VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS STEADY STATE BEHAVIOUR

The voltage transformer (v.t.) is a device which will provide isolation from the high voltages on
the system and can transform (in the case of protection applications) reasonably accurately, the
h.v. system voltage to which it is connected, to a value which is more convenient to handle,
typically 110 / 63.5V.
The accuracy requirement for measuring v.t.s is, of course, far more demanding than that
necessary for protection v.t.s but this aspect is outside the scope of the lecture.
The diagram illustrates where, on the B H curve, the v.t. is situated. Because the v.t.s main
role is the representation of system voltage, and accuracy is relevant, it can be seen that the flux
density employed is somewhat lower than that used for c.t.s when at their maximum output.

Flux Density
B

Saturation
Cross C.T.s & Power Transformers

1.6

V.T.s

Tesla
1.0

Protection C.T. (at full load)

H
1000

2000

3000
Magnetising Force
AT/m

PROTECTION APPLICATIONS
Protection v.t.s are of two main types :- Electromagnetic and capacitor :Electromagnetic V.T.s
The equivalent circuit of this type of transformer is shown.
The secondary output voltage Vs is required to be an accurate replica of the input primary
voltage Vp in both magnitude and phase over a specified range of output. Winding impedances
are kept small and the magnetising current is kept low over the required range of operating
voltages and burdens, by ensuring that the normal operating flux density in the core is well below
the saturation level.

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NP / N S
= Kn

LP

RP

IS

IP
VP

LS

RS

LM
EP = ES IM

Re
IC

VS

ZB
(Burden)

Voltage Transformer Error Specification

Ratio (or voltage) error is defined as :-

(Kn . Vs - Vp)
x 100%
Vp

where Kn = nominal Vp / Vs ratio

The turns ratio will not necessarily be equal to Kn due to the use of compensating turns to
spread the errors over the range of burdens (i.e. ve errors at low burdens and +ve errors at high
burdens).
The phase error is the angle between the primary and secondary voltages. It is positive when
the secondary voltage leads the primary voltage.
For the operation of meters and instruments the accuracy of a v.t. is usually only important at or
about the normal system voltage, so that with a given burden the errors are practically constant.
For protection, however, whilst the accuracy requirements may not be very exacting, the errors
are required to be within certain limits over the wide range of voltage possible under system fault
conditions. This range may be from 5% to 150% or 190% of rated primary voltage for v.t.s
connected between line and earth. This requires a corresponding range of core flux density and
thus appreciable change in the value of the exciting impedance Ze. over this range. This results
in a change in the no-load errors which may increase considerably unless attention is given to
this problem at the design stage.
Protective v.t.s must meet the requirements of Table 7, BS 3941, detailed below :Accuracy Class
3P
6P

Percentage Voltage
(ratio) error
+ or 3.0
+ or 6.0

Phase Displacement
Minutes
Centiradians
+ or 120
+ or 3.5
+ or 240
+ or 7.0

Note - If the v.t. is also required for a measurement function it must, additionally, comply with
BS 3941 : 1975 Table 6 and conform to one of the accuracy classes in it.

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For protective v.t.s, the voltage error and phase displacement, at rated frequency, shall not
exceed the values given in Table 7 at 5% rated voltage, and at rated voltage multiplied by the
rated voltage factor (1.2, 1.5 or 1.9) with burdens of between 25% and 100% of rated burden at a
power factor of 0.8 lagging.
At 2% of rated voltage, the limits of error and phase displacement with burdens of between 25%
and 100% rated burden at a power factor of 0.8 lagging shall be twice as high as those given in
table 7.
Voltage factors. The voltage factor Vf is determined by the maximum operating voltage, which in
turn is dependent on the system and v.t. earthing conditions, together with the permissible
duration of the maximum operating voltage, as given in the table below :Voltage Factor Vf

1.1
1.5
1.9

Duration

Not limited
30 sec
30 sec or 8 hr

Earthing Conditions
v.t. Primary
System
Windings
Non-earthed
Eff or non-eff earthed
Earthed
Effectively earthed
Earthed
Non-eff earthed

Residual voltages. For applications such as directional earth-fault protection residual voltages
are required and are usually provided by windings connected in open delta.

da

dn

Under normal conditions, the three phase-to-earth voltages are of equal magnitude and 120
degrees apart and the residual voltage (of system frequency) is zero, but under earth-fault
conditions the voltage to earth of one phase collapses, either totally or partially depending on the
location of the fault, the voltage applied to the other two phase-to-earth windings is increased
and changed in phase, by amounts dependent on the method of earthing the system neutral, and
a residual voltage Vr appears.
Note that the third harmonic voltages add up in an open delta connected winding, and if present
in the applied voltages will appear at the terminals of that winding.
CAPACITOR V.T.s
At 132kV and high voltages, capacitor v.t.s may be more economic than electromagnetic types,
particularly when the h.v. capacitors can also be employed for carrier-current coupling. In fact,
the main difference between an E.M. and a CAP. V.T. is the addition of a capacitor divider to the
front end of an electromagnetic v.t., which virtually converts it into a capacitor v.t.This diagram
shows the basic circuit usually employed.

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C1
L
VP

T
C2

VC2

Vi

ZB
VS

The line to ground voltage Vp is applied across the capacitor voltage divider comprising C1 and
C2 and the intermediate voltage VC2 is fed to the primary winding of an electromagnetic
transformer T via a tuning inductance L which resonates approximately with C1 + C2 at the
system frequency. The transformer T steps down to the secondary voltage Vs.
There are numerous versions of this basic circuit. The inductance L may be a separate unit or it
may be incorporated in the form of leakage inductance in the transformer T. Because the
capacitors C1 and C2 cannot conveniently be made to close tolerances it is necessary to provide
adjustments of ratio by means of tappings either on the transformer T or on a separate autotransformer in the secondary circuit. Adjustments of the tuning inductance L is also necessary
and this may be effected variously by tappings, by a separate tapped inductor in the secondary
circuit, by adjustment of gaps in iron cores, or by shunting with a variable capacitor.
As for electromagnetic v.t.s, certain types of protection capacitor v.t.s must have magnitude and
phase errors within prescribed limits over a wide range of primary voltage such as from 5 to 150
or 190% of rated voltages. Because the core of the intermediate transformer is usually operated
at a low flux density at normal voltage, little difficulty is experienced in maintaining the required
accuracy at voltages above the nominal value. At very low system voltages, however, the core
flux density falls to a level at which the permeability of the core material is relatively low and thus
the exciting impedance Ze (Fig. 9) is reduced. Because the series reactance in the intermediate
voltage circuit, through which the exciting current Ie must flow, is usually capacitive (a part of the
inductance being in the transformer T and in the secondary circuit) and a positive phase error
(output voltage leading). These increases in errors at 5% of rated voltage may be as great as
+5% in amplitude and +5 degrees in phase in capacitor v.t.s of relatively poor basic accuracy,
but in the transformers now being supplied, which permit variation of the burden from 25% to the
rated value without adjustment (full range transformers), the increase in errors, due to the
smaller series reactance, may be no more than +1.5% and +60 minutes.

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