Z
P
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11.
Co-eff. B is negative and one third the value of Co-eff. C which is positive. The
headings on which zero deviation occur are:
a)
b)
c)
12.
b)
c)
the horizontal gyro due to its rigidity drives the pointers keeping them aligned
with the heading;
error signals raised in the stators of the gyro unit data selsyn are repeated in
the stators of the master indicator;
the detector unit, signal selsyn stator and horizontal gyro, rotate with the
aircraft in the same direction at the same rate.
21 050 feet
22 200 feet
23 013 feet
While climbing to FL250, the altimeter is set correctly. On descent the altimeter is not
set to QNH 1037,8 hPa. If the aerodrome elevation is 650 FT and the altimeter is
functioning properly, after landing the altimeter will indicate:
a)
b)
c)
16.
B +4 and C -3
B +7 and C -6
B -3 and C -3
An aircraft at FL230, temperature -41 C, QNH 983 HPA, is at a true altitude of:
a)
b)
c)
15.
288,4
198,4
250,6
During a turn the remote indicator of a CL2 compass remains synchronised with the
actual heading because:
a)
14.
and
and
and
A direct reading magnetic compass is affected by coefficients B and C only, which

together cause a maximum deviation of 5 degrees West on heading 307 (C). The
respective values of coefficients B and C are:
a)
b)
c)
13.
108,4
18,4
71,6
minus 88 FT
738 FT
1388 FT
The QFE at an aerodrome (elevation) 1790 feet is 962 hPa and the QNH 1022 hPa.
If the transition level is FL040 the physical level of the transition level above the
aerodrome is approximately:
a)
b)
c)
2464 feet
2150 feet
2280 feet.
CPL INSTRUMENTS
CPL DOC 5
Revision 1/1/2001

Version 5
Page 134
17.
The elevation of aerodrome A is 390 feet and aerodrome B 450 feet. The pilot of an
aeroplane at A, sets the altimeter to read aerodrome elevation and then flies to B
without resetting the altimeter. Aerodrome pressure at A on departure was 1004 hPa.
On landing at B the altimeter reads 630 feet, and assuming 1 hPa is 30 feet, the QNH
is approximately:
a)
b)
c)
18.
With QFE 1014 set at A (elevation 480 feet), an aircraft flies to B (QNH 1020) a
distance of 780 NM. In order to have minimum clearance of 1500 ft over a hill 490
metres above sea level, 234 NM from A, the altimeter must read:
a)
b)
c)
19.
3108 ft
3048 ft
2718 ft
If an altimeter indicates 3500 FT with the actual QNH of 1004, 7 hPa set, the
approximate pressure altitude is:
a)
b)
c)
20.
1011 hPa
1013 hPa
1019 hPa.
3745 FT
3500 FT
3255 FT
During a pre-flight check the following details were noted:

Airfield Elevation
Apron Elevation
Height of static vent above ground
Altimeter reading (QFE)
a)
b)
c)
21.
30 ft under read
05 ft under read
30 ft over read.
When ambient temperature is warmer than standard at a particular altitude, the

altimeter will indicate:
a)
b)
c)
22.
4800 ft
4780 ft
25 ft
35 ft
higher than true altitude;

lower than true altitude;
the same as true altitude.
The value of the compressibility error of an Airspeed Indicator (ASI) will:

a)
b)
c)
increase with increase in altitude and true airspeed;

decrease, with decrease in density and increase with an increase in IAS;
increase with increase in true airspeed and decrease with increase in altitude.
CPL INSTRUMENTS
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Revision 1/1/2001

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Page 135
23.
The reported QNH of a given station is the:

a)
b)
c)
24.
Flying at FL 430 the OAT is -59 C. The deviation from Jet Standard Atmosphere is:
a)
b)
c)
25.
Density, compressibility and pressure errors.

Position, density and barometric errors.
Temperature, compressibility and density errors.
At FL410 the temperature deviation from the Jet Standard Atmosphere is + 5 C.

The outside air temperature is:
a)
b)
c)
30.
Cancel dynamic pressure in the pitot tube.

Subtract the static pressure from the dynamic pressure.
Cancel static pressure entering the instrument diaphragm through the pitot
tube.
The Principle and Operation of the Machmeter precludes the following errors:
a)
b)
c)
29.
overread;
read correctly;
under read.
Ambient static pressure is fed to the ASI in flight to:

a)
b)
c)
28.
decrease by 1 250 feet;

increase by 1 200 feet;
decrease by 1 870 feet.
a)
b)
c)
27.
+ 12
- 2,5
+ 2,7
At a constant pressure altitude of 1 250 feet, a temperature drop from 29 C to 18 C

will cause the density altitude to:
a)
b)
c)
26.
actual barometric pressure measured at the station;

actual barometric pressure measured at sea level;
station's barometric pressure corrected to mean sea level pressure.
-51,5 C
-62 C
-67 C
Mach No. is equal to:

a)
b)
c)
P-S+S
P - S
S
P + S
S
CPL INSTRUMENTS
CPL DOC 5
Revision 1/1/2001

Version 5
Page 136
Paper 4
1.
An aircraft flying at a constant Flight Level reduces power which results in a reduction
of TAS by 112 kts and Mach No. by 0,19. At which Flight level is the aircraft flying?
a)
b)
c)
2.
An aeroplane at Mach 0,78 has a true airspeed of 479 knots when flying in standard
atmosphere at flight level:
a)
b)
c)
3.
Local Speed of sound decreases and the RAS decreases.

Local Speed of sound decreases and the Mach No. decreases.
Local Speed of sound increases and the Mach No. increases.
Assuming that the speed of sound is 1203,8 kilometres per hour at 15 C and the
mean lapse rate 2 degrees/1000 feet, the speed of sound at a temperature of -56 C
is:
a)
b)
c)
6.
282 knots
298 knots
269 knots
An aircraft maintains a constant TAS of 350 kts in the climb:

a)
b)
c)
5.
185
275
200
An aircraft at FL310 is flying at an indicated Mach-number of 0,80 corrected OAT is

-30C. The rectified airspeed for these conditions is:
a)
b)
c)
4.
FL 280
FL 220
FL 295
564,2 knots
583,4 knots
574,2 knots
A TAS OF 470 KTS is obtained at Mach 0,82 when flying at FL400. To obtain the
same TAS at Mach 0,82 when flying at FL320 the temperature deviation required is:
a)
b)
c)
+6C
- 7C
- 16 C
CPL INSTRUMENTS
CPL DOC 5
Revision 1/1/2001

Version 5
Page 137
7.
If while in level flight, it becomes necessary to use an alternate source of static

pressure vented inside the aircraft, with the cabin pressure being lower than static,
the following variations in instrument indication would be expected:
a)
b)
c)
8.
Assume that an aeroplane at 17000 FT AMSL has a cabin pressure equal to an

altitude of 7000 FT. If the pitot static tubes break at a point within the cockpit, the
altimeter would read:
a)
b)
c)
9.
b)
c)
amplifier and the induction pick-off;

the counters and the cam;
the I-bar.
By changing from QNH to QNE on a servo assisted Altimeter:

a)
b)
c)
12.
directly to the VSI needle to give an instantaneous deflection when a climb or

a descent is initiated;
directly to the capsule by a leaf spring which exerts or relieves pressure on the
capsule when a climb or a descent is initiated;
to the static pressure tube leading to the capsule and their movement creates
an immediate pressure change inside the capsule when a climb or descent is
initiated.
In the servo altimeter the servo motor drives the:

a)
b)
c)
11.
10000 FT (7000 FT + 3000 FT) which is the allowance for pressure

differential;
17000 FT;
The cabin pressure altitude, i.e. 7000 FT.
The Instantaneous Vertical Speed Indicator incorporates an accelerometer unit. The

pistons of the accelerometer unit are connected:
a)
10.
the altimeter will read higher than normal, airspeed will not change and the
vertical-speed indicator will momentarily show a descent;
the altimeter will read higher than normal, airspeed greater than normal and
the vertical-speed indicator will momentarily show a climb;
the altimeter will read lower than normal, airspeed greater than normal and
the vertical-speed indicator will momentarily show a climb and then a descent.
The motor drives the "E" bar sensing an error, then amplified and fed to the
counter.
The anvil moves the worm gear, changing the air gaps between the "E" and "I"
bars.
The "I" bar moves, changing the air gaps between the "E" and "I" bars.
If the static pressure ports iced over while descending from altitude, the airspeed
indicator would read:
a)
b)
c)
High
Low
Correctly.
CPL INSTRUMENTS
CPL DOC 5
Revision 1/1/2001

Version 5
Page 138
13.
The rigidity of a spinning wheel is directly proportional to:

a)
b)
c)
14.
After 4 hours 15 minutes the easterly axis point of a horizontal axis gyro set with its
axis in an east/west direction at 45 N will have:
a)
b)
c)
15.
c)
b)
c)
A mercury switch at right angles to the pitch axis inducing torque about the roll
axis.
A mercury switch parallel to the pitch axis inducing torque about the pitch axis.
A mercury switch at right angles to the roll axis inducing torque about the pitch
axis.
Errors in both pitch and bank indication on an attitude indicator are usually at a
maximum as the aircraft rolls out of a:
a)
b)
c)
19.
Loss of gyro rigidity due to the reduction in rotor speed at high altitudes.
The movement of the pendulous vanes during aircraft accelerations and
manoeuvres.
The displacement of the pendulous gyro casing during acceleration or a turn.
In an electrically driven artificial horizon, the axis wander about the pitch axis is
controlled by:
a)
18.
pressure altimeter;
heading indicator (DGI);
vertical-speed indicator.
Erection errors in an air driven Gyro Horizon Indicator are due to:
a)
b)
17.
drifted anti-clockwise through 45 degrees above the horizon;

have risen to a point 60 degrees above the horizon;
drifted clockwise and have risen above the horizon.
If a vacuum gauge indicates the pressure to be lower than the minimum limit, the airoperated instruments that would be affected, are:
a)
b)
c)
16.
the speed of rotation and directly proportional to the mass of the rotor;
the moment of inertia and inversely proportional to the speed of rotation;
the speed of rotation and inversely proportional to the moment of inertia.
90 degree turn;
180 degree turn;
270 degree turn.
During a stabilised climbing turn at a constant rate, the instruments which indicate the
correct pitch and bank are the:
a)
b)
c)
vertical-speed indicator and turn-and-slip indicator;

altimeter and turn-and-slip indicator;
attitude indicator and turn-and-slip indicator.
CPL INSTRUMENTS
CPL DOC 5
Revision 1/1/2001

Version 5
Page 139
20.
The effect of decreasing rotor speed in the turn and slip indicator will cause:
a)
b)
c)
21.
In the operation of the turn indicator, a rate gyro is used:

a)
b)
c)
22.
b)
c)
High
Low
Correct
On a descend to Cape Town on an IFR flight plan the QNH of 1008.2 hPa could not
be set because the knob had fallen off For the purposes of the approach and landing
the indicated height of the altimeter must be corrected for by:
a)
b)
c)
25.
the force in the horizontal plane generated by secondary precession balancing

the tilt caused by primary precession;
the tension of the control spring opposing the angular tilt of the gyro;
primary precession which is generated by an aeroplanes rate of turn.
To complete a 360 turn using the Turn Co-ordinator, takes 131 seconds. The rotor
speed is:
a)
b)
c)
24.
having freedom of movement in only one plane and is constructed to indicate

the angle of bank during a turn, using the principle of precession;
having freedom of movement in only two planes at 90 degrees to each other
and is constructed to measure rate of turn in the third plane, at right angles to
the other two.
having complete freedom of movement in two planes using the principle of
topple in the vertical plane to measure angular velocities in the yawing plane.
a)
23.
the turn indicator to over-read and the slip indicator to under-read;

the turn indicator to under-indicate the angle of bank but will not effect the slip
indicator;
the turn indicator to under-read the rate of turn.
adding 200 ft
subtracting 150 ft
adding 150 ft
The function or purpose of an accelerometer is to:

a)
b)
c)
measure the force required to accelerate a mass overcoming its inertia;

determine the rate of change of motion of a given mass;
measure the velocity an displacement of a body along a straight line.
CPL INSTRUMENTS
CPL DOC 5
Revision 1/1/2001

Version 5
Page 140
26.
A RMI (Radio Magnetic Indicator) displays a warning flag which indicates a compass
failure. The radio bearing pointers:
a)
b)
c)
27.
are not to be used;

can be used to home to an NDB;
can be used to home to an NDB and a VOR station.
A Lewis Flush Bulb senses:

a)
b)
c)
SAT
RAT
TAT
CPL INSTRUMENTS
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Revision 1/1/2001

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Page 141
CPL INSTRUMENTS
CPL DOC 5
Revision 1/1/2001

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Page 142
ANNEX B
ANSWERS TO
QUESTIONS
CPL INSTRUMENTS
CPL DOC 5
Revision 1/1/2001

Version 5
Page 143
Chapter 1
Machmeter Questions
1.1
1.2
1.3
B
C
B
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
C
D
A
B
A
General Questions
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
B
A
B
C
A
C
C
B
A
C
C
B
B
B
A
C
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
C
B
C
A
C
B
A
B
C&A
A
B
A
B
A
B
B
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
CPL INSTRUMENTS
CPL DOC 5
Revision 1/1/2001
C
B
C
C
C
C
C
C
B
B
C
B
A
C
A
A
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
A
A
C
C
B
B
A

Version 5
Page 144
DETAILED ANSWERS
7.
Assume aircraft flying at a constant RAS and altitude, then by computer

10000 feet PA
Temp -20 C Cold Air
RAS 150
TAS 170
10000 feet PA
Temp +20 C Warm Air
RAS 150
TAS 182
Flying from Cold Air to Warm Air (constant RAS) TAS increases.
Flying from Warm Air to Cold Air (constant RAS) TAS decreases.
10000 feet PA
10000 feet QNH set
Temp - 20 C Cold Air
9 450 feet True Altitude
10000 feet PA
10000 feet QNH set
Temp -20 C Warm Air
10920 ft True Altitude
Flying from Warm Air to Cold Air - True Altitude increases.

Flying from Cold Air to Warm Air - True Altitude decreases.
8.
By computer:
10000 feet PA
10000 feet PA
Temp +20 C Warm Air

TAS 200
RAS 165
Temp -20 C Cold Air

TAS 200
RAS 177
Flying from Cold Air to Warm Air (constant TAS) RAS increases.
Flying from Warm Air to Cold Air (constant TAS) RAS decreases.
9.
Use pathfinder.
10.
Use Whiz wheel.
11.
Absolute Altitude is True Altitude above the ground.

By computer:
Pressure Altitude
8000 feet
Temperature + 30 C
QNH Altitude
7500 feet
True Altitude
8350 feet
Terrain Elevation
5700 feet
Absolute Altitude
CPL INSTRUMENTS
CPL DOC 5
Revision 1/1/2001
2650 feet

Version 5
Page 145
12.
Density Altitude is calculated from PRESSURE ALTITUDE.

So first: Convert airfield elevation to Pressure Altitude.
CPL INSTRUMENTS
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Revision 1/1/2001

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CPL INSTRUMENTS
CPL DOC 5
Revision 1/1/2001

Version 5
Page 147
CPL INSTRUMENTS
CPL DOC 5
Revision 1/1/2001

Version 5
Page 148
28.
Remember: RAS = TAS on a standard day.

So at sea level :
RAS = 350 KTS
at 10000'
Enter
TC
TAS
RAS
Use pathfinder (Req CAS)

= PA 10000'
=0
= 350 Kts
= 301 Kts
Also remember LSS always decreases with Altitude.

29.
MACH 0.82 Temp 0 C TAS 528

MACH 0.82 Temp - 30C TAS 498 decreases.
30.
Descending from FL410 to FL 200 there will be an increase in temp which will result
in an increased TAS.
31.
Sea level Temp + 15 Mach 0.7 TAS 463 = RAS 463

36 090 ft Temp - 56 Mach 0.7 TAS 402 = RAS 220
33.
TAS
34.
Use ARISTO :
=
=
=
M# x LSS
0.84 x 621.7 KTS
522 KTS
Set TAS 480 on outside scale.
M# 0.82 on inside scale.
Temp -48 C in Airspeed window.
The temp at the required FL is -48 C which is 63 C colder than sea level
(+ 15 C)
35.
Use ARISTO:
So (-63-1,98) = 31 818 feet

Set TAS 87 on outside scale.
M# 0.15 on inside scale.
Temp -52C in Airspeed window.
The temp at the required FL is-52C which is 67 C colder than sea level
(+ 15 C)
So (-67- 1,98) = 33 838 feet.
37.
Substitute the answers using Plan TAS on the pathfinder.
38.
Same as the ASI.
40.
If the glass is broken, the instrument case will contain current static pressure from the
cockpit instead of delayed static. The capsule will contain delayed static pressure
after passing through the choke.
41.
The VSI measures the pressure differential between current and delayed static
pressures. The pressure difference between two pressures with the same error is the
correct pressure differential or rate of climb/descent.
CPL INSTRUMENTS
CPL DOC 5
Revision 1/1/2001

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Page 149
47.
3476 570 = 2906

48.
2100ft
930hpa
300
1200FT
A 1000QNH
49.
B 990QNH
1500FT
(2261AMSL)
761
540FT QFE1008
18hpa
A
QNH1026
250NM
1000NM
1019.5 (PROPORTIONAL0
B
QNH1000
1019.5 1008 =11.5hpa X 30 = 345

2261 345 = 1916
CPL INSTRUMENTS
CPL DOC 5
Revision 1/1/2001

Version 5
Page 150
50.
960 QNE
1270
270 = 9hpa
1860
1000
Y QNH 1022
1022 9 = 1013
Chapter 2
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
A
B
C
A
B
B
C
C
A
C
C
B
A
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
B
A
B
B
A
A
B
B
C
B
A
C
B
Chapter 5
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
181,270
B
B
A
A
B
C
C
B
B
B
A
A
C
C
C
B
C
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
A
B
A
A
C
A
C
C
B
C
B
C
A
C
B
C
B
A
A
CPL INSTRUMENTS
CPL DOC 5
Revision 1/1/2001

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Page 151
1.
MAGNETIC HEADING
COMPAS HEADING
359
090
181
269
001
088
179
273
Co-eff C sign changed

Make Compass Read
Co-eff B sign changed
Make Compass Read
2.
DEVIATION
+2
181
-3
270
Co-eff B = E - W
2
+2 - (-4)
2
Co-eff C =
-2-(+2)
2
N-S
2
FOR MAGNETIC
045
090
-2
+2
+2
-4
=
=
+2 + 4
2
= +3
-2 -2
2
STEER COMPASS
038
092
-2
DEVIATION
+7
-2
For 45 deg Mag Hdg change, Dev change = 9 deg.

5 deg Mag Hdg change, Dev change = 1 deg.
045 (M) to 075 (M) = 30 deg Hdg change = 6 deg dev change decreasing from +7
to + 1
FOR
STEER
DEV
075 (M)
074 (C )
+1
3.
MAG HDG
COMP HDG
000
089
178
269
358
092
182
268
Co-eff B
=
4.
E - W
2
(-3)
-4
2
+2
-3
-4
+1
(+1)
- 2 Change sign + 2 Make compass read:
Dev on 135 (C)
DEVIATION
268 + 2 = 270
+B Sin Hdg + C Cos Hdg
+2
+4 Sin 135
+2
+2,83 +2,12
+6.95
CPL INSTRUMENTS
CPL DOC 5
Revision 1/1/2001
-3 Cos 135

Version 5
Page 152
5.
Dev on 230 (C )
-3
6.
= A
+B
Sin Hdg + C Cos Hdg
= +1 +3 Sin 230 + C Cos 230
= -3 -1 -3 Sin 230
Cos 230
= +2.65
Hdg 300 (C )
Co-eff A + 3
Hdg 303 (C ) - Compass turned 3 deg clockwise
7.
Track
Drift
Heading
Variation
Heading
022 (T)
7 Left
029 (T)
16 W
045 (M)
Deviation
A +B Sin Hdg+C Cos Hdg
=
=
-2
-2
-2.7
Heading 045 (M)
-4 sin 045 + 3 Cos 045

-2.8 + 2.1
Deviation - 2.7
Heading 047.7 (C )
8.
CPL INSTRUMENTS
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Revision 1/1/2001

Version 5
Page 153
9.
Co-eff C
=
=
DEV N
DEV E
COEFF
DEV S
10.
N-S
2
(0) - (- 4)
2
+2
=
=
=
=
0
+3
+2
-4
Heading (C )
Deviation
000
090
180
270
0
-5
-4
+1
N+S
0 4
0 -4 +5
+1
= E+W
= -5+W
=W
=W
-8
4
Co-eff A =
0 -5 -4 + 1 =
4
Co-eff B =
E-W
2
-5 - (+1)
2
-5 -1
2
= -3
Co-eff C =
N-S
2
0 - (-4)
2
+4
2
= +2
13
ONUS (Undershoot South)

Undershoot by 10 deg (210 deg)
14.
ONUS (Undershoot South)

Undershoot by 20 deg (190 deg)
CPL INSTRUMENTS
CPL DOC 5
Revision 1/1/2001
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PAPER 1
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
C
A
A
A
B
A
C
B
C
B
A
B
C
C
C
C
B
C
B
A
A
C
B
24
25
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36
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CPL INSTRUMENTS
CPL DOC 5
Revision 1/1/2001
B
B
A
A
B
B
A
B
A
B
C
A
A
B
B
B
A
A
A
A
C
A
B

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Paper 2
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
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20
21
22
23
B
B
B
C
C
B
A
A
C
C
B
C
B
C
B
A
B
A
B
A
C
B
A
24
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34
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36
37
38
39
40
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46
CPL INSTRUMENTS
CPL DOC 5
Revision 1/1/2001
C
B
A
C
C
C
B
C
B
A
C
C
B
A
C
C
C
B
B
C
A
C
C

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Paper 3
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2
3
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5
6
7
8
9
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13
14
15
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17
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21
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C
B
B
C
C
B
A
B
B
B
C
A
A
A
A
A
A
C
A
C
B
A
C
24
25
26
27
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30
CPL INSTRUMENTS
CPL DOC 5
Revision 1/1/2001
A
A
C
C
C
B
B

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CPL INSTRUMENTS
CPL DOC 5
Revision 1/1/2001
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Version 5
Page 158

CPL Instruments

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FLIGHT TRAINING COLLEGE

Annex A Sample Exams

2001, Flight Training College of Africa

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Pitot and Static Sources

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the static pressure, and

It is the dynamic pressure which is proportional to the aircrafts forward speed.

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THE AIRSPEED INDICATOR (ASI)

stall full flap to max flap speed

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Pressure / Position Error

PATHFINDER: use the ACTUAL TAS function.

RAS 183 KTS

TAS = 220ish KTS

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The temperature of compressed air is higher so a correction will have to be made.

RECTIFIED AIRSPEED (RAS) - COMPRESSIBILITY

EQUIVALENT AIRSPEED (EAS) + DENSITY

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A good way to put this to memory is to use the following diagram:

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As an aircraft approaches the speed of sound, it experiences severe adverse aerodynamic

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ASI UNDERREADS with altitude.

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Constant Mach Climb:

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0.73 (1100 60 60)

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TAS 500 Kts

What is the flight level under ISA conditions?

What is the TAS of A/c B?

Then: Sea level

38.945 x COAT +273

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The A/c RAS?

First use PLAN M# to get TAS 488 (because it is COAT).

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Pressure / Position Error

Time Lag Error

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DURING A RAPID CLIMB

THE ALTIMETER LAGS

DURING A RAPID DESCENT

THE ALTIMETER LAGS

ALTITUDE / PRESSURE RELATIONSHIP

TEMPERATURE / PRESSURE RELATIONSHIP

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ABSOLUTE ALTITUDE (OR HEIGHT)

ALTITUDE ALERTING SYSTEM

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THE SERVO ASSISTED ALTIMETER

Pressure sensing capsules are coupled mechanically to an electrical E and I pick-off

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Sub-scale setting moves worm - displaces E Bar.

Current at E Bar goes to Amp/motor - drives pointers.

Motor also drives cam - restores E Bar to null position.

Needle now indicates new height above sub-scale datum.

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