Lecture Notes (Sensor)

SIE1004
MEASUREMENT & SENSOR TECHNOLOGY
WEEK 2
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF
MEASUREMENT
8/9/2014
SIE1004 Measurement & Sensor

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LEARNING OUTCOMES
Characteristics of Measurement:
8/9/2014
Accuracy & Error;

Precision & Reproducibility;
Resolution;
Sensitivity;
Non-linearity;
type of measurement errors;
Statistics analysis.
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STATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF MEASUREMENT
Resolution, Precision, Accuracy and Errors;

Hysteresis
Sensitivity
Nonlinearity
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RESOLUTION, PRECISION & ACCURACY
Resolution: the smallest increment can be

discerned in a measurement.
Precision:
Repeatability: the variation for a set of
measurement in a short period;
Reproducibility: the variation for a set of
measurement in a long period.
Accuracy is the closeness of measurement to

the true value.
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STATISTIC ANALYSIS: AVERAGE
Average: Mean & Median values

x x xn
xmean 1 2 n
x
x
(in ascending order)
median (n 1) / 2
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STATISTIC ANALYSIS: SPREAD
Deviation: di xi xmean
Standard Derivation (s, ):
Population standard deviation:
Sample standard deviation: s
Variance (V)
(d
i 1
2
i
(d
i 1
2
i
n 1
Population variance: V 2
Sample variance: V s2
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STATISTICAL ANALYSIS: TEMPERATURE
60 TEMPERATURE READING [ref. 3]

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HISTOGRAM: TEMPERATURE DATA
60 TEMPERATURE READING [ref. 3]

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STATISTICAL ANALYSIS: TEMPERATURE
Mean: = 1103 ;
Median: = 1104 ;
Standard deviation: S=5.79
2
Variance: =33.49
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CONFIDENCE WITH NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
It is only possible to estimate, with some

confidence, the expected limits of errors.
The most common method is to use the normal
distribution.
=
1
2
1
2()2
2
The average 2 would be with 95%

confidence while 3 would be with 99.75%.
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CALCULATION BY SOFTWARE (MATLAB)
temperature=[1089,1092,1094*ones(1,2),109
5*ones(1,4),1098*ones(1,8),1100*ones(1,9),
1104*ones(1,12),1105*ones(1,4),1107*ones(
1,5),1108*ones(1,5),1110*ones(1,4),1112*on
es(1,3),1115*ones(1,2)]
mean(temperature);
(unbiased estimation for sample)
std(temperature); var(temperature);
std(temperature,1); var(temperature, 1)
(population calculation)
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CALCULATION BY SOFTWARE (EXCEL)
=AVERAGE( : );
=STDEV.P( : ) ; =VAR.P( : )
=STDEV.S( : ) ; =VAR.S( : )
(population calculation)
(unbiased estimation for sample)
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ERRORs
Error is defined as the difference between the

measured value and the true value of the
measurand: Error=(measured)-(true)
Type of errors:
Systematic (bias) errors
Random (noise) errors
Distinction between systematic and random errors [ref. 3]

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Target analogy of measurement accuracy (ref. 1)

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FACTORS OF SYSTEMSTIC ERRORs
Systematic error sources:

Miscalibration: change the input-output
response; aging, damage or abuse of the
sensors;
Invasiveness: measurement process change the
intended measurand;
Error introduced in the signal path (friction &
resistance in signal transmission);
Error introduced by human observers.
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FACTORS OF RANDOM ERRORs
Random error sources define the precision of

the measurement.
Repeatability of the measurand;
Noise introduced in the measurement process;
Noise introduced in the transmission.
Measurement model with noise sources (ref. 1)

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ATTENTION TO ACCURACY DESCRIPTION
Product A: measurement range 0-100 with

accuracy 0.5%;
Product B:
Which one is more accurate in measuring body

temperature?
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PRECISION
Precision characterizes the random error.
A highly precise measuring system gives good
repeatability but may not be accurate;
In general, the accuracy of a measurement
cannot be better than the precision;
Accuracy and precision are overall
characteristics describe the validity of
measurement.
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HYSTERESIS
Hysteresis: varying signal

direction of the
movement will have
different result.
Generalized graph of output/input relationship

where hysteresis is present [ref. 1].
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STATIC SENSITIVITY
Sensitivity is the ratio of the magnitude of

response (output signal) to the magnitude of
quantity measured (input signal)
Static sensitivity, K dqo qo
dqi
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qi

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NON-LINEARITY
For the input-output relationship, we prefer to

have linear relationship
However, practical units always have some
degree of nonconformity/nonlinearity.
Nonlinear amplification can give rise to unwanted output distortion [ref. 1]

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NON-LINEARITY
For ideal linear input-output relationship:
= +
Where =
is the slope and = -K is the intercept (bias)
Non-linearity function:
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= ( + )

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EXPRESSION OF ERROR OF NONLINEARITY
Error of nonlinearity can be expressed in four different ways: (a) best fit line (based on
selected method used to decide this); (b) best fit line through zero; (c) line joining 0% and
100% points; and (d) theoretical line. (ref [1])
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LEAST SQUARED LINEAR FIT

Linearized: = +
Non-linear error: =
Sum of squared errors:
=
Minimize:
=2
=2
2 =
( + )2
= 0;
+ = 0
http://mathworld.wolfram.com/LeastSquaresFitting.html
http://www.mathworks.com/help/curvefit/least-squares-fitting.html
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SOFTWARE FUNCTION
Excel:
Slope:
=INDEX(LINEST(known_y's,known_x's),1)
Y-intercept:
=INDEX(LINEST(known_y's,known_x's),2)
Matlab:
mdl = fitlm(X,y) returns a linear model of the
responses y, fit to the data matrix X.
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STATIC CALIBRATION
Calibration shall refer and follow the
standards.
Measurement are taken by cycles and usually
done from low end to top end and then
reduced to the low end of the range.
It effectively combines the errors due to
nonlinearity, hysteresis and non-repeatability.
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CALIBRATION of a WEIGHTING SCALE

A low cost, 0-5lb spring weighting scale
has been calibrated by placing accurate
weights on the platform.
Several cycles were completed before
data recording started.
Fit a straight line to the data and
determine the accuracy, hysteresis and
linearity errors. Estimate the maximum
systematic and random errors.
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SCALE CALIBRATION DATA [ref. 3]
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CALIBRATION CURVE [ref. 3]
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HYSTERESIS IN MEASUREMENT
Hysteresis
7
4
Cycle 3 Upwards
Cycle 3 Downwards
Cycle 4 Upwards
Cycle 4 Downwards
0
0
-1
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DEVIATION DATA [ref. 3]
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PLOT OF DEVIATION DATA [ref. 3]
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NON-LINEAR CASE STUDY

We measured a thermocouple junction
voltage as 645 at the steam point
(100 ), 3375 at the zinc point (420 )
and 11476 at the silver point (962 ).

Determine the sensitivity function if it is
assumed to be 3rd order polynomial: =
1 + 2 2 + 3 3 and study the nonlinearity.
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CASE DISCUSSION
Based on the 3 calibration points, we can
establish equations as:
645 =1001 + 1002 2 + 1003 3 ,
3375 =4201 + 4202 2 + 4203 3 ,
11476 =9621 + 9622 2 + 9623 3 ,
http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=645%3D100x%2B100^2y%2B100^3z%2C+3375+%3D420x%2B420^2+y%2B420^3z%2C+114
76+%3D962x%2B962^2+y%2B962^3z
Key in 645=100x+100^2y+100^3z, 3375 =420x+420^2 y+420^3z, 11476 =962x+962^2 y+962^3z at http://www.wolframalpha.com/
= 6.06 + 3.61 103 2 + 2.59 106 3

http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=plot+V%3D+6.06T%2B3.61%C3%9710^%28
Plot by MATLAB
-3%29+T^2%2B2.59%C3%9710^%28-6%29+T^3+
>> t=0:10:1000;
>> plot(t, 6.06*t+3.61*10^(-3)*t.^2+2.59*10^(-6)*t.^3)
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MATH TOOLS FROM WOLFRAM & MATLAB
14000
12000
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
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100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
34
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Characteristics of Measurement:
Resolution, Accuracy & Error (systematic &
random);
Precision & Reproducibility (statistical analysis);
Sensitivity (linear & non-linear);
Calibration of measuring system;
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REFERENCES
1. Measurement, Instrumentation and Sensors Handbook, Edited by John G.
Webster, CRC Press & IEEE Press, 1999
2. Principles of measurement systems, by John P. Bentley, Pearson Publication,
2005.
3. Introduction to Engineering Experimentation, by Anthony J. Wheeler & Ahmad R.
Ganji, Pearson, 2010.
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SIE1004

MEASUREMENT & SENSOR TECHNOLOGY

SIE1004 Measurement & Sensor

Accuracy & Error;

STATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF MEASUREMENT

Resolution, Precision, Accuracy and Errors;

SIE1004 Measurement & Sensor

RESOLUTION, PRECISION & ACCURACY

Resolution: the smallest increment can be

Accuracy is the closeness of measurement to

SIE1004 Measurement & Sensor

STATISTIC ANALYSIS: AVERAGE

Average: Mean & Median values

SIE1004 Measurement & Sensor

STATISTIC ANALYSIS: SPREAD

SIE1004 Measurement & Sensor

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS: TEMPERATURE

60 TEMPERATURE READING [ref. 3]

SIE1004 Measurement & Sensor

HISTOGRAM: TEMPERATURE DATA

60 TEMPERATURE READING [ref. 3]

SIE1004 Measurement & Sensor

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS: TEMPERATURE

SIE1004 Measurement & Sensor

CONFIDENCE WITH NORMAL DISTRIBUTION

It is only possible to estimate, with some

The average 2 would be with 95%

SIE1004 Measurement & Sensor

CALCULATION BY SOFTWARE (MATLAB)

SIE1004 Measurement & Sensor

CALCULATION BY SOFTWARE (EXCEL)

(unbiased estimation for sample)

SIE1004 Measurement & Sensor

Error is defined as the difference between the

Distinction between systematic and random errors [ref. 3]

Target analogy of measurement accuracy (ref. 1)

SIE1004 Measurement & Sensor

FACTORS OF SYSTEMSTIC ERRORs

Systematic error sources:

SIE1004 Measurement & Sensor

FACTORS OF RANDOM ERRORs

Random error sources define the precision of

Measurement model with noise sources (ref. 1)

SIE1004 Measurement & Sensor

ATTENTION TO ACCURACY DESCRIPTION

Product A: measurement range 0-100 with

Which one is more accurate in measuring body

SIE1004 Measurement & Sensor

SIE1004 Measurement & Sensor

Hysteresis: varying signal

Generalized graph of output/input relationship

SIE1004 Measurement & Sensor

Sensitivity is the ratio of the magnitude of

SIE1004 Measurement & Sensor

For the input-output relationship, we prefer to

Nonlinear amplification can give rise to unwanted output distortion [ref. 1]

SIE1004 Measurement & Sensor

is the slope and = -K is the intercept (bias)

SIE1004 Measurement & Sensor

EXPRESSION OF ERROR OF NONLINEARITY

SIE1004 Measurement & Sensor

LEAST SQUARED LINEAR FIT

SIE1004 Measurement & Sensor