Generator Basics

Henkel
Your partner worldwide

Henkel Corporation
Engineering Adhesives
One Henkel Way
Rocky Hill, Connecticut 06067
Tel: 1.800.LOCTITE (562.8483)
Tel: 860.571.5100
Fax: 1.860.571.5465
Henkel Corporation
Engineering Adhesives
One Henkel Way
Rocky Hill, Connecticut 06067
U.S.A.
www.henkelna.com/electricmotors
www.loctite.com
Design Guide for
Electric Motors
and Generators
Henkel Canada Corporation
Henkel Capital, S.A. de C.V.
2225 Meadowpine Blvd.

Mississauga, Ontario L5N 7P2
Tel: 1.800.263.5043 (within Canada)
Tel: 905.814.6511
Fax: 905.814.6522
Blvd. Magnocentro No. 8 Piso 2

Centro Urbano Interlomas
52760 Huixquilucan,
Edo. de Mxico
Tel: 01.800.90.181.00 (within Mexico)
Tel: +52.55.3300.3644
Fax: +52.55.5787.9404
Except as otherwise noted, all marks used are trademarks and/or registered trademarks of Henkel and/
or its affiliates in the U.S. and elsewhere. = registered in the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. Fischbach
is a registered trademark of Fischbach KG Kunstoff-Technik. UL is a registered trademark of Underwriters
Laboratories. Henkel Corporation, 2010. All rights reserved. 6664/LT-4320 (7/10)
INTRODUCTION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
MOTOR CUTAWAYS
DC Motor
AC Motor
APPLICATIONS
General Bonding
Magnet Bonding
Gasketing
10
Potting
12
Retaining
14
Tacking
16
Threadlocking
18
Thread Sealing
20
Wire Reinforcement
22
Surface Treatment
24
PRODUCT SELECTOR
26
Electric motor and generator manufacturers

have used Loctite brand products to improve
performance, to facilitate manufacturing processes,
and to reduce costs for more than 40 years.
While almost all manufacturers use adhesives and
sealants in some assembly operations, very few
manufacturers have developed the experience to
take full advantage of the benefits that adhesives
and sealants can offer. The objective of this design
guide is to educate design, manufacturing, and
quality engineers on where and why adhesives
and sealants are commonly used on motors and
generators to help them recognize the full potential
of these products.
To accomplish this, the following key areas are
reviewed in this design guide:
Typical Applications A detailed review of the
common applications of adhesives and sealants on
motors and generators. This includes illustrations,
an overview, a comparison of the adhesive
technologies suitable for that application, and a
product selector guide.
Product Selector One table that summarizes all
the adhesives and sealants that are most commonly
used on electric motors.
DC MOTOR CUTAWAY
HOUSING
OR CAN
CONDUIT OR
JUNCTION BOX
END PLATE
WIRE
CONNECTOR
KEY
SHAFT
END PLATE
BEARING
COMMUTATOR
BEARING
ROTOR
INSULATION
BRUSH
MAGNET
BRUSH HOLDER
ROTOR WIRES
THROUGH BOLT
AC MOTOR CUTAWAY
STATOR
WINDING
END PLATE
STATOR WIRE
INSULATION
FAN
THROUGH BOLT
BEARING
ROTOR
END PLATE
KEY
STATOR SLOT
INSULATION
SHAFT
STATOR
BEARING
HOUSING
GENERAL BONDING
TYPICAL APPLICATIONS
TABLE 1. COMPARISON OF ADHESIVE TYPES FOR GENERAL BONDING

Attribute
STATOR
TO HOUSING
Acrylic,
Two-Step
Acrylic,
Two-Part
Cyanoacrylate
Epoxy /
Polyurethane,
two-part
hot melt
epoxy,
Heat cure,
one-part
Elastomeric
bonding
Overview
BRACKET
TO HOUSING
BOND
SUPPORT
FRAME
Key Benefits
Key Considerations
Fast fixture speed

No mixing
Long open time
High impact
strength
Acid-free
Excellent
temperature
resistance
Separate
dispensing
of activator
Some activators
contain solvents
F ully cured in 24
hours
Excellent strength
on metals
High toughness
High temperature
High chemical
resistance
One-part
High gap filling

Improved strength
over silicones
No primer needed
Isocyanate-free
Solvent-free
Paintable
High gap fill

Fast fixture speed
Structural strengths H
igh adhesion to
most materials
High impact strength
Light cure available
Able to cut
through surface
contaminants
R
oom temperature
Fast fixture speed
cure
L ow volumetric
cost
High gap fill
Excellent temperature Many types of
hot melts offer
resistance
a wide range of
Wide variety of
performance
formulations
Limited gap fill

Long cure time
L ow temperature
Will cure in mix tip
resistance
during idle times
Durability may
May have strong
be affected by
odor
substrate corrosion
May have flammable
vapors
Limited
Requires heat
Long cure times
May have poor
temperature
to cure
adhesion to
Adhesive cures
metals
Requires ovens or Performance
in mix tip
induction curing
Dispensing
Moderate cohesive
Limited adhesion
equipment
equipment
strength
to plastics and
required
elastomers
Equipment needed for Hot dispense point
can be a safety
bulk dispensing
concern
PERFORMANCE
Adhesive
to
Substrates
OVERVIEW
General bonding applications are usually characterized
by the use of an adhesive as the sole means of
structurally joining two parts that have a relatively
small gap between them, typically 0.002" to 0.10".
Adhesives are widely used for bonding applications
instead of welding, soldering, ultrasonic welding,
riveting, mechanical fasteners, or tapes.
The key benefits of adhesives over
these alternative methods are:
Lower cost
Easily automated
Stresses evenly distributed
Better cosmetic appearance
ADHESIVE TYPE
COMPARISON
There is a wide variety of adhesives that can
be used for general bonding applications. The key
selection criteria involves, but is not limited to, the
following adhesive properties:
Gap Fill
Temperature
Resistance
Fixture
Time
Temperature/environmental resistance
Full Cure
Adhesion to substrates
Processing requirements (dispensing and curing)
Table 1 compares and contrasts the most commonly
used types of adhesives for bonding.
Excellent
Excellent
Very Good
Excellent
Good
Excellent
Good
Fair
Very Good
Excellent
Fair
Very Good
Good
Fair
Paper
Excellent
Excellent
Excellent
Excellent
Excellent
Excellent
Good
Ideal
0.002" to 0.004"
0.004" to 0.006"
0.001" to 0.003"
0.004" to 0.006"
0.002" to 0.005"
0.002" to 0.004"
0.001" to 0.125"
Max.
0.040"
>0.50"
0.010"
>0.50"
0.25"
0.49"
0.24"
Typical
Range
-65F to 300F
(-54C to 149C)
-65F to 300F
(-54C to 149C)
-65F to 180F
(-54C to 82C)
-65F to 300F
(-54C to 149C)
-65F to 250F
(-54C to 121C)
-65F to 302F
(-54C to 150C)
-40F to 199F
(-40C to 93C)
Max.
400F (204C)
400F (204C)
250F (121C)
400F (204C)
330F (165C)
302F (150C)
199F (93C)
Average 30 to 60 seconds
15 to 30 minutes
20 to 30 seconds
20 to 30 minutes
30 seconds
15 to 30 minutes
Fastest
15 to 30 seconds
3 to 5 minutes
5 to 10 seconds
3 to 5 minutes
5 to 10 seconds
24 hours
24 hours
24 hours
24 hours
24 hours
Hot melt
dispenser
1 to 2 hours
@ 120C
60 seconds
(induction)
1 to 2 hours
@ 120C
Oven or induction
curing
PROCESSING
Cure speed
Cost
Metals
Plastics
Equipment Required
No
Two-part dispensing
No
Two-part dispensing
LOCTITE
BRAND
PRODUCTS
331 Acid-Free
H4500 Metal
Bonding
H8000 High Impact
H8600 Severe
Environment
4311 Toughened,
UV Cure
4203 Low
Viscosity, Toughened,
High Temperature
4204 MidViscosity, Toughened,
High Temperature
4205 Gel,
Toughened, High
Temperature
E-20HP High Impact

E-05MR Fast,
Moisture Resistant
E-40HT High
Temperature
E-30UT Ultra Tough
U-05FL Fast, High
Strength
Dissimilar substrates bonded
7804FRM-HV
Flame Retardant
3631 High
Strength PUR
0450 Extended
Open Time
7901 Potting
For additional information on the Loctite products listed, please refer to the
product selector in the back of this guide or visit www.loctite.com/datasheets.
E-214HP
Toughened, High
Adhesion
E-220IC
Induction Cure for
Fast Throughput
5 minutes
1 to 7 days
One-part cartridge
dispense gun
Terostat MS 939
High Elongation and
Strength
5512 High
Elongation and
Strength
MAGNET BONDING
TABLE 2. COMPARISON OF ADHESIVE TYPES FOR BONDING MAGNETS

Attribute
Acrylic,
Two-Step
Acrylic,
external mix
Epoxy, one-part
heat cure
Epoxy, one-part
induction cure
Fast fixture speed

Long open time
No mixing
High impact strength
Excellent temperature
resistance
Acid-free
Fast fixture speed

No liquid activator
No static mix tips
Single step
Good gap fill
Acid-free
Robust mix ration
Single component
High gap fill
resistance
Fully cured in one hour
Acid-free
Single component
High gap fill
resistance
Fully cured in one minute
Acid-free
Some activators
contain solvents
Fully cured in 24 hours
Separate dispensing of
activator
60- to 90-second open time

Dispense location difficult to
control on small magnets
Fully cured in 24 hours
External mix valve equipment
required
Must allow parts to cool

Curing equipment required
Must allow parts to cool

Curing equipment with partspecific coils required
Overview
Key Benefits
Key Considerations
MAGNET SEGMENTS
TO HOUSING
RING MAGNETS
TO ROTOR
OVERVIEW
Magnets in electric motors are almost exclusively
assembled today using adhesives. While a handful
of different adhesive technologies are employed to
meet the unique challenges of each specific motors
performance and processing requirements, it is widely
accepted that adhesives create a higher quality joint
at a lower cost than mechanical fasteners such as
clips and bolts.
The key benefits of adhesives
over clips and bolts are:
Lower cost components
Decreased inventory cost
Easier to automate
MAGNET
SEGMENTS
TO ROTOR
ADHESIVE TYPE
COMPARISON
In general, any of these adhesives can achieve bond
strengths that exceed the tensile or compressive
strength of the magnet. As a result, the key
performance attributes that typically differentiate
these adhesive types are:
Cure speed
Gap fill
Temperature resistance
PERFORMANCE
Gap Fill
Temperature
Resistance
Ideal
0.002" to 0.004"
0.002" to 0.006"
0.004" to 0.006"
0.004" to 0.006"
Maximum
0.040"
0.200"
>0.50"
>0.50"
Typical
Range
-65F to 300F
(-54C to 149C)
-65F to 310F
(-54C to 155C)
-65F to 350F
(-54C to 176C)
-65F to 350F
(-54C to 176C)
Maximum
400F (204C)
310F (155C)
400F (204C)
400F (204C)
Excellent
Excellent
Good
Good
Average
30 to 60 seconds
1 to 10 minutes
30 to 45 minutes
30 to 60 seconds
Fastest
Impact Strength (Steel)

PROCESSING
Fixture Time
15 to 30 seconds
30 to 60 seconds
15 to 30 minutes
30 seconds
Full Cure
24 hours
24 hours
1 hour
Permanent upon cooling
LOCTITE BRAND
PRODUCTS
331 Acid-Free
392 High Impact
334 High Moisture Resistance
3060 General-Purpose
A-671 Humidity Resistance
A-6750 Large Gap Fill
E-214HP High Strength
E-220IC General-Purpose*
Impact strength
used types of adhesives for magnet bonding.
Will not chip magnets

Prevent vibrational noise
Prevent corrosion
* Can be used with stainless steel

and aluminum but will require
additional induction time to achieve
the required temperature profile.
GASKETING
COVER TO
JUNCTION BOX
HOUSING TO
JUNCTION BOX
TABLE 3. COMPARISON OF ADHESIVE TYPES FOR GASKETING

Formed-in-place
Attribute
END PLATE
TO HOUSING
cured-in-place
anaErobic
silicone, rtv
silicone,
light cure
silicone,
heat cure
silicone,
two-part
No compression set
Adds structural
strength
High pressure seal
No compression set
High joint movement
High gap fill
High temperature
resistance
Serviceable
Fastest cure time
Immediate properties
High gap fill
Serviceable
resistance
Excellent adhesion
High gap fill
Fast room temperature

cure
Oil resistant
High adhesion
Noncorrosive
Metal flanges only

Rigid flanges only
Limited open time

Not for high
pressure
applications
Must have dispensing

and curing equipment
Not for high pressure
applications
Must have dispensing

and curing equipment
Not for high pressure
applications
Two-component
Short static mix nozzle
life
Requires two-part
dispense equipment
Rigid
Rigid or Flexible
Rigid or Flexible
Rigid or Flexible
Rigid or Flexible
Metals
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Plastics
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Ideal
0.001" to 0.005"
0.004" to 0.006"
0.020" to 0.060"
0.020" to 0.060"
0.002" to 0.006"
Maximum
0.020"
0.25"
0.125"
0.125"
0.24"
Typical
Range
-65F to 300F
(-54C to 149C)
-65F to 400F
(-54C to 204C)
-65F to 350F
(-54C to 176C)
-65F to 400F
(-54C to 204C)
-40F to 450F
(-40C to 232C)
Maximum
400F (204C)
600F (315C)
400F (204C)
600F (315C)
450F (232C)
Overview
OVERVIEW
Key Benefits
Henkel has been replacing or augmenting

cut gaskets for decades. Formed-in-place
gaskets are the most commonly used liquid
gaskets. They are dispensed on a flange as
liquid. When the flange is mated to the second
flange, the liquid hardens and bonds to both flanges
forming a seal.
Key Considerations
PERFORMANCE
They offer the following benefits over

cut gaskets, molded gaskets, and o-rings:
Easy to automate
No misaligned gaskets
One adhesive can seal
many different flange configurations
Lower inventory costs
Lower labor costs
Lower machining costs
No gasket creep
No gasket compression set
When it is necessary to service the gasketed
assembly, cured-in-place gaskets can be used. They
are robotically dispensed on a flange as a liquid and
cured with light or heat. The cured gasket forms a
compression gasket that is bonded to one flange.
Cured-in-place gaskets share all the same benefits
as formed-in-place gaskets, with the exception
that cured-in-place gaskets are susceptible to
compression set.
10
Flange Type
ADHESIVE TYPE
COMPARISON
Formed-in-place gaskets can be created with
anaerobic or silicone adhesives and are well-suited
for manual, semi-automated, and fully automated
processes. Anaerobic gaskets are generally used
on rigid metal flanges. Silicones are better suited for
flexible joints with higher gaps.
When
comparing the light cure and heat cure
silicones for cured-in-place gaskets, the light cure
silicones have the shortest cure time and the least
work-in-process, while the heat cure silicones
offer higher adhesion, better thermal and chemical
resistance, and lower volumetric cost.
Suitable for
Use With
Gap Fill
Temperature
Resistance
PROCESSING
Initial Cure
15 to 30 minutes
15 to 30 minutes
15 to 30 seconds
15 to 30 minutes
<10 minutes
Full Cure
24 hours
24 hours to 7 days
24 hours to 7 days
15 to 30 minutes
24 hours
Manual Dispensing
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
LOCTITE BRAND
PRODUCTS
518 General-Purpose
510 High Temperature
509 Flexible
574 High Gap
573 Extended Open
Time
5900 Instant Seal
5699 High Durometer
5039 Dual Cure
5950 Fast Cure / Black
5951 Fast Cure / Clear
5963 High Durometer
5613 Oil-Resistant
Cure Speed

used types of adhesives for gasketing.
11
POTTING
PROTECT
CONTROLLER
BOARDS
TABLE 4. COMPARISON OF ADHESIVE TYPES FOR POTTING

Attribute
Acrylic,
Light cure
Epoxy, OnePart Heat Cure
Epoxy,
two-part
siliconE,
light cure
silicone,
two-part
Urethane,
two-part
Fast fixture
Fast full cure
Good adhesion
High gap fill

resistance
Fully cured in
one hour
High thermal
resistance
High chemical
resistance
Excellent adhesion
UL 1446
recognized
Fast fixture speed

Flexible
Excellent chemical
resistance to polar
solvents
Good temperature
resistance
Ultra clear
Moderate to
re-enterable
gels available
Room
temperature
cure
Low cost
Flexible
Excellent UV
resistance
Light source
required
Shadowed areas
may not cure
Low gap fill
Curing equipment
required
Long cure times
Must allow
parts to cool
Must be mixed
Long cure time
Light source
required
Limited adhesion
May contaminate
painting processes
Some formulations
may cause corrosion
Two-part
requires mixing
Catalyst is
sensitive to
metals
Slow gel time
Must be mixed
Long cure time
Moisture
contamination
during processing
Must handle
isocyanates
Good
Overview
SEAL WIRE
CONNECTORS
Key Benefits
ENCAPSULATE
STATORS
Key Considerations
PERFORMANCE
ADHESIVE TYPE
COMPARISON
OVERVIEW
Potting is used to seal motors from solvent and
moisture ingress and to protect critical components,
such as controller boards, from mechanical
damage and degradation caused by thermal
cycling, vibration, and impact. To accomplish
this, an enclosure is normally filled with adhesive,
completely encapsulating critical components
and sealing the aperture. Potting is essential in
explosion-proof motors and wash-down motors.
Two-part polyurethanes and epoxies are economical

solutions that offer room temperature curing with
unlimited cure-through depths. As a result, they are
often used when potting large volumes. Epoxies
generally offer better thermal and solvent resistance
than urethanes, while urethanes are lower in cost and
have higher flexibility. One-part heat-cure epoxies
perform similarly to two-part epoxies but typically
have better adhesion to plastics and are fully
cured in an hour.
Light curing acrylics and light curing silicones are
normally used for shallow potting applications.
These chemistries offer much faster processing
speeds, but at a higher volumetric cost.
used types of adhesives for potting applications.
Metals
Good
Excellent
Excellent
Good
Good
Plastics
Excellent
Good
Good
Fair
Very Good
Very Good
Excellent
0.020" to 0.125"
0.250"
86F to 176F
(30C to 80C)
-65F to 300F
(-54C to 149C)
Excellent
0.050" to 0.25"
>0.50"
122F to 194F
(50C to 90C)
-65F to 300F
(-54C to 149C)
Excellent
0.050" to 0.25"
>0.50"
122F to 194F
(50C to 90C)
-65F to 300F
(-54C to 149C)
Good
0.020" to 0.125"
0.250"
Good
0.050" to 0.125"
0.49"
<-40F (<-40C)
<-40F (<-40C)
-65F to 350F
(-54C to 176C)
-67F to 302F
(-55C to 150C)
Good
0.050" to 0.25"
>0.50"
14F to 122F
(-10C to 50C)
-65F to 250F
(-54C to 121C)
350F (176C)
400F (204C)
400F (204C)
400F (204C)
392F (200C)
300F (149C)
Full Cure
30 seconds
5 to 10 seconds
30 seconds
30 to 45 minutes
15 to 30 minutes
1 hour
30 minutes
5 to 10 minutes
24 hours
45 seconds
30 seconds
24 to 72 hours
20 to 120 minutes
20 minutes
24 hours
30 minutes
5 to 10 minutes
24 hours
Equipment Required
Light source
Cure oven
Two-part dispense
equipment
Light source
Two-part
dispensing, oven
Two-part dispense
equipment
LOCTITE
BRAND
PRODUCTS
3101 Multi-Cure
366 UV + Activator
3335 UV Initiation
3982 Medium Viscosity
3985 High Viscosity
5620 Fast Cure

5623 Tack-Free
Gel
5625 Soft Gel
5611 F Fast, UL
94 V-0
5611 S Slow, UL
94 V-0
3364 Very Fast, UL 94

V-0
3173 / 3182 Fast
Cure
3173 / 3183
General-Purpose
3173 / 3184 UL 94
V-0
Adhesive to
Substrates
Paper
Ideal
Gap Fill
Maximum
Glass Transition
Temperature (Tg)
Typical
Temperature Range
Resistance
Maximum
PROCESSING
Fixture
Time
Average
Fastest
193124 / 193125 UV
Dual Cure
E-60NC GeneralPurpose
3140 / 3164 UL
1446 & UL 94 HB
3145/3162 UL 94 V-0
E-40EXP UL 1203
5240 Dual Cure

5055 Flowable
5056 High Adhesion
12
13
retaining
TABLE 5. COMPARISON OF ADHESIVE TYPES FOR RETAINING
LAMINATION
STACK TO SHAFT
ANAEROBIC
Attribute
LIQUID
SEMISOLID STICK
High strength
Excellent chemical resistance
High temperature resistance
Semisolid form
Will not drip or migrate
High strength
High thermal and chemical resistance
Cannot be used with plastics

Cure speed highly dependent
upon substrate
May require use of activator
Cannot be used with plastics

Cure speed highly dependent
upon substrate
May require use of activator
3,000 to 4,000 psi
3,000 to 4,000 psi
Yes
Yes
Overview
COMMUTATOR
TO SHAFT
Key Benefits
BEARING TO SHAFT
OR HOUSING
Key Considerations
SPEED
CONTROL
TO SHAFT
OVERVIEW
Retaining is the structural joining of
close-fitting cylindrical parts. Thus, it should be no
surprise that most of the retaining applications in
electric motors involve bonding rotor components
onto the motor shaft. Adhesives have been used in
electric motors for decades to augment or replace
frictional methods, such as press and shrink fits,
and mechanical methods, such as splines, keys, and
locking pins.
The key benefits of adhesives
over alternative methods are:
Lower cost components
Lower energy costs
Easier to automate
E
liminate wallowing and backlash
of mechanical fits
Eliminate run-out and warping of shaft
Prevent fretting corrosion
Prevent galvanic corrosion
14
PERFORMANCE
Shear Strength (Steel)

Suitable for
Use With
Metals
Plastics
No
No
Ideal
0.001" to 0.003"
0.001" to 0.003"
Maximum
0.010"
0.005"
Typical Range
-65F to 300F (-54C to 149C)
-65F to 300F (-54C to 149C)
Maximum
400F (204C)
400F (204C)
Average
5 to 10 minutes
30 minutes
Fastest
5 minutes unprimed
<10 seconds primed
30 minutes unprimed
<1 minute primed
Full Cure
24 hours
24 hours
LOCTITE BRAND
PRODUCTS
603 General-Purpose
648 Fast Cure
638 High Strength
290 Wicking Grade
661 Light Cure
668 General-Purpose
Gap Fill
Temperature
Resistance
PROCESSING
ADHESIVE TYPE
COMPARISON
Anaerobic adhesives are the dominant adhesive
chemistry for metal-to-metal retaining applications.
Anaerobics are single component and high strength,
with a rapid cure at room temperature. When used
with primers, they can achieve fixture times of less
than 10 seconds.
Fixture Time
When plastic components require retaining,

cyanoacrylate adhesives are often used.
Table 5 compares and contrasts anaerobics
for retaining.
15
tacking
TABLE 6. COMPARISON OF ADHESIVE TYPES FOR TACKING

Attribute
INSULATION TO
STATOR WIRES
INSULATION
TO ROTOR
acyrlic, light cure
cyanoacrylate
hot melt
Fast fixture
Fast full cure
Good adhesion to metals,
plastics, and paper
Fast fixture
High adhesion to most substrates
No equipment required
Fast fixture
Low volumetric cost
Many types offer wide
range of performance
Light source required
Low gap fill

Low temperature resistance
Durability may be affected by
substrate corrosion
May have poor adhesion to metals

Dispensing equipment required
Hot dispense point can be
a safety concern
Metals
Good
Very Good
Good
Plastics
Excellent
Excellent
Very Good
Paper
Excellent
Excellent
Excellent
Ideal
0.002" to 0.010"
0.001" to 0.003"
0.002" to 0.005"
Maximum
0.25"
0.010"
0.25"
Typical Range
-65F to 300F (-54C to 149C)
-65F to 180F (-54C to 82C)
-65F to 250F (-54C to 121C)
Maximum
350F (176C)
250F (121C)
330F (165C)
Average
30 seconds
20 seconds
30 seconds
Fastest
5 to 10 seconds
5 to 10 seconds
5 to 10 seconds
Full Cure
30 seconds
24 hours
<4 hours
Equipment Required
Light source
No
Hot melt dispenser
LOCTITE BRAND
PRODUCTS
3972 General-Purpose, Low cPs

3971 General-Purpose, Medium cPs
3944 High Adhesion to Metals
3926 High Adhesion to Plastics
3526 Activator Cure
4203 Low cPs - Thermally Resistant

4204 Medium cPs - Thermally Resistant
4205 Gel - Thermally Resistant
4311 Medium cPs - UV Cure
712 Accelerator - Isopropanol
7452 Accelerator - Acetone
Overview
Key Benefits
Key Considerations
PERFORMANCE
LEAD WIRE
TACKING ON
STATORS
OVERVIEW
Tacking applications are bonding applications where
the adhesive is used to fixture the assembly very
quickly. Adhesives are commonly used to tack lead
wires, individual wires, and insulation in electric
motors. It is very common to tack lead wires and
individual wires into position to reinforce them.
Tacking is also used as a processing aid to ensure
that the insulation on a motor or generator remains
in the correct position until the entire assembly is
unitized with varnish. This prevents electrical shorts
caused by the insulation moving during subsequent
operations, such as mechanical shaping of the stator
wires in large motors and generators.
16
Adhesive to
Substrates
ADHESIVE TYPE
COMPARISON
Cyanoacrylates are most commonly used to tack
small parts. They require no equipment, cure rapidly
at room temperature, achieve very high strengths to
most substrates, and any excess can be quickly cured
with accelerator or light.
Hot melt adhesives are normally used on larger parts
due to their low volumetric cost. They have fast cure
speed and good adhesion to most substrates, and
can be sprayed from handheld applicators.
Light cure acrylic adhesives offer virtually unlimited
positioning time with cure-on-command capability. If
light can reach the joint, such as when wire tacking or
through insulation paper, light cure is often the most
user-friendly process.
used types of adhesives for tacking applications.
Gap Fill
Temperature
Resistance
PROCESSING
Fixture Time
7804FRM-HV General-Purpose
3631 High Adhesion to Metals
0450 Long Open Time
17
Threadlocking
TABLE 7. COMPARISON OF ADHESIVE TYPES FOR THREADLOCKING
ASSEMBLY
SCREWS
anaerobic
Attribute
COVER SCREWS
Threadlockers prevent the loosening of threaded

fasteners by completely filling the space between the
threads, hardening to a strong polymer and bonding
to both sides. Various viscosities and strengths
are available to accommodate all fastener sizes.
Threadlockers have a long history of improving the
performance and reliability of threaded assemblies
versus other frictional methods such as lock washers
or stop nuts.
The key benefits threadlockers offer are:
Lower cost
More effective at preventing loosening
Simple processing
Controlled strengths
Prevent corrosion
semisolid stick
Semisolid form will not drip

or migrate
Color-coded by strength
High thermal and
chemical resistance
Compatible with plastics

Fast cure
Key Benefits
Variety of viscosities
Color-coded by strength
Can post-apply wicking grade products
Wide variety of products available
Key Considerations
Not for use on plastics
Low thermal and chemical resistance
Overview
THROUGH
BOLTS
OVERVIEW
cyanoacrylate
liquid
ADHESIVE TYPE
COMPARISON
Liquid anaerobic threadlockers are the most widely
used method to prevent vibrational loosening of
metal fasteners. The large line of Loctite brand
threadlockers offers a variety of viscosities, colors,
strengths, and cure speeds.
Loctite QuickStix are the most recent Henkel
innovation. They offer the same performance as a
liquid anaerobic threadlocker but in a semisolid stick.
The stick form allows the threadlocker to be applied
to a nut or screw in any orientation without drips, and
ensures that excess adhesive will not migrate into the
motor bearings or moving parts, which could cause
reliability issues.
When threadlocking plastic fasteners or tamperproofing the heads of screws, cyanoacrylate liquids
are normally used. They rapidly cure in plastic joints
and will not stress-crack most plastics.
PERFORMANCE
Suitable for
Use With
Metals
Yes
Yes
Yes
Plastics
No
No
Yes
Temperature
Resistance
Typical Range
-65F to 300F (-54C to 149C)
-65F to 300F (-54C to 149C)
-65F to 180F (-54C to 82C)
Maximum
450F (232C)
300F (149C)
180F (82C)
Fixture
5 to 10 minutes
10 to 20 minutes
1 to 2 minutes
Full Cure
24 hours
24 hours
24 hours
243 General-Purpose
222 Low Strength
263 High Strength, Fast Set
290 Wicking Grade
248 General-Purpose
268 High Strength
425 Plastic Parts, Tamper-Proofing
PROCESSING
Cure Speed
LOCTITE BRAND
PRODUCTS

used types of threadlocking adhesives.
18
19
Thread sealing
THREADED
FITTINGS
TABLE 8. COMPARISON OF ADHESIVE TYPES FOR THREAD SEALING

anaerobic
Attribute
nonreactive
liquid
semisolid stick
Variety of viscosities
Wide variety of products available
Semisolid form will not

drip or migrate
High thermal and
chemical resistance
Compatible with plastics
May contain solvents
Metals
Yes
Yes
Yes
Plastics
No
No
Yes
Typical Range
-65F to 300F (-54C to 149C)
-65F to 300F (-54C to 149C)
-65F to 300F (-54C to 149C)
Maximum
400F (204C)
300F (149C)
400F (204C)
Seals Operating Pressure
4 hours
4 hours
Instant
LOCTITE BRAND
PRODUCTS
565 General-Purpose
545 Hydraulic/Pneumatic
554 Refrigerant
592 Slow Cure
QuickStix 561 PST General-Purpose

QuickStix 5671 PST Stainless Steel
55 Pipe Sealing Cord

Thread Sealant for Oxygen Systems
No More Leaks Solvent-Based
Overview
JUNCTION
BOX PLUGS
Key Benefits
Key Considerations
OVERVIEW
Anaerobic thread sealants seal and secure metal
pipes and fittings by completely filling the space
between the threads and hardening to prevent
leakage. They have additives that facilitate
assembly and maintain controlled strength to
allow for easy removal with basic hand tools. The
cured product has excellent temperature and
chemical resistance that is compatible with many
of the most severe operating environments.
Anaerobic thread sealants have been replacing
alternatives such as PTFE tape, pipe dope,
and specialty fittings like dry seal fittings, flared
fittings, compression fittings, and confined
o-rings for decades.
The advantages of anaerobic thread
sealants over these methods are:
Lower cost fittings
Easy to automate
No solvents
Will not shred and contaminate systems
Easy assembly
Corrosion protection
20
PERFORMANCE
Suitable for
Use With
ADHESIVE TYPE
COMPARISON
Anaerobic thread sealants are the most widely
used liquid products for sealing pipe fittings. The
large line of Loctite brand thread sealants offers
a variety of viscosities, colors, strengths, and cure
speeds.
Loctite QuickStix are the most recent Henkel
innovation. They offer the same performance as a
liquid anaerobic thread sealant but in a semisolid
stick. The stick form allows the thread sealant to be
applied to a fitting in any orientation without drips
and ensures that excess adhesive will not migrate
into the motor housing or moving parts that could
cause reliability issues.
Temperature
Resistance
PROCESSING
When thread sealing plastic fittings, use Loctite No

More Leaks, a solvent-based product, or Loctite
55 Pipe Sealing Cord.
Table 8 compares and contrasts the most
commonly used types of thread sealants.
21
Wire reinforcement
TABLE 9. COMPARISON OF ADHESIVE TYPES FOR WIRE REINFORCEMENT

REINFORCING WIRES
AT COMMUTATOR
CONNECTION
Attribute
epoxy, one-part heat cure
epoxy, two-part
Can cure adhesive in varnish cure oven

No mixing required
Room temperature cure

Can accelerate cure with heat
Cool-down time after cure
Adhesive cures in mix tip

Adhesive waste due to pot life
Metals
Excellent
Excellent
Plastics
Good
Good
Paper
Excellent
Excellent
Ideal
0.050" to 0.100"
0.050" to 0.100"
Maximum
>0.50"
>0.50"
Typical Range
-65F to 350F (-54C to 176C)
-65F to 300F (-54C to 149C)
Maximum
400F (204C)
400F (204C)
Fixture Time
30 to 60 minutes
20 to 30 minutes
Full Cure
1 hour
24 hours
LOCTITE BRAND
PRODUCTS
E-40FL General-Purpose
E-20HP High Impact
E-05MR Fast, Moisture Resistant
Overview
Key Benefits
Key Considerations
PERFORMANCE
Adhesive to
Substrates
OVERVIEW
The wires in a motor or generator are critical to its
operation. One broken or loose wire will keep the
motor or generator from functioning. To protect
against wire breaks, manufacturers normally unitize
the wires in rotors and stators with varnish. The
solvent-based varnishes that are used may be
sufficient for many applications, but do not offer
enough protection for all applications. For example,
it is very common to reinforce the wires that
connect to the commutator in DC motors when the
motor will be in service in high impact or vibration
service environments, such as in power tools or in
sink garbage disposals. In these applications, the
thin coating of varnish on the wires that connect
to the commutator does not offer sufficient
reinforcement to prevent the flexing fatigue that can
lead to failure. To reinforce these wires, a medium
viscosity epoxy coating is applied that is thin
enough to surround the wires, but thick enough to
build up a rigid coating.
22
Gap Fill
Temperature
Resistance
ADHESIVE TYPE
COMPARISON
For high-volume production, one-part heat cure
epoxies are often the optimum method for reinforcing
wires. They are easy to process, have excellent
electrical properties, and can normally be dispensed
and cured in the varnish trickle cure oven. Since the
epoxy coating is being cured in the varnish cure
oven, it does not add any work-in-process or
time-to-manufacture to the process and the
equipment, and maintenance costs are very low.
wo-part epoxies are generally used in work cells
T
where it is desired to dispense the adhesive manually
and allow it to cure at room temperature.
PROCESSING

used types of adhesives for wire reinforcement.
23
Surface Treatment
BRACKET
TO HOUSING
COVER TO
JUNCTION BOX
HOUSING TO
JUNCTION BOX
END PLATE
TO HOUSING
END PLATE
ROTOR
OVERVIEW
METALWORKING
As the market and technology leader for metal

pretreatments, autodeposition coatings, and
metalworking fluids, Henkel has the technology,
expertise, and support to improve your products and
processes.
Henkel is continually improving its metalworking

capabilities. Recent innovations include synthetic
drawing fluids, biostatic coolants, and low VOC
finishing lubricants.
Product Type
Stamping Compounds
Machining Coolants
Corrosion Preventatives
In-Process Cleaners
Leading Henkel Brands

Multan F, Multan PL,
Multan DFL
Multan, Multan CR
P3 Prevox
P3 Neutracare
METAL
PRETREATMENT
AUTODEPOSITION
SURFACE COATINGS
Recent Henkel innovations include:

Bonderite NT-1, a nano-ceramic pretreatment
A laser scale removal process
Internally accelerated zinc phosphate coatings
Dry-in-place conversion coatings
Alodine and Alodine EC2 for aluminum
Aquence brand autodeposition coatings are a patented

technology from Henkel. These coatings can be
simpler, safer, faster, higher performance, and have a
smaller process footprint when compared to alternative
coatings. For more info on Autophoretic brand
coatings, please turn the page.
Bonderite NT-1
Aquence
Bonderite NT-1 is an ambient

temperature, phosphate-free pretreatment
that creates a nano-ceramic coating on
steel, zinc, and aluminum surfaces.
Aquence brand coatings are chemical coating

processes where an organic polymeric emulsion of
PVDC or epoxy is chemically deposited on the surface
of a clean, metal substrate.
Benefits vs. Phosphate Pretreatment:
Benefits vs. Alternative Coatings:
Higher Performance Innovative nanotechnology

provides better edge definition and adhesion for paints.
The corrosion resistance is better than iron phosphate.
Higher Consistency Extremely uniform coating thickness

on all surfaces, including electrically shielded areas such as
inner diameters of tubes.
Lower Operating Cost The waste treatment costs

are virtually eliminated and the ambient coating
process significantly reduces energy costs.
Up to 40% Smaller Footprint The simple, four-stage

process also allows for much higher rack density.
Environmentally Responsible The process

is phosphate- and heavy metal-free with
minimal waste treatment. It also complies
with even the strictest municipal codes.
Higher Throughput The treatment time is
faster, increasing production capacity.
Maintenance-Free There is virtually
no sludge buildup in the tank.
No Post-Treatment Sealing is not required
for exceptional corrosion resistance.
Reliable Simple, low maintenance process
is easy to monitor and control.
Product Type Leading Henkel Brands

Cleaners
Conversion
Coatings
Post-Treatments
Anodizing
24
Parco, Deoxidine, Ridoline, P3
No Pretreatment Required No phosphate pretreatment is

required to achieve exceptional corrosion resistance.
Coat Entire Assemblies The uniform coating that is
created will not build up or bridge. This allows entire
assemblies, even threaded assemblies, to be coated at
once.
User-Friendly No rack masking or stripping is required.
Reliable Simple process is easy to monitor and control.
Safer Low or zero VOC water-based process does not
require electricity.
Fewer steps than conventional painting less space/time.
Coats only reactive metals (assembles and R/M possible).
Product Type
Leading Henkel Brands
Cleaners, Coatings, and

Reaction Rinses
Aquence
Prep-N-Cote, Bonderite, Alodine

Parcolene
Deoxidine, Ridoline, P3 Almeco,
Aluminux, P3 Almecolor, Spectrocolor
Please contact Technical Services at Henkel Corporation

for more information on our surface technologies.
25
PRODUCT SELECTOR
CHEMISTRY
ACRYLICS
General Bonding
EPOXIES
POLYURETHANES
CYANOACRYLATES
HOT MELTS
PRODUCT
NUMBER
TYPICAL USE
Magnet Bonding
26
ACRYLICS
EPOXIES
CURE
METHOD
COLOR
VISCOSITY
(cP)
FIXTURE
TIME
CURETHROUGH
DEPTH, IN.
Fast Cure, Acid-Free
331
Activator
Cream
20,000
20 sec.
0.039
Metal Bonding
H4500 Speedbonder
Two-Part (10:1)
Pale Yellow
55,000
15 to 20 min.
>0.5
High Impact
H8000 Speedbonder
Two-Part (10:1)
Green
150,000
15 to 20 min.
>0.5
Severe Environment
H8600 Speedbonder
Two-Part (2:1)
Blue
90,000
55 min.
>0.5
High Impact
E-20HP Hysol
Two-Part (2:1)
Off-White
45,000
60 min.
>0.5
Moisture Resistant
E-05MR Hysol
Two-Part (1:1)
Ultra-Clear
25,000
15 min.
>0.5
High Temperature
E-40HT Hysol
Two-Part (2:1)
Off-White
430,000
165 min.
>0.5
Two-Part (2:1)
Purple
12,200
180 min.
>0.5
>0.5
TEMP.
RANGE
-65F to 350F
(-54C to 177C)
-65F to 300F
(-54C to 150C)
-65F to 300F
(-54C to 150C)
-65F to 400F
(-54C to 204C)
-65F to 400F
(-54C to 204C)
-65F to 250F
(-54C to 121C)
-65F to 400F
(-54C to 204C)
-65F to 300F
(-54C to 150C)
-65F to 300F
(-54C to 150C)
PACKAGE SIZE PART NUMBER

25 ml syringe with manual plunger
- 1057673
50 ml dual cartridge
(s style) - 996512
50 ml dual cartridge
(s style) - 996453
1 liter - 1057674
490 ml dual cartridge - 83041
490 ml dual cartridge -36160
10 liter pail - 1062124
25 ml EFD syringe w/o manual

plunger - 1256398
Resin - 40 lb. pail - 83043*

Hardener - 40 lb. pail - 83042*
Resin - 35 lb. pail - 35939*
Resin - 40 lb. pail - 38760*
Resin - 55 gal. drum - 37009*

- 1087601
200 ml dual cartridge - 1086600*
30 ml EFD syringe - 29339
300 ml cartridge - 29340
5 gal. pail - 29341
1 liter bottle - 1078261
5 gal. pail - 1078499
1 oz. bottle - 14001791
1 lb. bottle - 1401789
Ultra Tough
E-30UT Hysol
Toughened, High
Adhesion
E-214HP Hysol
One-Part Heat
Light Grey
Paste
2 hrs.
Induction Cure for Fast

Throughput
E-220IC Hysol
One-Part Heat/
Induction
Grey
Paste
40 sec. (induction) >0.5
Fast, High Strength
U-05FL Hysol
Two-Part (1:2)
Off-White
100,000
15 min.
>0.5
Toughened, UV Cure
4311 Flashcure
One-Part,
Moisture/UV
Clear-Pale Green 900
5 sec.
0.079
4203 Prism
One-Part, Moisture Clear
375
30 sec.
0.059
-65F to 250F
(-54C to 121C)
1 oz. bottle - 1376970
1 lb. bottle - 28027
4204 Prism
4,000
31 sec.
0.079
-65F to 250F
(-54C to 121C)
3 g tube - 26839
1 oz. bottle - 1376969
4205 Prism
Gel
32 sec.
0.098
20 g tube - 28028
200 g tube - 28029
300 g. cartridge - 28030
12 oz. bag Polyshot - 83353
35 lb. carton Polyshot - 83354
12 oz. bag (red) Polyshot - 83355
40 lb. carton pellets - 83382
25 lb. pail Polyshot - 83344
5 gal. pail - 31279
Low Viscosity,
Toughened,
High Temperature
Mid-Viscosity,
Toughened,
High Temperature
Gel, Toughened,
High Temperature
General-Purpose
0450 Hysol SprayPac 1
Cooling
Natural
4,500
5 to 8 min.
0.236
General-Purpose
7804FRM-HV Hysol
Cooling
Amber
6,000
35 sec.
0.236
General-Purpose
7901 Hysol
Cooling
Amber
750
35 sec.
0.236
Cooling/Humidity
Off-White
12,500
60 sec.
0.236
High Adhesion to Metals 3631 Hysol
ELASTOMERIC
BONDING
# OF
COMP.
Primerless Adhesion
5512TM
One-Part, Moisture Black
Paste
60 min.
>0.5
Fast Cure, Acid-Free
331
Activator/Heat
Cream
20,000
20 sec.
0.039
High Impact
392
Activator
Amber
60,000
60 sec.
0.020
Humidity Resistance
A-671
External Mix
Green
15,000
55 sec.
0.051
Large Gap Fill
A-6750
External Mix
Green
30,000
30 to 60 sec.
0.098
Acid-Free
3060
External Mix
Green
30,000
10 to 13 min.
0.201
Toughened,
High Adhesion
Induction Cure
for Fast Throughput
E-214HP HysolFISCHBACH
KG KUNSTSTOFF-TECHNIK
One-Part Heat
Light Grey
Paste
2 hrs.
>0.5
E-220IC Hysol
One-Part Heat/
Induction
Grey
Paste
40 sec. (induction) >0.5
-65F to 300F
(-54C to 150C)
-65F to 250F
(-54C to 121C)
-65F to 239F
(-54C to 115C)
-65F to 250F
(-54C to 121C)
-65F to 160F
(-54C to 70C)
-65F to 230F
(-54C to 110C)
-65F to 300F
(-54C to 150C)
-65F to 250F
(-54C to 121C)
-40F to 200F
(-40C to 93C)
-65F to 350F
(-54C to 177C)
65F to 300F
(-54C to 150C)
-65F to 300F
(-54C to 149C)
-65F to 300F
(-54C to 155C)
-65F to 300F
(-54C to 155C)
-65F to 300F
(-54C to 150C)
-65F to 300F
(-54C to 150C)
Resin - 425 lb. drum - 1010342*

Hardener - 425 lb. drum - 1010333*
Resin - 5 gal. pail - 29317*
Hardener - 5 gal. pail - 29318*
400 ml dual cartridge - 1086599*


35 lb. carton (red) Polyshot 83356

30 lb. pail - 10 in. superstick 5 oz. bag - 10 in. superstick - 83383
83384

- 1057673
- 39205
Liter - 1057674
10 liter pail - 1062124
25 ml EFD syringe w/o manual

plunger - 1256398
50 ml tube - 39250
Resin - 2 liter pail - 1256502*

Hardener - 2 liter pail - 1255708*
4 liter kit - 1256488
Hardener - 19 liter pail - 1255709
2 x 30 ml syringes - 1087985


5 gal. pail - 29341
5 gal. pail - 1078499
Dual cartridge - 1250146+1250147 40 ml dual cartridge - 1256506
- Made to order item.

*Contact
your local sales rep.
15 liter pail - 17505
27
PRODUCT SELECTOR
CHEMISTRY
TYPICAL USE
Gasketing
# OF
COMP.
CURE
METHOD
COLOR
VISCOSITY
(cP)
Anaerobic
Blue
65,000
High Temperature
510 Gasket Eliminator
Anaerobic
Red
188,000
General-Purpose
Anaerobic
Red
800,000
Extended Open Time
573 Flange Sealant
Anaerobic
Green
19,000
Fast Cure
574 Flange Sealant
Anaerobic
Orange
30,000
High Performance
5699
Humidity
Grey
250 g/min.
Flexible
Anaerobics
PRODUCT NAME
FIXTURE
TIME
Unprimed - 6 hrs. /
Primed -1 hr.
Unprimed - 4 hrs. /
Primed -30 min.
Unprimed - 4 hrs. /
Primed - 30 min.
Unprimed - 6 hrs. /
Primed -1 hr.
Unprimed -1 hr. /
Primed -15 min.
30 min.
CURE-THROUGH
DEPTH, IN.
Unprimed - 0.01/Primed - 0.02
0.236
Instant Seal
5900
Humidity
Black
35 g/min.
20 min.
0.236
General-Purpose
5910
Humidity
Black
600 g/min.
20 min.
0.236
High Temperature
5920
Humidity
Copper
300 g/min.
60 min.
0.236
UV/Humidity
Translucent/Colorless/
222 g/min.
Fluorescent
30 sec. @ 120 mW/cm
0.236
UV
Translucent
30 sec.@ 120 mW/cm
0.236
SILICONE, RTV
SILICONE, LIGHT
CURE
Dual Cure
5039 Nuva-Sil
General-Purpose
5050 Fastgasket
500 g/min.
Fast Cure/Black
5950 Fastgasket
UV/Humidity
Black
350 g/min.
30 sec. @ 120 mW/cm
0.236
Fast Cure/Clear
5951 Fastgasket
UV/Humidity
Clear
350 g/min.
30 sec. @ 120 mW/cm
0.236
High Durometer
5963 Procure
Oven Heat
Grey
250 g/min.
10 min. @ 150C
0.236
General-Purpose
5964 Procure
Oven Heat
Brown
120 g/min.
10 min. @ 150C
0.236
Multi-Cure
3101
UV/Heat/Activator
Slightly Hazy / Straw
6,000
5 sec.
0.394
UV + Activator
366
UV/Activator
Clear / Light Amber
7,500
5 sec.
0.079
Two-Part (1:2)
Black
12,500
5 min.
0.492
SILICONE, HEAT CURE
acrylics
Very Fast
3364 Hysol
Fast Cure
3173 / 3182 Hysol
Two-Part (1:5.2)
Black
5,500
7 min.
0.492
General-Purpose
3173 / 3183 Hysol
Two-Part (1:3)
Opaque Black
450
20 to 40 min.
0.492
UL 94 V-0
3173 / 3184 Hysol
Two-Part (1:4.8)
Opaque White
2,250
45 min.
0.492
UV Initiation
3335
UV/Oven
Hazy White
5,000
UV or 15 min. @ 150C
0.08 (UV) / 0.5 (Heat)
General-Purpose
3981 Hysol
Oven
Transparent White
5,300
Medium Viscosity
3982 Hysol
Oven
Off-White
8,000
High Viscosity
3985 Hysol
Oven
Black
47,500
POTTING (Contd. next page)
polyurethanes
epoxy one-part
UV Dual Cure
epoxy two-part
28
193124 / 193125
35 min. @ 100C /
16 min. at 150C
25 min. @ 100C /
17 min. at 150C
45 min. @ 100C /
30 min. at 150C
>0.5
>0.5
>0.5
UV/Two-Part (2:1)
Transparent / Straw
7,000
60 sec. UV
>0.5
Two-Part (2:1)
Black
10,000
60 min.
>0.5
General-Purpose
E-60NC Hysol
UL 1446 & UL 94HB
3140 / 3164 Hysol
Two-Part (2:1)
Black
1,500
25 to 35 min.
>0.5
UL 94V-0
3145 / 3162 Hysol
Two-Part (2:1)
Black
7,150
35 to 45 min.
>0.5
UL674
E-40EXP Hysol
Two-Part (4:1)
Grey
16,500
120 min.
>0.5
TEMP.
RANGE
-65F to 300F
(-54C to 150C)
-65F to 400F
(-54C to 204C)
-65F to 300F
(-54C to 150C)
-65F to 300F
(-54C to 150C)
-65F to 300F
(-54C to 150C)
-65F to 400F
(-54C to 200C)
-65F to 500F
(-54C to 260C)
-65F to 500F
(-54C to 260C)
-65F to 700F
(-54C to 370C)
-65F to 350F
(-54C to 177C)
-65F to 350F
(-54C to 177C)
-65F to 350F
(-54C to 177C)
-65F to 350F
(-54C to 177C)
-65F to 400F
(-54C to 204C)
-65F to 400F
(-54C to 204C)
-65F to 300F
(-54C to 148C)
-65F to 230F
(-54C to 110C)
-65F to 300F
(-54C to 150C)
-65F to 300F
(-54C to 150C)
65F to 300F
(-54C to 150C)
-65F to 300F
(-54C to 150C)
-65F to 350F
(-54C to 176C)
-65F to 300F
(-54C to 150C)
-65F to 300F
(-54C to 150C)
-65F to 399F
(-54C to 204C)
-65F to 350F
(-54C to 176C)
-65F to 300F
(-54C to 150C)
-65F to 300F
(-54C to 150C)
-65F to 300F
(-54C to 150C)
-65F to 300F
(-54C to 150C)

50 ml tube - 51031
250 ml tube - 51041
6 cc carded tube - 51817
50 ml tube - 51831
50 ml tube - 24801
250 ml tube - 26338
50 lb. pail - 18582
550 lb. drum - 18583
50 lb. pail - 20167
550 lb. drum - 20168
50 lb. pail - 21747
550 lb. drum - 21748
70 ml tube - 30542
40 lb. pail - 21472
40 lb. pail - 40439
40 lb. pail - 1212165
250 ml tube - 16392
300 ml Fischbach cartridge with

threaded tip - 20166
300 ml Fischbach cartridge with
threaded tip - 21746
300 ml Fischbach cartridge 29287
40 lb. pail - 18495
40 lb. pail - 18198

50 lb. pail - 34337
50 lb pail - 34347
25 ml syringe - 19861
50 ml bottle - 36631

Resin - 1 qt. can - 39984
Hardener - 1 gal. can -39995
Resin - 1 gal. can - 39985

Hardener - 5 gal. pail - 39996
Hardener - 5 gal pail - 39397
Resin - 5 gal. pail - 39986

Hardener - 55 gal. drum - 39997
Hardener - 55 gal. drum - 39399
5 gal. pail - 36772*
5 gal. pail - 34731
50 lb. pail - 919449*

Hardener - 1 gal. can - 39969
Resin - 13 lb. can - 40512
Hardener - 1 qt. can - 39960

Resin - 65 lb. pail - 40511
5 gal. pail - 37297*

Resin - 65 lb. pail - 40511


*Contact
29
PRODUCT SELECTOR
RETAINING
POTTING (Contd.)
CHEMISTRY
SILICONES
LIGHT CURE
SILICONES
TWO-PART
ANAEROBICS
TYPICAL USE
Dual Cure
5240 Nuva-Sil
Flowable
High Adhesion
Tacking
CYANOACRYLATES
# OF
COMP.
FIXTURE
TIME
CURETHROUGH
DEPTH, IN.
UV/Humidity
Clear
18,000
60 sec. @ 70 mW/cm 0.787
5055
UV
Clear
525
60 sec. @ 70 mW/cm 0.236
5056
UV
Clear
2,200
60 sec. @ 70 mW/cm 0.236

24 hrs. or 1 hr. @
100C
30 min. or 1 hr. @
100C
24 hrs. or 1 hr. @
100C
10 min. - 7 days full
cure
5620
Two-Part (1:1)
Clear
200
Tack-Free Gel
5623
Two-Part (1:1)
Clear
700
Soft Gel
5625
Two-Part (1:1)
Clear
1,500
Fast, UL 94V0
5611 F
Two-Part (10:1)
Grey
4,500
Slow, UL 94V0
5611 S
Two-Part (10:1)
Grey
5,000
70 min.
>0.5
Wicking Grade
290
Anaerobic
Green
12
30 min.
0.006
General-Purpose
603
Anaerobic
Green
125
High Temperature
620
Anaerobic
Green
8,500
High Strength
638
Anaerobic
Green
2,500
Fast Cure
648
Anaerobic
Green
500
Light Cure
661
Light/Anaerobic
Amber
500
30 sec.
0.006
Semisolid Stick
QuickStix 668
Anaerobic
Green
Semisolid
90 sec.
0.004
3526
UV/Visible Light/
Oven
17,800
30 sec.
>0.5
3926
Light
4,500
60 sec.
>0.5
3944
Light
5,000
30 sec.
0.551
3971
Light
320
30 sec.
>0.5
3972
Light
Clear/Pale Straw/
Fluorescent
Transparent to
Hazy/Fluorescent
Fluorescent/Pale
Yellow
Transparent to
Hazy/Fluorescent
Transparent to
Hazy/Fluorescent
4,500
30 sec.
>0.5
4203
Humidity
Clear
375
30 sec.
0.004
4204
Humidity
Clear
4,000
30 sec.
0.008
4205
Humidity
Clear
Gel
30 sec.
0.012
Light/Humidity
Clear/Pale Green/
Fluorescent
900
5 sec.
0.008
Cooling
Natural
4,500
5 to 8 min.
0.236
Cooling/Humidity
Off-White
12,000
60 sec.
0.236
High Adhesion to
Plastics
High Adhesion to
Metals
General-Purpose
Medium cPs
General-Purpose
Low cPs
Low cPs Thermally
Resistant
Medium cPs
Thermally Resistant
Gel Thermally
Resistant
Long Open Time
30
COLOR
VISCOSITY
(cP)
Medium cPs UV Cure 4311 Flashcure
HOT MELTS
CURE
METHOD
Fast Cure
Activator Cure
ACRYLIC
LIGHT CURE
PRODUCT
NAME
High Adhesion to
Metals
0450 Hysol
SprayPac
3631 Hysol
Unprimed - 10 min./
Primed -1 min.
Unprimed - 30 min./
Primed -1 min.
Unprimed - 5 min./
Primed -1 min.
Unprimed - 5 min./
Primed -1 min.
>0.5
>0.5
>0.5
>0.5
0.005
0.015
0.015
0.006
General-Purpose
7804FRM-HV Hysol
Cooling
Amber
6,000
35 sec.
0.236
High Temperature
7901 Hysol
Cooling
Amber
750
35 sec.
0.236
TEMPERATURE
RANGE
-65F to 350F
(-54C to 177C)
-65F to 350F
(-54C to 177C)
-65F to 350F
(-54C to 177C)
-65F to 300F
(-40C to 150C)
-65F to 300F
(-40C to 150C)
-65F to 300F
(-40C to 150C)
-65F to 300F
(-40C to 150C)
-65F to 300F
(-40C to 150C)
-65F to 300F
(-54C to 150C)
-65F to 300F
(-54C to 150C)
-65F to 450F
(-54C to 232C)
-65F to 300F
(-54C to 150C)
-65F to 350F
(-54C to 177C)
-65F to 350F
(-54C to 177C)
-65F to 400F
(-54C to 204C)
-65F to 250F
(-54C to 121C)
-65F to 212F
(-54C to 100C)
-65F to 300F
(-54C to 150C)
-65F to 300F
(-54C to 150C)
-65F to 300F
(-54C to 150C)
-65F to 250F
(-54C to 121C)
-65F to 250F
(-54C to 121C)
-65F to 250F
(-54C to 121C)
-65F to 240F
(-54C to 115C)
-65F to 155F
(-54C to 69C)
-65F to 250F
(-54C to 121C)
-65F to 230F
(-54C to 110C)
-65F to 300F
(-54C to 150C)

25 ml syringe - 1010341
40 lb. pail - 1010343*
25 ml syringe - 1212167
15 liter pail - 1214247
25 ml syringe - 1214249
15 liter pail - 1214248
400 ml dual cartridge 1259300

190 kg drum - 1342966
Resin - 400 lb. drum - 1257594

Hardener - 400 lb. drum - 1257596
Resin - 40 lb. pail - 1257611

Hardener - 40 lb. pail - 1257607
Resin - 40 lb. pail - 1257616
Resin - 4.5 gal. pail - 1387908
Hardener - 4.5 gal. pail - 1387706
Resin - 4.5 gal. pail - 1387908
Hardener - 4.5 gal. pail - 1388496
Resin - 40 lb. pail - 1257595

Resin - 400 lb. drum - 1257612
Resin - 400 lb. drum - 1257617
Resin - 575 lb. drum - 1386373
Resin - 575 lb. drum - 1386373
0.5 ml capsule - 29005
250 ml bottle - 29041
250 ml bottle - 21442
5 ml bottle - 1012623
250 ml bottle - 21449
6 ml tube - 33325
250 ml bottle - 21445
250 cc bottle - 66141*
1 liter bottle - 66170*
1 liter bottle 29043
250 ml bottle 62070
1 liter bottle 21446
19 g stick - 39148
15 liter pail - 1057609
1 oz. bottle - 1376970
3 g tube - 26839
1 oz. bottle - 1376969
20 g tube - 28028
200 g tube - 28029
300 g cartridge - 28030
1 oz. bottle - 14001791
1 lb. bottle - 1401789
35 lb. carton Polyshot - 83354
5 gal. pail - 31279
12 oz. bag (red) Polyshot - 83355
35 lb. carton (red) Polyshot 83356
5 oz. bag, 10 in. superstick - 83383
30 lb. pail, 10 in. superstick - 83384

*Contact
25 lb. pail Polyshot

- 83387
31
PRODUCT SELECTOR
THREADLOCKING
CHEMISTRY
ANAEROBICS
THREAD SEALING
TYPICAL USE
ANAEROBICS
COLOR
Anaerobic
Puple
General-Purpose
243
Anaerobic
Blue
VISCOSITY
(cP)
1,200/5,000
Thixotropic
2,250/12,000
Thixotropic
FIXTURE
TIME
CURE
THROUGH
DEPTH, IN.
10 min.
N/A
5 min.
N/A
High Temperature
2422
Anaerobic
Blue
Paste
90 min.
N/A
General-Purpose
QuickStix 248
Anaerobic
Blue
Semisolid
Unprimed - 10 min. /
Primed -3 min.
N/A
Anaerobic
Red
500
15 min.
N/A
N/A
High Strength
QuickStix 268
Anaerobic
Red
Semisolid
Unprimed - 20 min. /
Primed -5 min.
Wicking Grade
290
Anaerobic
Green
12
6 min.
N/A
For Plastics
425 Assure
Humidity
Blue
80
1.5 hrs.
NA
Hydraulic/Pneumatic
545
Anaerobic
Purple
14,000
4 hrs.
N/A
Refrigerant
554
Anaerobic
Red
2,500
4 hrs.
N/A
General-Purpose
QuickStix 561 PST 1
Anaerobic
White
Paste
4 hrs.
N/A
General-Purpose
565 PST
Anaerobic
White
300,000
4 hrs.
N/A
High Temperature
567
Anaerobic
White
540,000
4 hrs.
N/A
Anaerobic
Off-White
Paste
4 hrs.
N/A
QuickStix 5671
PST
Slow Cure
592 PST
Anaerobic
White
250,000
4 hrs.
N/A
No-Drip
55 Pipe Sealing Cord
No Cure
White
String
Instant
N/A
Dry
White
Paste
Instant
N/A
Solvent
Evaporation
White
Paste
Instant
N/A
>0.5
Oxygen Systems
Plastic Pipes
EPOXIES
CURE
METHOD
222
Stainless Steel
NONREACTIVE
# OF
COMP.
Low Strength
High Strength, Fast Set 263
CYANOACRYLATES
wire
reinforcement
PRODUCT
NAME
Thread Sealant for

Oxygen Systems
No More Leaks
Solvent-Based
One-Part, GeneralPurpose
3985 Hysol
Oven
Black
47,500
45 min. @ 120C/
30 min. @ 150C
Moisture-Resistant
E-05MR Hysol
Two-Part (1:1)
Clear
25,000
15 min.
>0.5
High Impact
E-20HP Hysol
Two-Part (2:1)
Off-White
45,000
60 min.
>0.5
Two-Part (1:1)
Grey
70,000
120 min.
>0.5
General-Purpose
E-40FL Hysol
TEMPERATURE
RANGE
-65F to 300F
(-54C to 150C)
-65F to 300F
(-54C to 150C)
-65F to 650F
(-54C to 343C)
-65F to 300F
(-54C to 150C)
-65F to 300F
(-54C to 150C)
-65F to 300F
(-54C to 150C)
-65F to 300F
(-54C to 150C)
-65F to 180F
(-54C to 82C)
-65F to 300F
(-54C to 150C)
-65F to 300F
(-54C to 150C)
-65F to 300F
(-54C to 150C)
-65F to 300F
(-54C to 150C)
65F to 400F
(-54C to 204C)
-65F to 300F
(-54C to 150C)
-65F to 400F
(-54C to 204C)
-65F to 300F
(-54C to 150C)
-65F to 140F
(-54C to 60C)
-65F to 400F
(-54C to 204C)
-65F to 400F
(-54C to 204C)
-65F to 400F
(-54C to 204C)
-65F to 400F
(-54C to 204C)
-65F to 400F
(-54C to 204C)

0.5 ml capsule - 1330255
10 ml soft squeeze bottle - 1329837 50 ml bottle - 1329467
30 g syringe with manual plunger 1134601
300 g cartridge - 1134602
9 g stick - 37684
19 g stick - 37087
0.5 ml capsule - 1330582
10 ml soft squeeze bottle - 1330583 50 ml bottle - 1330585
9 g stick - 37685
19 g stick - 37686PR
1 oz. bottle - 42540
0.5 ml sample capsule - 54505
250 ml bottle - 55441
250 ml bottle - 1329505
250 ml bottle - 1330335
250 ml bottle - 54541
19 g stick - 37127
6 ml tube - 56507
50 ml tube - 56531
250 ml tube - 56541
350 ml brush-top bottle - 35531
6 ml tube - 56707
50 ml tube - 56747
250 ml tube - 56765
1 liter bottle - 56790*
350 cc can with brush cap - 33241
50 ml tube - 59231
250 ml tube - 59241
2 oz. tube - 80725
7 oz. tube - 80724
1 pint brush top can - 80726
5 gal. pail - 34731
50 lb. pail - 919449*

- 1087601
200 ml dual cartridge - 1086600* 400 ml dual cartridge - 1086599*
19 g stick - 1276167
6 ml tube - 59214
150 m (5,700 in.) - 35082
50 ml tube - 1265761



*Contact
32
33
GER-4212
GE Power Systems
GE Generator Rotor Design,

Operational Issues,
and Refurbishment Options
Ronald J. Zawoysky
Karl C. Tornroos
GE Power Systems
Schenectady, NY
GE Generator Rotor Design, Operational Issues, and Refurbishment Options

Contents
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
Function of a Generator Rotor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
Types of Generator Rotors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
Conventional Windings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
Generator Rotors with Aluminum Alloy Windings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
Direct-Cooled Windings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
Radial Flow Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
Radial-Axial-Radial Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6
Diagonal Flow Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
Laminated Rotors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
Current 4-Pole Salient Pole Rotors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
Problems Encountered with Generator Rotors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
Shorted Turns and Field Grounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
Thermal Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
Contamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
Collector, Bore Copper and Connection Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
Copper Distortion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
Forging Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
Retaining Ring Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
Misoperation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
Generator Rotor Reliability and Life Expectancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
Generator Rotor Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
Generator Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
Generator Rotor Refurbishment and Replacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
Generator Rotor Rewind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
Reasons for Rewinding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
Types of Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
Generator Rotor Modifications, Upgrades and Uprates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18
Impact on Other Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19
Generator Rotor Replacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
Exchange Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
New Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
GE Power Systems GER-4212 (08/01)

Rewind, Refurbishment and Replacement Recommendations Versus Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
New Replacement Rotor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
Exchange Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
Rewind with New Copper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
Rewind Reusing Old Copper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
High Speed Balancing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
High Speed Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
Flux Probe Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
Thermal Sensitivity Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22
Frequently Asked Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22
List of Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24
List of Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24
ii

Overview
With the average age of the GE generator fleet
rapidly approaching the limit of the original
intended life, utilities and industrial users are
seeking alternatives to replace this aging equipment with new generators. One component of
the generator that is typically refurbished,
upgraded or uprated is the generator rotor
(field). Degradation of the generator field can
be caused by a number of factors, including a
breakdown in insulation due to time and temperature and mechanical wear. This degradation can lead to shorted turns, a field ground,
or an in-service operational incident that can
require premature maintenance work. The type
of work needed to repair and upgrade depends
upon the generator rotor design, length of time
in service and the manner in which the rotor
was operated.
This paper covers various types of generator
fields, including both conventionally-cooled
(indirect copper cooling) windings and directcooled copper windings as well as those with
spindle and body mounted retaining rings. The
options for rewinding, modifying, upgrading or
uprating are provided for each field type. Also
addressed in this text are the problems typically
encountered when dealing with generator
rotors, including:
rotor reliability and its life expectancywhich

varies considerably based on the type and configuration of the generator rotor and the manner in which it is operated.
Function of a Generator Rotor

This section covers the generator fields function in two main areas: a brief description of the
mechanical configurations, and a brief description of the electrical theory.
The generator rotor represents an excellent
combination of electrical, mechanical and manufacturing skills in which the field coils are well
insulated, supported and ventilated in a compound structure rotating at very high speed
(typically 1800 or 3600 rpm). Furthermore,
though the rotor experiences great mechanical
stress and high temperatures (in some cases up
to 266F311F/130C155C) while subjected
to electrical voltage and current, it is expected
to function in this manner for years without failure. The three design constraints that limit
the size and life of generator rotors are temperature, mechanical force and electrical insulation.
Figure 1 shows a basic mechanical outline for a
typical generator field. Note the major components:
Shorted turns
Turbine coupling
Field grounds
Main cooling fans
Thermal sensitivity
Retaining rings
Negative sequence heating
Coil slot
Contamination
Balance plug
Misoperation
Collector rings
Forging damage
Collector fans
The issue of balancing generator rotors after

rework or modifications is also discussed. This
paper concludes with a discussion on generator
There are, of course, variations on this configuration. For example, while the illustrated design
uses radial fans, other designs use axial fans.
FAN
COIL SLOT
COLLECTOR
RING
COUPLING
RETAINING
RING
BALANCE
PLUG
COLLECTOR
FAN
Figure 1. Generator field
A typical collecter end configuration is shown in

Figure 2, which also shows a cutaway view of vital
electrical components such as:
Collectors
Collector terminals
Figure 3 shows a typical cross-section of a radial

cooled slot section. Other configurations will be
described later. Note the main components of
the slot:
Coil wedge
Bore copper
Creepage block
Main terminal
Slot armor
Main lead
Turn insulation (groundwall insulation)
Retaining ring
Coil endwindings (shown from the side)
Copper turns
Axial fan
Subslot cover
FIELD COIL ENDWINDINGS
RETAINING
RING
AXIAL FAN
MAIN
TERMINAL
COLLECTORS
MAIN LEADS
BORE COPPER
COLLECTOR TERMINAL
Figure 2. Collector end of generator field
COIL WEDGE
ROTOR
CREEPAGE
BLOCK
SLOT ARMOR
(RIGID)
TURN
INSULATION
COPPER
TURN
SLOT
CLEARANCE
(WIDTH)
SUB SLOT
COVER
SLOT
CLEARANCE
(RADIAL)
SUB SLOT
Figure 3. Radial cooled slot

To understand the intricacies of the field winding design, it must be remembered that the
basic function of the rotor is to produce a magnetic field of the size and shape necessary to
induce the desired output voltage in the stator.
The rotor can be visualized as a large rotating
electromagnet with north and south poles. As
illustrated in Figure 4, the magnetic flux that
radiates from the rotor follows the magnetic cir-
cuit across the air gap, through the stator core

and then back across the air gap into the rotor
to complete the loop.
Simply stated, the primary function of the field
winding is to provide the path for the DC current
needed to magnetize the field. However, reaching this goal is not so simple. It involves many
tradeoffs in trying to satisfy all the mechanical,
electrical, thermal, and manufacturing constraints. Consider just this basic list of requirements for the field winding and its components:
The winding and associated components must withstand centrifugal loading at speed and possible overspeed.
The winding and its insulation system
must fit within the space available for
the rotor slot. The amount of space
available for the rotor slot is dependent on the stresses in the rotor teeth
the more area used for the slot, the
higher the tooth stresses.
The insulation system must be sufficient to protect the winding from
ground faults and turn-to-turn shorts
throughout the operating envelope.
AIR GAP
GENERATOR
FIELD
STATOR
Figure 4. Rotor magnetic flux linking rotor and stator

The insulation system must be strong
enough to withstand the physical wear
and tear of assembly and winding, and
during operation (particularly when in
the turning gear mode).
The ventilation scheme must be sufficient to keep the temperature rises of
the winding within the acceptable
range. In the case of ventilated end
windings the vent paths must be optimized to provide sufficient cooling
while not exceeding the stress limits of
the copper.
The field MMF (magnetomotive force)
must be sinusoidal in shape and of the
desired magnitude.
The winding must be symmetrical and
balanced to prevent unacceptable
vibrations.
The winding and components should be
designed to require little maintenance during
the 30 or more years of expected operation,
which is the typical life for a base loaded control
power station. Rewinds may be more frequent
under extreme conditions such as an open ven-
tilated gas turbine generator in a dirty environment, or frequent start/stops or load cycling.
Types of Generator Rotors

There are two basic types of generator rotors:
conventional windings (indirect-cooled) and
direct windings (conductor-cooled). Both types
and their variations are discussed.
Conventional Windings
Smaller generators, which are not provided
with conductor cooling, have ventilating ducts
through which the cooling air passes. (See
Figure 5.) With this arrangement, the heat generated in the coil is conducted through the slot
insulation to the field forging, then to the cooling gas in the ventilating duct. The dielectric
barrier forming the slot insulation is also the
primary thermal barrier in the circuit; as current levels increase, additional rotor heat dissipation is required. The solution is to use a conductor-cooling arrangement, in which cooling
gas flows directly through the conductors. This
eliminates the thermal barrier of the slot insulation, allowing a continued increase in the current-carrying capability of a given size rotor.
WEDGE
WEDGE
CHAFING
STRIP
SLOT
INSULATION
CAP
VENTILATING
DUCT
COPPER
WINDING
SLOT
INSULATION
Figure 5. Indirect cooled coil slot

Generator Rotors with Aluminum Alloy
Windings
WEDGE
As conventionally cooled generators were

increased to larger sizes, the generator rotor
stresses increased to unacceptable levels in the
rotor and retaining rings. Aluminum alloy (condal) windings were incorporated on some generator rotors, enabling the rotor size and ratings to increase and still allow conventional
indirect cooling to be used in the design of
these units. These units have provided many
years of reliable operation. However, to ensure
future long-term reliability when they are
rebuilt, the design of these units requires special design and process considerations.
CREEPAGE
BLOCK
TURN
INSULATION
SLOT
INSULATION
COPPER
WINDING
Direct-Cooled Windings
SUB SLOT
Several different arrangements of direct-cooled

windings have been used by domestic and foreign manufacturers to accomplish the conductor-cooling principle. The two primary methods
currently used by GE for two-pole generators
are radial flow cooling and diagonal flow
cooling, as shown respectively in Figure 6 and
Figure 7.
Figure 6. Radial cooled coil slot
ROTATION
Radial Flow Cooling

Radial flow cooling is used for small and medium sized two-pole units and for large four-pole
units. The ventilation arrangement shown in
the slot cross-section of Figure 6 permits gas to
enter the subslot in an axial direction. The gas
then discharges radially through holes in the
copper winding and through the wedges shown
in the figure. This conductor cooling arrangement brings the cooling gas into direct contact
with the copper conductors, eliminating the
thermal drop through the insulation. The
wedges are constructed with pre-drilled holes to
allow for the passage of gas to the rotor surface.
CREEPAGE
BLOCK
INLET
REGION
SLOT
ARMOR
FLUSH
INLET
SCOOP
TURN
INSULATION
SUB-DIVIDED
FIELD
CONDUCTOR
OUTLET
REGION
INSULATION
STRIP
EXTRUDED
COPPER
CHANNEL
Figure 7. Diagonal cooled coil slot

tors, and then to air-cooled generators. This is
just one example of the development of technology for large generators that is then utilized
to enhance smaller units.
The rotor slot in Figure 6 may be tapered to provide an optimum balance between total copper
area and rotor forging stresses. The size and
contour of the subslot, along with the size and
number of radial holes in the copper and
wedges, are parameters designed specifically to
keep the copper and insulation temperatures
and rotor forging stresses within standard and
material limits.
Radial-Axial-Radial Cooling
Four-pole rotor windings are subject to much

less duty than those with two-pole designs. The
four-pole rotor turns at half the speed, so the
centrifugal loading of the copper winding
against the wedges and retaining rings is considerably reduced. Much larger diameters of
the large four-pole generators permit use of
deeper and wider slots to accommodate a larger cross-section of copper winding. Increased
rotor diameter also increases the available
pumping head for forced convection cooling.
All these factors ease the problem of designing
the rotor cooling circuit
This type of cooling system was GE's first proven

design at gap pickup cooling. (See Figure 8.) The
generator rotor and stator incorporated inlet
and outlet sections along their axial lengths
to achieve uniform cooling along the length of
the generator field. This uniform cooling eliminated axial hotspots and allowed the ratings of
the generators to be increased. The design was
named radial-axial-radial because of the cooling
flow which enters the rotor radially, goes in a
radial direction into the winding, then proceeds
in an axial direction and finally in a radial direction out of the winding. (See Figure 9.) This cooling scheme is accomplished by using extruded
copper conductors that have been intricately
machined to achieve the desired cooling pattern.
The radial flow direct-cooling arrangement was

originally developed for large hydrogen-cooled
four-pole generators. Once perfected, it was
adapted to two-pole hydrogen cooled genera-
This design had been used very successfully and

reliably for over 40 years. However, the design
was replaced by diagonal flow design, which
also incorporated a gap pickup. Diagonal flow
OUTLET
IN
OUT
IN
OUT
IN
OUT
IN
OUT
CORE
Figure 8. Rotor and stator cooling zones
Figure 9. Radial-axial-radial cooled coil slot

offered the additional benefit of a simpler
design that allowed it to be manufactured more
easily, while increasing long term reliability
without sacrificing performance. If a radialaxial-radial field requires a rewind, it is typically
converted to a diagonal flow design or replaced
with a new diagonal cooled rotor.
Diagonal Flow Cooling

The arrangement used in large two-pole generators is referred to as diagonal flow cooling.
Figure 7 shows a detailed cross-section of a typical diagonal flow field coil. Gas flows down
through a series of slotted holes, offset in each
layer from those in the previous layer. The bottom turn is a channel that redirects the gas to
another series of slotted holes which force the
gas upward in a diagonal progression to the top
of the coil. The pumping action to provide gas
flow is obtained in the configuration of the slot
wedges, requiring little fan pressure to circulate
gas through the rotor winding. The holes for
gas inlet are inclined in such a manner that
rotation of the field forces the gas through the
wedge and down into successive turns of the
coil. Discharge holes in the wedges have a
raised section preceding the hole in the direction of rotation. This creates a pressure reduction at the hole with the lower pressure inducing gas flow by suction from the discharge end.
There are several alternate inlet and discharge
sections throughout the length of the rotor,

providing multiple parallel paths through the
winding (as shown in Figure 8). The stator core
has corresponding inlet and outlet sections,
matching those in the generator field.
Laminated Rotors
Until 1940 some older, smaller generator rotors
were constructed with laminated steel (e.g., 5
MVA in 1935) in limited number. GE occasionally will get a request for spare parts, which we
can generally support. Laminated rotors were
constructed of a shaft forging and laminated
full circle punchings shrunk onto the shaft with
the collector end secured by a large nut to keep
the punchings tight. A few of these units experienced vibration problems because the punchings shifted, causing a kink. Finding the kinked
location and straightening out the punching
package would usually fix the vibration. These
laminated rotors were built with a stator bore of
up to 23.75 inches. Beyond that, the rotor
should be a solid design. The fields had a oneor two-piece coil slot wedge made of brass, and
on some early units the wedges were actually
insulated from the rotor laminations. The laminated rotors had radiating plates and sometimes holes in the retaining rings for end turn
cooling. Generally such a rotor cannot be
uprated, mainly due to flux density limitations
of the original design.
7

Current 4-Pole Salient Pole Rotors
GE continues to produce state-of-the-art salient
laminated rotors to support the GE 4-Pole
Alterrex Excitation System (typical ratings are
up to 4375 KVA). Of course vast improvements
have been made in the design over the past 50
years compared to what was discussed in the
previous paragraph. However, the rotors are
limited in diameter and are most appropriate
for machines in the smaller MVA ratings.
Problems Encountered With Generator

Rotors
As a generator rotor ages, its insulation can be
affected by temperature, mechanical wear and
operating incidents. Rotor forging and other
rotor components are also at risk. The most
common problems occurring with generator
rotors are shorted turns and breakdown in
groundwall insulation. These two concerns will
be discussed in detail.
Shorted Turns and Field Grounds

A short or ground occurs when the insulation in
the field is damaged. A short results when the
insulation between the copper turns is altered
locally, allowing the adjacent turns to make contact. Although this is not desirable, generator
fields have operatedand will operatewith a
limited number of shorted turns without significant effect to the operation of the generator.
Shorts can occur anywhere in the winding of
the generator; however, they are most common
in the endwinding area under the retaining
rings.
Grounds occur because of a breakdown in the
groundwall insulation. This can be in the slot
portion of the field, under the retaining ring, at
the main lead and terminals or collector and
collector terminals, or in the bore copper
region. However, unlike having a short, it is rec-
ommended not to operate a field with a

ground. As the source of excitation is
ungrounded, a single ground will not cause current to circulate in the field forging. Yet if a second ground should occur, current will circulate
in the forging, and in a very short period of
time melting and serious damage to the forging
can result.
Figure 10 shows an example of both a short and
a ground in the slot section of a generator field.
It should be noted that the short only affects the
insulation between the turns of copper windings, while the ground wall insulation is not
affected. Figure 11 is an example of a ground in
the endwinding area between the top turn of
the winding and the retaining ring.
The following conditions can lead to field insulation breakdown:
Time. The longer a generator has been
in service, the higher the probability
that the soundness of the insulation
has been compromised by mechanical
stress or heat related damage.
COIL SLOT
WEDGE
CREEPAGE
BLOCK
WINDING
GROUND
LOCATION
COPPER
WINDING
WINDING
SHORT
TURN
INSULATION
SLOT
ARMOR
Figure 10. Coil slot insulation breakdown
RETAINING RING
INSULATION
GROUND
LOCATION
RETAINING RING
END WINDINGS
Figure 11. Field endwinding insulation breakdown

Type of operation. A generator field
that is subject to many start-stops
and/or VAR cycling is more prone to a
degrading of the insulation system
than a field that is baseloaded.
Contamination. The integrity of the
insulation can be jeopardized if contamination has been introduced into
the machine or if there has been any
burning in the generator (which produces conductive material that can circulate inside the generator). This phenomenon is discussed in detail later in
the paper.
Operating incidents. Any operating
incidents that induce heating, burning,
arcing, high stresses, etc., can be detrimental to the insulation. This abnormal operation includes motoring, a
negative sequence event (closing generator breaker at standstill or turning
gear or single phase operation), burning within the generator or an overspeed incident.
As mentioned previously, in many cases the generator can operate satisfactorily with shorted
turns in the field, whereas it is not recommended that a field be operated with a ground. While
shorts are undesirable, they do not present any

significant risk to the machine. Consequences
of operating a field with shorts include the
inability to reach the nameplate rating on the
machine and the possibility of developing a
thermally sensitive generator field. In the worst
case, this would require a full field rewind in
which all winding insulation would be replaced.
In the case of a single field ground, current will
not flow in the field forging. However, if a second ground occurs, current will immediately
start to flow between the two ground points.
Within a matter of seconds this current could
generate enough heat to melt the field forging,
wedges or retaining ring. This could cause
irreparable damage to the affected components, and in the worst case, result in the rotor
bursting.
If a field ground occurs, the cause should be
immediately determined and corrective action
should be taken. Operating with a ground can
lead to serious field damage and even to catastrophic failure should a second ground occur.
Unfortunately, there is no way to determine if
and when a second ground will occur.
As units age and experience many start-stop
cycles, the turn insulation will degrade. In such
conditions it is not uncommon for shorted
9

turns to develop. Many units have operated for
years with shorted turns without affecting the
function of the field or the generator. It is only
necessary to repair the shorted turns when the
operation of the generator is unacceptably
affected (i.e, the unit rating cannot be
obtained, or unacceptable thermal sensitivity
develops).
Regular inspection and testing of the generator
field is the best way to ensure the integrity of the
insulation system. If an insulation fault develops, a number of diagnostic tests can pinpoint
the location and severity of the fault. This ability to quickly and accurately diagnose the problem minimizes the time required to implement
corrective action, allowing the field to be
returned to service in the shortest possible
time.
There are a number of other concerns that also
affect generator rotors.
Thermal Sensitivity
Thermal sensitivity is the term used to describe
an excessive vibration of the generator rotor,
induced by the heating effect of the field current. As field current flows in the winding, the
copper heats up. Two things happen as a consequence:
1. The copper, having a greater coefficient of
thermal expansion, expands more than the
steel forging. This disparity in expansion
results in the transmission of forces to the
forging through the rotor slots, wedges,
retaining ring and centering ring.
2. The heat generated in the copper dissipates
into the forging and is drawn away by the
cooling medium (air or hydrogen).
As long as both of these conditions occur symmetrically about the rotor centerline, there will
be no forces that tend to "bow" the rotor.
However, when the coil forces act unevenly, or

when a temperature differential exists across
the rotor, the rotor will tend to bow, causing an
imbalance and subsequent vibration.
A thermally sensitive field will exhibit a change
in vibration magnitude and/or phase angle
with a change in field current. The circumstances that might cause a non-uniform distribution of forces are varied. Some of the more
common factors that may cause thermal sensitivity (either singularly or in combination)
include:
Shorted turns. When a significant
number of adjacent field turns are
shorted, the pole with the greater
number of turn shorts will have a lower
resistance than the other pole. With
the same current flowing, the higher
resistance pole (the one with less
shorts) will heat up and expand more
than the other, causing a bow in its
direction.
Blocked ventilation. A blocked
ventilation path may cause an uneven
heat distribution in the rotor in much
the same way that shorted turns can.
Insulation variation. Non-uniformity
in field insulation can result in binding
of the field coils and an uneven
distribution of friction forces, both in
the slots and under the retaining ring.
In this case, the coils with the greater
binding or friction will transmit a
greater axial load to the rotor, again
causing the rotor to bow.
Wedge fit. Uneven tightness of the
field wedges can also result in nonuniform distribution of axial forces
around the rotor. This situation is most
prevalent when a portion of a field's
10

wedges are replaced and the fit of the
new wedges is inconsistent with those
of the existing wedges.
Endwinding blocking fit. Similar to
uneven wedge fits, unevenly spaced
and fitted distance blocks can cause a
non-uniformity of forces to be
transmitted to the rotor, again
resulting in bowing of the rotor and a
change in its dynamic characteristics.
This situation is most common in fields
having spindle-mounted retaining
rings.
While these are the most common causes of
thermal sensitivity, there are other less prevalent causes such as misuse of adhesives, incorrect materials and certain types of misoperation.
There are two general types of thermal sensitivity: reversible and irreversible. As the name
implies, reversible thermal sensitivity is characterized by its reversible and repeatable behavior.
If a field's vibration increases and decreases as a
direct function of field current, the thermal
sensitivity can be considered reversible. However, if the field vibration increases with field
current, but does not respond directly to a subsequent decrease in field current, the thermal
sensitivity is considered irreversible, or slipstick. The reversibility of a field's thermal sensitivity can be determined through a series of
tests, the results of which will generally give
some clues as to the most effective remedy.
GER-3809 (Generator Rotor Thermal SensitivityTheory and Experience) covers generator field thermal sensitivity in great detail.
Contamination
The type and extent of contamination to be
expected in a generator primarily depends
upon its cooling configuration. A hydrogencooled generator is well sealed and should see
very little contamination. A TEWAC (totally
enclosed water to air cooled) unit will require
small amounts of make-up air that can introduce particulates into the generator. An OV
(open ventilated) generator is most likely to see
large amounts of contamination introduced
into the field.
Contamination of generator rotors can come
from many sources. Carbon, which represents
one of the more common contaminates, can
come from collector brush wear or gas turbine
exhaust. Other particulates likely to be found in
a generator (such as silicon or petroleum byproducts) can come from nearby operations or
processes. While the inlet filters eliminate most
of the contaminates from the air, the flow
through the generator is so great that even a
small percentage in the air stream equates to
significant deposits over time. Other types of
contamination can come from the generator
itself. Worn insulation, blocking and wedges
can introduce particulates into the ventilation
stream that can accumulate in the field.
Liquid contamination may also be present and
can compound problems by combining with
the particulate contamination and sticking on
all areas of the rotor. Generally, liquid contamination is limited to oil from the hydrogen seals
and bearings. The oil can get drawn into the stator and coat both the stator and rotor ventilation paths. As a result, particulates in the ventilation stream that otherwise would proceed
unimpeded will stick to the oily film and eventually create a significant build-up.
Problems that can arise from contamination
build-up in a generator rotor include low meggar (resistance to ground) readings, overheating, creepage failures, and turn shorts.
11

Collector, Bore Copper and Connection
Problems
The collectors, bore copper and main leads represent a vital link in the excitation path. One
problem encountered in this area is "collector
flashover," in which the positive collector flashes to ground due to contamination. This creates
a creepage path (a degradation of the collector
shell insulation) that ultimately results in a
forced outage.
As a rotor ages, loosening of components may
develop in the rotor bore, bore copper, terminal studs, copper coils, retaining rings, terminal
stud gooseneck, or mainlead 90 bend. The
loosening may lead to increased relative motion
between the stud/main lead and the #1 coil.
This can result in low and high cycle fatigue,
leading to breakage of the connection and a
forced outage due to "loss of field current."
A large number of mechanical connections
between the collectors and the #1 coils are in
close proximity to ground potential. The insulation in these areas is designed with generous
creepage paths, but over time the insulation can
degrade, leading to a field ground and a forced
outage. (See Figure 12.)
Copper Distortion
Distortion in the copper winding is sometimes
found after a generator field has been in service
for a period of time and maintenance work is
performed on the rotor. (See Figure 13.) This
condition most frequently occurs in the endwinding area. Distortion can occur due to the
following reasons:
The presence of soft or annealed copper
Friction between the top turns and the
retaining ring insulation
Frequent cycling of the winding
Overheating of the winding
Coil foreshortening
Any damaged copper must be repaired or
replaced prior to returning the generator rotor
to service. Failure to do so can result in shorted
turns or field grounds.
Forging Concerns
Generator rotor forgings should be inspected
prior to a rewind to determine the long-term
structural integrity. This is especially true if the
rotor has been exposed to negative sequence
Figure 12. Collector and brush holder neglect
12

ing will occur through normal operation.
However, if the generator rotor is subjected to
significant negative sequence events, GE Energy
Services should be consulted prior to the commencement of repairs or return to service. GE
Energy Services can then determine the severity of such an incident and advise in the inspections that should be performed. Units with significant hours of turning gear operations
(greater than 10,000 hours) should contact GE
Energy Services regarding inspection recommendations.
Figure 13. Moderate copper distortion
currents or a motoring incident, or if the forging was manufactured prior to 1959. Negative
sequence currents can cause burning, hard
spots and cracking on the surface of the forging. Rotors manufactured prior to 1959 tend to
have significantly lower toughness than modern
day forgings and the increased levels of impurities found in the forgings make many of them
marginal for continued use.
During inspections in the period from 1995 to
2001, three out of seventeen of our large steam
turbine generators were found to have cracked
generator rotor teeth. In two of these cases the
rotors also had experienced in-service negative
sequence events, which resulted in arc strikes
on the rotor teeth, dovetail load surfaces, and
on the mating surfaces of the slot wedges. The
third generator rotor that experienced cracking
had an operational history that included extensive turning gear operations (25,600 hours in
an eight-year period). The cracks were detected
during rewind inspections and were in the radial circumferential direction.
Based on the design of these fields and the low
stress and original fatigue life calculations, it is
not expected that generator rotor tooth crack-
Testing of the bore of the forgings is recommended for all of those manufactured before
1959 or if the generator is subject to frequent
start-stops. Also, for those forgings manufactured after 1959 that have been in service over
25 years and 5000 start-stop cycles, it is recommended that the rotor bores of these forgings
be inspected. Prior to 5000 start-stop cycles, the
rotor teeth, dovetails and field wedges should
be inspected using magnetic particle and fluorescent techniques.
Retaining Ring Concerns

Figure 14 shows the retaining rings used to
restrain the centrifugal force of the rotor winding end turns. They require very careful attention during design and manufacture since they
are the highest stressed components of the generator. The centrifugal load of the end winding
contributes 5000 to 8000 pounds for each
pound of copper under the ring. This produces
a hoop stress, which attempts to stretch the ring
during operation into a slightly elliptical shape
for two-pole rotors due to the inherent non-uniform weight distribution of the end turns and
the associated blocking. In modern generators
the retaining ring is shrunken on a machined
fit at the end of the body. This forces the retaining ring to remain cylindrical at full speed and
13

RETAINING
RING
CENTERING
RING
LOCKING
RING
= INDICATES SHRINK FIT
A. BODY-MOUNTED RETAINING RING ASSEMBLY
= INDICATES SHRINK FIT
B. SPINDLE-MOUNTED RETAINING RING SHOWING

PHENOMENA OF RING AND COIL FLEXURE
Figure 14. Retaining ring mounts

prevents differential movement of the ring with
respect to the body.
excessive heat may occur and possibly

damage the ring.
There are two types of retaining ring mounting

schemes: spindle-mounted and body-mounted.
Spindle-mounted. Spindle-mounted
retaining rings allow flexure between
the rotor body and retaining ring,
which can lead to insulation and coil
failure at this location. This is particularly true for units that operate with frequent start-stops and/or load cycling.
Body-mounted. A retaining ring mounted on the field body is subject to high

circulating currents during certain
unbalanced loading conditions that
produce negative-sequence currents in
the rotor body. The current circulates
in a closed loop pattern: first along
the length of the field body, then
entering the retaining ring and flowing
circumferentially around the ring for a
short distance before returning to the
field body. Unless good electrical contact exists at the junction between the
retaining ring and the rotor body,
Two classes of materials are used for retaining

rings: magnetic and nonmagnetic. Nonmagnetic rings are used for higher-rated generators
to minimize leakage flux and to reduce losses.
The older generator rotors in the GE fleet use
retaining rings that were manufactured from
magnetic forging materials. These rings have
provided reliable service and have not been a
problem when well maintained. However, some
14

magnetic rings that were exposed to extensive
moisture have developed severe corrosion and
rusting and have required rework or replacement. Magnetic retaining rings were replaced
with those made from nonmagnetic materials.
Two of the most common materials were
Gannalloy and 18 Manganese-5 Chromium
(18Mn-5Cr). Both of these materials have been
recognized to have problems that arise from
their operating environment. Gannalloy has
been found to be subject to embrittlement
when operated in a hydrogen environment. As
a result, it is recommended that those type rings
be replaced.
Across the industry it has been found that
retaining rings made from 18Mn-5Cr are subject to stress corrosion cracking (SCC).
Because of the high incidence of SCC on these
rings, it is recommended that all utility and
industrial 18Mn-5Cr retaining rings be
replaced with an 18Mn-18Cr material which is
highly resistant to stress corrosion cracking.
Since the generator rotor must be removed
from the stator to replace the retaining rings,
this is most often done when the generator is
on a major outage and when the rotor is
being rewound. Failure to properly maintain
retaining rings could result in a catastrophic
failure. (See Figure 15.)
Figure 15. Catastrophic retaining ring failure
Misoperation
There are various modes of generator rotor
misoperation. While some are rather benign to
the rotor, some are catastrophic to the rotor
and can cause secondary damage to the generator stator as well as to the prime driver.
Misoperation of the rotor can occur due to a
number of reasons including: internal generator failure, auxiliary equipment failure, abnormal system conditions, and operator error.
The most common modes of misoperation that
can affect a generator rotor are shown in Table 1.
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
Field overheating
Loss of excitation
Rotor or stator vibration
Synchronizing errors
Motoring
Reduced seal oil pressure
Unbalanced armature currents
Loss of synchronism
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
Abnormal frequency and voltage

Breaker failure
Voltage surges
Transmission line switching
Electrical faults
High speed reclosing
Subsynchronous resonance
Accidental energization
Table 1. Common modes of misoperation
Generator Rotor Reliability and Life

Expectancy
Generator Rotor Life
The life expectancy of a generator rotor
depends upon mode of operation, rotor design
and operating incidents. Generators that are
operated as peaking units with many start-stops
and also with high var loads (high field currents) generally will have a lower life expectancymuch shorter than a base load unit with few
start-stops and operating near unity power factor with lower field current. More frequent
start-stops tend to induce more mechanical
wear on the insulation and will lead to more
long term distortion on the copper conductor.
This is because the insulation and copper are
subject to extremely high "g-forces" every time
the generator is accelerated to speed. When the
unit is at speed and high field current is applied
to the copper winding, high forces are devel-
15

oped in the axial direction. This can cause copper deformation and distortion and also can
cause abrasion on the insulation, which can
lead to premature failure.
The older conventionally-cooled rotors have
higher "hot-spot" temperatures. If operated at
high field currents they would tend to have
shorter life expectancies than a direct-cooled
field, which tends to distribute heat removal
more evenly. Generator rotors with spindlemounted retaining rings tend to require maintenance and repair work more frequently than
those with body-mounted retaining rings. This
is due to the relative motion between the spindle-mounted retaining rings and the field body
caused by start-stops and once-per-revolution
bending. This may lead to top turn breaks and
other operational problems such as thermal
sensitivity.
Operating incidents such as motoring or negative sequence operation can lead to rotor forging and retaining ring damage. Other incidents
of high voltage spikes have caused insulation
failures that have led to shorted turns and field
grounds. Minimizing operational incidents can
prevent premature maintenance work on a generator rotor and can prolong its useful life.
Generator Experience
Generator rotors that operate primarily at base
load duty and have minimal operating incidents
can expect to have an average useful life of
approximately 30 years. This approximate lifespan, of course, applies to the forging. The insulation and the copper may need to be repaired
or replaced during this time. On the other
hand, rotors that see frequent start-stops and
load cycling can be expected to have a much
shorter useful lifespan. Older rotors with forging issues and/or spindle (flush) mounted
retaining rings are more prone to accelerated
life degradation. Although there is no exact forGE Power Systems GER-4212 (08/01)
mula, stop/start application does significantly

reduce service life. A unit operated in a frequent start/stop mode can expect the insulation life of roughly 30% to 50% of that of a base
load unit. If longer life expectancy is required,
a modern-designed field with body-mounted
retaining rings and direct conductor cooling
may yield a significant improvement.
Knowing the life expectancy of a generator
rotor is very helpful in planning future maintenance and minimizing forced outages.
Frequent inspections, and electrical and flux
probe testing can help diagnose insulation deterioration and assist in decision making for
future repairs and rotor rewinds.
Generator Rotor Refurbishment and

Replacement
Generator Rotor Rewind
Reasons For Rewinding
Experience has shown the rotor to be the generator component requiring the most maintenance. This is not surprising considering that it
operates under very high centrifugal load, and
that typical operating incidents have the greatest impact on the field (motoring, contamination, etc.). Rewind of the field normally focuses
on re-insulation of the field winding. However,
the owner should not lose sight of other considerations. It is common for older units to be
operated at lower power factors to carry more
reactive power. This places greater duty on the
field leading to accelerated wear and, at times,
field current sensitive vibration (thermal sensitivity). GE has developed several component
modifications to the designs, including a
patented "slip plane modifications" to improve
the field vibration stability at high thermal
loads. These modifications are available for
retrofit or as part of a rewind.
16

The first step in considering a generator rotor
rewind is to define its intended use. For example, what are the service life, reliability requirements, outage interval requirements, load
requirements (MW and MVAR) load and performance requirements (such as change in
power factor, terminal voltage, etc.).
Realistically defining these parameters will
establish the extent of the rotor rewind necessary. GE can produce several options with various levels of risk for future operation.
most labor intensive (hand taped) since the turn

insulation is applied prior to winding and provides the most protection against contamination.
The disadvantage of this system is that it requires
narrower copper in the slot section because tape
adds to the coil width. (See Figure 16.)
TURN INSULATION
CONSISTING OF
HALF LAPPED
GLASS BACKED
MICA TAPE
Types Of Insulation
When a new winding is being provided, the
three basic decisions the designer must make
are number of turns per slot, turn cross-section,
and method of cooling. Normally, the method
of cooling the new winding will be the same as
the original winding. However, there are cases
where an improved cooling scheme should be
evaluated to facilitate an uprate or for reliability considerations. The number of winding turns
and turn cross-sections is determined through
analysis, in conjunction with the selected turn
and ground insulation systems.
There are three types of turn insulation systems.
The first is a system of taped turns where every
other turn is taped, including the end turns, with
a mica mat tape. This system is the least costly but
ONE LAYER HALF LAPPED
.003" GLASS TAPE ON
TOP TURN OF EACH COIL
AND THE THIRD TURN
DOWN ON THE LONGEST
COIL
TOP
TURN
Figure 16. Taped insulation system

The second system consists of strip turn insulation in the slots and taped ends. This system
allows for wider copper in the slots, yet still provides for contamination protection in the end
region since every other turn is taped with mica
mat tape. The third system is an "all strip turn
insulation" system and it utilized when
improved endwinding cooling is required. The
strips can be either Nomex or a glass laminate
as shown in Figure 17.
NOMEX CORNER PIECE

UNDER GLASS BEGINNING
AT THIS CORNER
SLOT SECTION INSULATION

WITH TWO .005" NOMEX SLOT STRIPS
WITH .001" OF STRIPPED PRESSURE
SENSITIVE ADHESIVE SIDE TOWARD
COPPER WITH TAPED END STRAP
END SECTION INSULATION
CONSISTING OF .005"
NOMEX STRIPS TOP AND
BOTTOM OF TURN WITH
HALF LAPPED .003" GLASS
TAPE AND VARNISH AS A
STICKER
Figure 17. Taped and strip insulation system

17

There are two types of ground insulation (or
slot armor) material that are currently used in
the slot section. The first type is a rigid armor
that has high mechanical strength. This material has a glass base and may contain a film layer.
In addition, in higher-voltage fields this material has a grading applied to prevent creepage
failures at the top and bottom of the slot. The
other type of material is Nomex, which is both
flexible and tough.
Ground insulation in the end region is provided by the retaining ring insulation, shown in
Figure 18, and by the designed creepage paths at
the slot exit and centering ring. The retaining
ring insulation must be mechanically strong to
withstand the centrifugal loading, yet flexible
enough to absorb the discontinuities of the
endwinding's outer surface. It also has to allow
for movement of the end turns due to thermal
expansion. An outer layer of glass and an inner
layer of Nomex typically provide these features.
The inner surface is also treated with a low friction coating to allow more uniform movement
of the winding.
The endwinding blocking must support the
winding to prevent permanent distortion, yet
also allow for thermal expansion. (See Figure
19.) The blocking materials that are currently
utilized are epoxy glass laminates. It is impor-
RETAINING
RING
COIL
WEDGE
RETAINING
RING
INSULATION
ENDWINDING
BLOCKING
COPPER
COILS
Figure 19. Endwinding blocking

tant to employ a service-proven blocking pattern that is compatible with the specific endwinding geometry being used, since it is the
blocking pattern which allows for thermal
expansion movement and ventilation. Also, special consideration must be given to the blocking
and support of pole-to-pole, coil-to-coil and terminal connectors. It should be noted that
asbestos was used extensively in older generation distance blocks and rotor insulation; maintenance/repair processes must take this into
account.
Some design features are added when high
cyclic duty is anticipated. These include reliefs
in either the copper or body at the end of the
coil slots to prevent armor damage, reliefs
between the slot armor ends, and the blocks just
outside the body when rigid armors are utilized.
TOP ACTIVE TURN

SECOND ACTIVE TURN
Figure 18. Retaining ring insulation
Generator Rotor Modifications, Upgrades

and Uprates
An uprate often can be realized while performing a rewind, modification or replacement to a
18

generator rotor. For example, a rewind could
be an opportunity to install new Class F temperature-insulating materials. Running at a
higher temperature from higher field amps can
produce more flux and more MVAR and/or
MW. The same applies to a direct-cooled conversion or a replacement rotor with perhaps
more uprate capability.
It has been common to support a gas turbine or
steam turbine uprate by taking advantage of the
existing generator margin (i.e., just operate the
generator at a higher power factor than originally designed). An example of this would be to
operate at 0.95 lag rather than the original 0.9
lag, while recognizing a reduction in MVAR
capability. Assuming the generator is in "as-new
"condition, this requires no changes to the generator hardware or performance curves, as long
as it operates within the existing reactive capability curve.
With recent energy shortages causing
brownouts and blackouts, this practice of uprating generators at the expense of existing MVAR
capabilityalong with projected reinforcements of NERC Planning Standard Section G30
(.9 pf lag minimum) uprates to rotorsshould
be strongly reconsidered.
AREA 2
KVARs
ORIGINAL RATED
POWER FACTOR
NEW RATED POWER
FACTOR (STATOR
REWIND ONLY)
KWATTS
AREA 1
NEW LEADING POWER
FACTOR CAPABILITY
ORIGINAL LEADING POWER
FACTOR CAPABILITY
INCREASED CAPABILITY WITH FIELD REWIND
INCREASED CAPABILITY WITH STATOR REWIND
Figure 20. Uprating capability curve

increased unless the rotor has a margin that was
unused at the previous rating. Similarly, unless
there is unused temperature capability in the
core end region, the leading power factor capability becomes more restrictive. To control core
end heating, some cases may require changing
from magnetic to non-magnetic retaining rings
When any change in the rating of a generator

is contemplated, a coordinated examination of
all the generator components is necessary. This
can best be understood by referring to
Figure 20.
These changes also require a design study and

possible upgrade/replacement of the coolers
and excitation system. For this reason, rewinds
can best be addressed by the original equipment manufacturer who has the knowledge of
the unit's electromagnetic design and is in a
position to make the necessary design studies
and capability assessments.
As shown in Figure 20, Area 1 indicates the

increased capability that is potentially available
if the stator is rewound. Area 2 shows additional capability that is potentially available if the
field is also rewound. Notice that if the stator
alone is rewound, the power factor in the lagging region at the new maximum rating is
The magnitude of the performance improvement that can be achieved varies widely from
machine to machine. In a conventional hydrogen-cooled generator, uprate potential can
range from 10% (with a new armature winding)
to as high as 35% (with a new armature winding, new direct-cooled field and new exciter).
Impact on Other Components
19

Generator Rotor Replacement
It is often possible to repair/refurbish an existing rotor to satisfactory working condition.
However, in certain circumstances, it may
become necessary to replace the existing rotor.
The following situations are instances when
replacement is preferable to repair:
When outage duration is critical, the
differential cost between a rewind and
a replacement may be offset by potential loss of revenue.
A significant uprate, or other benefit such
as increased efficiency, may be achievable
with a replacement field, but not with a
modification to the existing field.
An operational, or other, incident may
have damaged the rotor forging sufficiently to make further operation
impossible or unsafe.
There are generally two choices to obtaining a
replacement field: a newly manufactured field
or an exchange field. These are discussed in the
following sections.
Exchange Field
GE has implemented an exchange field program for some of the more numerous generator models, where the customer will receive a
completely refurbished field as a replacement.
The existing field is removed and returned to
GE for refurbishment for another customer.
The benefits include a shorter outage and lower
cost than a new replacement field. The original
design of the field remains the same, though
the retaining rings are upgraded to 18Mn-18Cr.
New Field
In addition to the benefit of a short outage
duration, a new field would incorporate the latest design features such as:
Direct-cooled coils, either radially or

diagonally cooled
Body-mounted retaining rings (for larger units)
Creepage blocks
"State-of-the art" insulation system
In some cases, a new field will allow for more
efficient operation and will also permit the generator to be uprated.
Rewind, Refurbishment and Replacement

Recommendations Versus Risk
Below are listed recommendations to repair
rotors, in order of risk.
New Replacement Rotor

The best technical option is to uprate to a new
Class F rotor with a body-mounted, 18Mn-18Cr
retaining ring and a direct-cooled winding with
a state-of-the-art high quality forging). It
extends life the most, offers the most additional uprate capability, allows for the quickest outage and will address TILs. Though it is initially
the most expensive option, it may ultimately be
the most cost effective when considering potential back-end costs such as replacement rotors
and downtime.
Exchange Field
Currently there are exchange fields for the
more numerous gas turbine generator models.
Additional exchange fields are being added as
the fleet ages. Other than a new replacement
field, an exchange field is the best technical
option since it replaces most hardware while
reusing another NDT rotor forging for economy. Cost is less than a replacement field but
higher than a rewind with new copper. The
exchange fields are balanced.
20

Rewind With New Copper
This is the next best repair. It consists of a new
copper field winding, field winding turn and
ground insulation, slot filler, blocking, and
retaining ring insulation. New copper should
strongly be considered if the rotor is more aged,
as the copper can soften and distort over a period of time (approximately 15-30 years). The
decision to replace or reuse existing copper is
somewhat subjective. It is best to inspect the
copper at an outage and make the decision to
order new copper for rewinding at the next outage. Unlike the previous two repair options, this
repair does not renew the collector ring insulation, the bore copper insulation, collector stud
insulation or main lead and terminal insulation.
These options should be ordered if the field is
to be completely renewed. A high speed balance is strongly recommended with new copper. The risk of this option is not replacing the
collector ring insulation, the bore copper insulation, collector stud insulation or main lead
and terminal insulation and not addressing any
pre-existing conditions with the forging or
retaining rings, etc.
Rewind Reusing Original Copper

This is perhaps the most economical repair but
carries commensurate longer-term risk and is
not recommended for older aged rotors, as its
repair scope is limited. The scope of material is
basically field winding turn and ground insulation, slot filler, blocking and retaining ring insulation. The original copper is cleaned but
reused. This repair does not normally renew
the collector ring insulation, the bore copper
insulation, collector stud insulation or main
lead and terminal insulation. A high speed balance is not normally recommended as there is
not the significant change in mass introduced
that would require a balance. This repair has
greater risk in the long run because it does not
normally replace the original copper, collector

ring insulation, the bore copper insulation, collector stud insulation or main lead and terminal
insulation. Nor does it address any pre-existing
conditions with the forging or retaining rings,
etc., although these components may need
replacing at any time after the basic rewind
repair. Any of these repairs can be added to the
workscope if higher reliability is desired.
High Speed Balancing

In addition to the obvious benefit of maximizing dynamic stability, a high speed balance
allows for a comprehensive evaluation of the
generator rotor's overall suitability for service.
The quality of work performed on the rotor can
be fully assessed, which minimizes the potential
for a costly outage extension. A fully equipped
high speed balance facility can perform each of
the following:
High Speed Balance

In most cases a high speed balance, under stringent acceptance criteria, will eliminate the need
for subsequent "trim" balancing on sitea
process that can be extremely time consuming
due to the extent of disassembly and reassembly of
the generator necessary to gain access to the rotor.
GE recommends a high speed balance whenever the rotor is rewound with new coils. However,
experience has shown that a rewind with existing copper does not require a high speed balance to successfully return to service with
acceptable vibration levels.
Flux Probe Test

A flux probe test can be performed if the facility is equipped with a static excitation system to
energize the rotor coils. A flux probe test can
then be conducted to determine whether any
shorted turns exist. The field is spun up to operating speed and excitation applied to the col21

lectors. The flux probe then measures the relative magnetic flux from each coil. If there are
one or more shorts in a coil, the relative flux
will be lower in that coil compared to its corresponding coil. The number of shorts and number of turns per coil determines acceptability.
Thermal Sensitivity Test

In some GE balance facilities sufficient power is
available from the excitation system to perform
a thermal sensitivity test and a related testa
prewarming test. The thermal sensitivity test
involves first running the rotor up to operating
speed and establishing a stable state prior to
applying excitation. Excitation is then applied.
With current through the coils, the temperature increases gradually during which time
vibration magnitudes and phase angles are
recorded at regular intervals. Once a target
temperature is reached and maintained for 20
minutes, a final set of data is recorded. From
the hot and cold vibration data a thermal vector
can be calculated. The field passes thermal sensitivity if the thermal vector is below a threshold
value, generally 3 mils.
If the field fails the thermal sensitivity test, a
prewarming test can be performed to aid in
diagnosing the cause of the thermal sensitivity.
To perform a prewarming test the rotor is
brought to operating temperature by spinning
at low speed with excitation applied. After operating temperature is reached, the rotor is spun
up to operating speed and vibration data taken.
A comparison of the vibration levels from the
prewarming test with those of the thermal sensitivity test can help in pinpointing the cause of
the thermal sensitivity.
Conclusion
The average age of the GE generator rotor is
approaching the limit of the original intended
life. The integrity of the insulation systems can

be monitored using flux probe and other electrical testing. As the generator rotors age, it
should be expected that rewinds, modifications
or replacements will be necessary, especially following an in-service operating incident. Many
options are available to the user in which the
rotor can be restored to the original condition,
modified to present day design condition or
replaced with a new, upgraded design.
Modifying or replacing the generator rotors
also gives the user the possibility of uprating the
generator.
Frequently Asked Questions

1) Q. What is the typical lifespan of a generator rotor?
A. The life is dependent upon mode of
operation, in-service operating incidents and misoperation. Generator
rotors are typically rewound, upgraded
or replaced in the 10-30 year time
frame. Those used in stop/start mode
can expect a shorter lifespan.
2) Q. What are the most common causes of a
generator rotor insulation breakdown?
A. The degradation in insulation is caused
by heating and/or mechanical wear
and/or operating incidents. A breakdown in the insulation will cause shorted turns between conductors or a
ground between the conductor, and
the field forging or retaining ring.
3) Q. When can a flux probe test be performed on a generator rotor?
A. The test can be performed under noload with the stator short-circuited or
during operation at load. When the test
is performed at load, it must be done
at various load points to test all coils in
the rotor.
22

4) Q. If a generator rotor is a conventional
(indirect-cooled) design, can the rotor
be converted to a direct-cooled winding?
A. Depending on the design of the rotor,
in some cases it is possible to convert to
a direct-cooled winding. Converting
involves machining subslots in the rotor
forging below the coil slots. Because of
rotor geometry and size, this modification is not possible on all rotors.
5) Q. Is there asbestos in generator rotor
insulation and blocking materials?
A. On older units, each GE generator
rotor that is being rewound or modified will have all components with
asbestos identified, while new nonasbestos materials will be included in
the rewind materials package.
6) Q. Why should a generator rotor not be
operated with a field ground?
A. While a single breakdown in groundwall insulation will not damage the
rotor or its components, should a second ground occur, high current will
pass through the rotor forging which
can cause melting, wedge and ring
damage and in the worst case, a forging
failure.
7) Q. What uprate potential does my generator have if it is rewound?
A. It depends on the particular design. GE
Generator Engineering can do a quick
proposal design and offer several
options with various uprates and possibly even increases in efficiency.
8) Q. Can just changing out a magnetic

retaining ring to a non-magnetic retaining ring uprate my rotor?
A. Yes. For example, for a small air cooled
generator (say 20 MW), 25% uprate in
field capability is possible.
9) Q. Should a field be high speed balanced
following a rewind?
A. GE recommends a high speed balance
following a rewind with new copper. If
copper is re-used, the field will generally not require a balance.
10) Q. Can thermal sensitivity result in a
forced outage?
A. Generally, thermally sensitive fields will
exhibit high vibrations that may limit
output, but it is very rare for thermal
sensitivity to force an outage. GE fields
have had only one such incident
11) Q. When should a replacement field be
considered?
A. A replacement field is worth considering when the customer is looking for:
A very short outage duration
Uprate potential
Replacement of a bad forging
Improved efficiency
Extended life
12) Q. Is there a GE Technical Information
Letter on rotor cracking ?
A. Yes. It is "TIL 1292", issued December
of 2000 and is titled "Large Steam
Turbine Generator Dovetail Inspection
Recommendation." It briefly cites several recent dovetail cracks in older generator forgings and recommends
inspection for those cracks.
23

List of Figures
Figure 1.
Figure 2.
Figure 3.
Figure 4.
Figure 5.
Figure 6.
Figure 7.
Figure 8.
Figure 9.
Figure 10.
Figure 11.
Figure 12.
Figure 13.
Figure 14.
Figure 15.
Figure 16.
Figure 17.
Figure 18.
Figure 19.
Figure 20.
Generator field
Collector end of generator field
Radial cooled slot
Rotor magnetic flux linking rotor and stator
Indirect cooled coil slot
Radial cooled coil slot
Diagonal cooled coil slot
Rotor and stator cooling zones
Radial-axial-radial cooled coil slot
Coil slot insulation breakdown
Field endwinding insulation breakdown
Collector and brush holder neglect
Moderate copper distortion
Retaining ring mounts
Catastrophic retaining ring failure
Taped insulation system
Taped and strip insulation system
Retaining ring insulation
Endwinding blocking
Uprating capability curve
List of Tables
Table 1.
Common modes of misoperation
24
Design Requirements for Brushless Permanent

Magnet Generators for Use in Small Renewable
Energy Systems
David G. Dorrell, Member IEEE
University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8LT, UK
D.Dorrell@elec.gla.ac.uk
Abstract-This paper reviews some of the arrangements and
connection requirements for a permanent-magnet generator. It
illustrates the importance of winding reactance minimization
when using a diode bridge rectifier. It uses modern CAD methods
to design a small PM generator and verifies the performance
using simulation software. The design is modified to improve the
generator size. This highlights that increasing the electrical
loading in an attempt to reduce the generator size can lead to a
large reduction in power factor, where a controlled rectifier
would have to be used instead of a diode bridge rectifier.
turbines operate at much lower speeds via a gearbox. It is

possible to use direct drive in large turbines and the different
systems were reviewed in [13].
The paper will review the systems that are utilized in small
systems then set out the design of a radial-flux brushless
permanent-magnet generator and simulate the machine in
conjunction with a 3-phase bridge rectifier. This process will
utilize SPEED motor design software and also Portunus system
simulation.
Index terms- permanent magnet generator, diode bridge
I.
INTRODUCTION
There is much literature that details the design of small 3phase brushless permanent-magnet motors. These utilize a
shaft encoder or Hall probes depending on whether it is a.c. or
d.c. control. This will ensure that the current is maintained on
the q axis or an appropriate advance (for field weakening). It is
possible to control the machine in a similar fashion when
generating. In this situation power flows out of the machine
terminals whereas reactive power flows into the machine to
supply the VAr requirement of the synchronous (or phase)
reactance [1][2].
However, this is often too complicated for many small
generator applications (such as small wind turbines) and the
use of a diode bridge is preferable, often with some capacitor
compensation across the generator terminals [3][4][5]. A d.c.
to d.c. chopper, battery and inverter can then be used to
condition the power and provide a stable output. This requires
good output regulation from the machine, i.e., minimization of
the synchronous reactance. It is not a simple matter of utilizing
a standard brushless permanent magnet motor. Many designs
use coreless designs to reduce the synchronous reactance. In
addition axial flux machines are utilized in these applications
[6] and also torus machines [7]. In stand-alone diesel
generators, the speed is fixed and the machine can be
connected directly to the load with a VAr compensator
connected in parallel with the load to regulate the voltage [8].
More standard radial-flux machines can be used in permanentmagnet generators and several designs have been reported
[9][10]. They are often required to be low speed in nature [11]
and be modular [12].
One of the main applications for the permanent magnet
generator is the wind turbine. Many smaller systems are direct
drive since they operate at higher turbine speeds while large
II. LOAD REQUIREMENTS

It is first worth reviewing the load requirements for a
generator in order to assess the performance.
A. Single-Phase Small Fixed Load and Variable Speed
This is a very established and very basic form of singlephase permanent magnet generator and the type found in
bicycle dynamo systems. It relies on having a matched load
(of, say, two 5 W 12 V lamps) so that once a base speed is
reached, the generator will deliver constant power over a wide
speed range. If the back-EMF induced into the 2-pole dynamo
is Ed then
(1)
Ed = K E d = ( jd Ld + rd + Rload ) I d
where KE is the generator back-EMF constant (Vs/rad), Ld is
the dynamo inductance, rd is the winding resistance and Rload is
the combined lamp resistance. The current Id can be
approximated when the winding reactance is much greater than
the load resistance so that
Id =
K Ed
j d L d + rd + R load
KE
Ld
(2)
d L d R loa d
and the terminal voltage is

Vd =
Rload K E d
R K
load E
Ld
( jd Ld + rd + Rload )
(3)
d Ld Rload
This illustrates that if the load is matched to the dynamo, a

constant voltage and current are obtained above the base speed.
A change in load will result in a change in power delivered to
the load.
B. 3-Phase Brushless Permanent Magnet Motor Example

To carry out an investigation into the operation of a
brushless permanent magnet motor when used as a generator it
was decided to use a 8 pole rare-earth example manufactured
for utilization in a pump (an SQFlex water pump motor from
Grundfos, Denmark). The machine was rated at 2.5 Nm at

3000 rpm. The motor parameters are given in Table I.
TABLE I
8-POLE 3-PHASE SQ FLEX MOTOR PARAMETERS (MOTORING)
Parameter
Value
Parameter
Value
DC Rail Voltage (Line)
300 V
Phase Resistance
1 ohm
Torque
2.5 Nm
Rated Current
4.3 A
Maximum Speed
3000 rpm
Rated Power
785 W
Measured Voltage
33.6
Measured Phase
5.25
Constant (Line voltage)
mV/rpm
Inductance
mH
Pole number
Connection
Star
At rated speed the frequency is 200 Hz; therefore to connect it

directly to a 50 Hz supply the speed is de-rated to 750 rpm and
the power to 187.5 W. At 3000 rpm the torque is rated at 2.5
Nm with a phase back-EMF of 60 V. Assuming the current is
on the q axis then this represents a current of 4.3 A. The wire
has a diameter of 0.56 mm meaning the current density is about
17 A/mm2. This seems high for a naturally ventilated machine,
however, this machine is water cooled using the pumped fluid.
In motoring mode the phasor diagram is as shown in Fig. 1
(taken from a SPEED PC-BDC model of the machine which
is an industry-standard brushless permanent-magnet motor
CAD software package), which shows that the voltage drop
across the phase reactance Xs is low. This is a good
characteristic in a machine for use as a generator. Many
permanent magnet machines will have a voltage drop in the
region of 1 p.u. whereas this is in the region of 0.37 (with
reference to the terminal voltage). This machine has a novel
form of manufacture and has coils that are concentrated around
one tooth. The cross section and winding are shown in Fig. 2.
We will use this to examine the behavior of the machine when
utilized as a generator in different situations. The open-circuit
back-EMF is shown in Fig. 3. This was obtained from the PCBDC simulation. The harmonic content of the phase voltage
waveform gives a fundamental with a peak of 89.2 V and a 5th
harmonic of 18.7 %.
jX s I ph
Fig. 3. Open-circuit back-EMF from SPEED PC-BDC.
C. Fixed Speed Operation Connected to AC Supply

If the machine is directly connected to an a.c. supply then
the back-EMF at 50 Hz is 15 V giving a potential of 190 W of
generation at a speed of 750 rpm. When the machine is
operated under these conditions it will behave as an underexcited synchronous machine. The terminal voltage should be
tied down to 15 V (the back-EMF). Obviously if it was
connected to a 400 V 50 Hz supply (UK system) then a step-up
transformer can be used, with the regulation of the transformer
allowing an increase of the machine terminal voltage.
Fig. 4. Portunus per-phase model for fixed-frequency operation.
q-axis
I ph R ph
E ph
V ph
Iph
d-axis
Fig. 1. Motoring phasor diagram at full load and maximum speed.

Fig. 5. Back-EMF, load voltage, load current and instantaneous power flow
with load angle between back-EMF and load voltage of 32 deg (750 rpm and
controlled rectifier loading).
Fig. 2. Motor cross-section and winding layout.
The machine can be modeled in a simulation package to

represent the system. This is shown in Fig. 4 where Portunus
from Adapted Solutions was used to simulate a per-phase
machine equivalent circuit. The model consisted of the
fundamental and 5th harmonic voltage sources together with a 1
ohm winding resistance and 5.25 mH inductance. The load is a
15 V (rms) voltage source. At 50 Hz the impedance of the
winding is |1 + j1.64| = 1.92 ohm. Therefore voltage drop at

4.3 A is 8.3 V. Considering the 15 V fundamental back-EMF
of the machine means that the load angle between the load
and fundamental can be set to sin(2 ) = 8.3/2 15, so that =
32 (where the load voltage lags the back-EMF). The
waveforms for the back-EMF (E1), load voltage, current and
instantaneous power are shown in Fig. 5 (current and power
scaled). The peak current is 5.55 A and contains 5th harmonic
(compared to 6.08 A calculated with no harmonic). The
delivered mean power is 135 W with 55.5 W of copper loss.
This illustrates the issue with low voltage generators they can
be low efficiency due to the high p.u. copper loss. It can also
be seen that there is a phase difference between the terminal
voltage and current the current is leading because load is
supplying the machine with the reactive power absorbed by the
winding reactance.
D. Variable Speed Operation with Varying Load

To drive the machine over a range of speeds then it is
necessary to use a rectifier of some description. To maximize
the operation then a controlled rectifier has to be utilized. If the
generator is used with a wind turbine system then the wind
power is a cube function of the wind speed. However, turbine
systems tend to be designed so that the electrical power
delivered is proportional to the turbine speed up to a base
speed then runs at constant power up to the maximum speed.
This matches well the operation of a brushless machine. The
same circuit in Fig. 4 can be used to test the system when the
load voltage and frequency are varied. If the system begins
generating at 50 Hz and moves up to 200 Hz the results for the
low speed operation are given in the previous section while the
high speed operation at 200 Hz is shown in Table II (controlled
rectifier results). The waveforms are shown in Fig. 6.
TABLE II
8-POLE 3-PHASE SQ FLEX MOTOR ACTING AS GENERATOR WITH
CONTROLLED RECTIFIER AND RESISTIVE LOAD AT 750 RPM AND 3000 RPM
Parameter
Speed [rpm]
Back-EMF Eph [V]
Load angle [deg]
Terminal phase voltage Vph [V]
Iph [A]
Angle between Eph and Iph [deg]
Pout [W]
Qin [VAr]
p.f. [p.u.]
Cu Loss [W]
Controlled
Rectifier
Low
High
Speed
Speed
750
3000
15
60
32
27.7
15
60
4.3
4.44
0
5
135
787.5
135
385
0.707
0.876
55.5
59.2
Resistive Load
(Diode Bridge)
Low
High
Speed
Speed
750
3000
15
60
21.8
22.3
8.86
53
4.3
4.0
21.8
22.3
95
520
0
0
1
1
55.5
55.5
E. Diode Bridge Operation

In the previous section it was assumed that a controlled
rectifier was used. This can be a complex system. The current
has to be maintained on the motor q-axis. The reactance of the
machine is quite low so we can now investigate the
performance when a simple diode bridge is used. A diode
bridge effectively acts as a load resistor so cannot supply any
reactive power to the machine.
The system is shown in Fig. 7. This includes the fifth voltage

harmonic in the back-EMF and also the phase resistance and
inductance. The diode bridge includes diode voltage drop.
Fig. 6. Back-EMF, load voltage, load current and instantaneous power flow
with load angle between back-EMF and load voltage of 27.7 deg (3000 rpm
and controlled rectifier loading).
Fig. 7. Portunus machine model including fifth voltage harmonic, phase

resistance and inductance, and diode bridge rectifier.
To calculate the required resistance it is necessary to refer

the rectified voltage VDC to the rms machine terminal voltage
Vph. This can be calculated to be
3 6
(4)
VDC =
V ph
Following this through then the per-phase equivalent resistance

/
R per
phase for the bridge load resistance RLoad is
/
R per
phase =
(5)
RLoad
18
If the maximum current is known, the equivalent circuit
/
resistance R per
phase can be calculated from
E ph
I ph
(R
ph
/
+ R per
phase
+ X S2
(6)
For the low speed example in the previous section Iph = 4.3
/
and
A and Eph =15 V. Hence R per
phase = 2.06
RLoad = 3.76 . The theoretical power in the equivalent load
resistances is 114 W where Vph = 8.86 V and VDC = 20.7 V.
The power dissipated in the bridge load resistance is then
20.72/3.76 = 114 W. However, the bridge diodes have a
forward voltage drop of 0.8 V therefore the power delivered to
the load becomes 19.12/3.76 = 97 W. The waveforms for the
power, back-EMF, phase voltage and phase current are shown
in Fig. 8 while the results are tabulated in Table II. The power
delivered to the bridge resistance is just under 100 W.
Compare this with a controlled bridge rectifier where the

power drawn from the generator is 135 W. This illustrates that
the output power is reduced by 30 % due to the use of a
resistive load rather than a controlled rectifier. The power
delivery can be improved by use of an active VAr compensator
across the machine terminals but this is quite complicated for a
simple small generator system.
SPEED PC-BDC design package. The winding layout is shown

in Fig. 10. To size the machine the various Ranging exercises
were conducted for a variety of parameters. This means that
parameters were varied (or Ranged) from one value to
another and simulations conducted at set points.
Fig. 9. Generator cross section for 32 pole internal rotor machine.
Fig. 8. Instantaneous power flow, back-EMF, load voltage and load current
with diode bridge rectifier at 750 rpm.
At high speed the results are shown in Table II. The diode
bridge load resistor RLoad = 20.6 and VDC = 112 V so that
the load power is 610 W including the diode voltage drop. The
simulation gives a result of 520 W of power delivered.
A simple chopper with current control can then be used to
set the d.c. voltage. If it is too low then there is an over current,
if it is too high then the generator is not being driven to its
maximum generating capacity.
III. GENERATOR DESIGN
The paper has so far examined the operation of a permanent
magnet motor when used as a generator under different
conditions. We will now investigate the design of a radial-flux
permanent magnet machine aimed at use in a small wind
turbine application utilizing a Darrius design. The required
operating specification is shown in Table III.
TABLE III
GENERATOR REQUIREMENTS FOR DARRIUS TURBINE
Low speed
Output power
Proposed frequency
Derived pole number
87.5 rpm
1 kW
23.3 Hz
32
High speed
Output power
Proposed frequency
Derived pole number
350rpm
4 kW
93.3 Hz
32
A. Initial Design Internal Rotor

The rated torque is 110 Nm. For a brushless permanent
magnet machine, let us assume a torque per rotor volume of 30
kNm/m3, which gives a sheer stress of 15 kNm/m3. This is a
typical mid-range figure for this type of machine [14]. The
rotor volume is therefore 3.7 10-3 m3. To size the machine
then assume an axial length to pole pitch of 1.5:1 (this is a
better indication to the length of the machine rather than the
axial length to rotor radius) which leads to a length to rotor
radius ratio of 1:3.39. This gives an axial length of 46 mm and
diameter of 316 mm. The rotor volume is then 3.6 10-3 m3.
This prodcues the machine shown in Fig. 9 where the more
detailed sizing and winding definition has taken place using the
Fig. 10. Winding layout for 32 pole internal rotor machine.
Some key parameters that were ranged were the magnet

length, tooth width, slot dept, winding thickness and several
others. The main issues to address are the power factor and
efficiency. The efficiency can be maximized simply by using
reducing the copper loss. This involves sizing the slots and
wire correctly. The performance figures at 87.5 rpm and 350
rpm are given in Table IV. An example of the Ranging is
shown in Fig. 11 where the magnet thickness is ranged and the
output power (which is negative due to the default use of the
motoring convention) and efficiency are inspected. It can be
seen that a magnet thickness of about 4 mm offers about the
best solution beyond this the iterative increase in power is
limited while the change in efficiency is negligible.
Fig. 11. Variation of machine output power and efficiency with magnet
thickness using PC-BDC Ranging function.
TABLE IV
GENERATOR PERFORMANCE FOR INTERNAL ROTOR MACHINE
Speed
[rpm]
87.5
350
Torque
[Nm]
106
107
Pout
[W]
857
3734
Ephase
[V]
45.7
182.9
Vphase
[V]
46.0
197.1
Iphase
[A]
7.1
7.1
p.f.
[p.u,]
0.89
0.90
Eff
[%]
88.1
95.2
B. External Rotor Re-Design

This machine is suitable for inverting so that the rotor spins
around the stator. This would be suitable for matching to the
turbine. This has the effect of producing a more compact
machine that uses less material. A direct inversion is shown in
Fig. 12. This gives almost identical performance. To maintain
the same tooth width then the slots do become narrower so that
their depth has to be increased. The internal diameter is now
200 mm (internal rotor = 276 mm) and external diameter 322
mm (internal rotor = 400 mm). The axial length is kept at 46
mm and the airgap diameter at 300 mm. The weight of the steel
is reduced from 14.8 Kg to 10. 4 Kg while there is a marginal
increase in magnet weight and marginal decrease in copper
weight. In addition, attaching surface magnets to a rotor can
sometimes be difficult. The external rotor simplifies this since
the centripetal force of the magnets is into the rotor core rather
than away.
kNm/m3 for a totally enclosed motor and high performance

servo. Therefore let us assume that the TRV can be increased
to 45 kNm/m3 with the axial length maintained at 46 mm. This
would reduce the airgap diameter to 266 mm. However, these
guidelines are really aimed at low pole number motors, where
the rotor is magnetic steel apart for a shaft and magnets. In
high pole number machines the rotor is essentially hollow and
these guidelines break down. The derived machine is shown in
Fig. 13. The number of parallel turns has to be increased to
account for the increased electric loading so that the slot area
has to be increased. The output power at a current of 13.4 A is
733 W at 74.2 % efficiency. The power factor is very low at
0.3.
Fig. 13. Cross section for 32 pole external rotor machine and reduced diameter.
.
Fig. 12. Generator cross section for 32 pole external rotor machine.
C. Diode Bridge Operation

The machine specified in Section III.A can be connected to a
diode bridge rectifier. It was initially deigned as a low voltage
machine so that at the low-end speed (87.5 rpm) the back-EMF
is 45.7 V at 23.3 Hz. The winding inductance is 20.3 mH while
the phase resistance is 0.68 ohm. Taking the rated phase
current as 7.07 A then an equivalent per-phase load resistance
of 5.08 ohm would deliver rated current and 756 W of power
(compared to 857 W from PC-BDC simulation when the
current is on the q axis). The PC-BDC simulation includes an
iron loss of about 11 W which can be subtracted from the
power delivered giving about 745 W. This means there is a 13
% drop in power. However, using the Portunus model for the
diode bridge then it is found from (5) and (6) that a load
resistor of 9.05 ohm is suitable but 7.6 ohm gives a generator
phase current of 7.07 A. The power delivered to this load
resistor is about 680 W showing a 21.7 % decrease (if iron loss
is added to the losses) compared to the PC-BDC simulation.
The d.c. rail voltage is about 73 V at this load.
D. Compact Machine Design
The torque per rotor volume (TRV) was initially taken to be
30 kNm/m3, however [14] quotes a range up to 42 or even 50
Because the airgap diameter is reduced then the torque for a

given airgap sheer stress is less. Therefore the electric loading
has to be increased (i.e., the current) to compensate. This has
two effects. It increases the copper losses so that the efficiency
decreases and it also increases the p.u. voltage drop across the
phase reactance so that the power factor decreases. This will
affect the operation in conjunction with a diode bridge rectifier.
The phasor diagram with the current on the negative q axis
(i.e., generating) is shown in Fig. 14. This illustrates that the
voltage drop across the phase reactance is nearly 1 p.u.
(compared to the phase voltage). The back-EMF at 87.5 rpm is
24.7 V with a phase resistance of 0.45 ohm and phase
reactance of 4.46 ohm If a resistive load is used (i.e., a diode
bridge, then the maximum current at short circuit is 5.5 A. This
means that a controlled rectifier has to be used to utilize this
machine as a generator.
IphR ph
q-axis
jXsIph
E ph
Iph
V ph
d-axis
Fig. 14. Generating phasor diagram at full load and 87.5 rpm for the compact
machine. The current is 14.1 A on the negative q axis.
E. Comparison of Machine Geometry and Performance

The three different machines can be compared in terms of
machine geometry and materials. The performances can then
be compared in terms of low and high speed operation. The
geometries are listed in Table V. The performances are given
in Table VI. The coil layout is as shown in Fig. 10 and the coils
are series connected. It can be seen that the external rotor
machine is more compact than the internal rotor machine but
gives almost identical performance. Both have low p.u. phase

reactance so offer reasonable performance when used in
conjunction with a diode bridge rectifier. However if the
machine is further compacted then the electric loading has to
be increased to the point where the power factor is poor and
diode bridge rectification is not suitable.
TABLE V
32 POLE GENERATOR PARAMETERS FOR INTERNAL ROTOR, EXTERNAL ROTOR
AND COMPACT DESIGNS
Parameter (units in mm unless
Internal
External
Compact
otherwise stated)
Rotor
Rotor
External
Pole number
32
32
32
Stator slot number
36
36
36
Average airgap diameter
301
301
145
Airgap length
Outer diameter
400
222
266
Inner diameter
272
200
40
Axial length (stator and rotor)
46
46
46
Magnet thickness
Magnet width
24.0
24.8
20.2
Magnet remanence Br [T]
1.12
1.12
1.12
Magnet recoil premeability rec
1.05
1.05
1.05
Number of coils per phase
12
12
12
Coil pitch [slots]
Turns per coil
50
50
50
Wire strand diameter
1.2
1.2
1.1
strands in hand
Phase resistance [ohm]
0.68
0.66
0.45
Phase inductance [mH]
20.3
22.9
30.3
Slot depth
32
37
70
Slot opening
Slot area (unlined)
502
415
620
Tooth width
10
10
5.5
Slot fill (not including slot liner)
0.45
0.54
0.46
Current density at rated I [A/mm2]
3.1
3.1
4.7
TABLE IV
GENERATOR PERFORMANCE FOR INTERNAL ROTOR, EXTERNAL ROTOR AND
COMPACT DESIGNS*
Generator Speed Torque
Pout
Ephase
Iphase
p.f.
Eff
Design
[rpm]
[Nm]
[W]
[V]
[A]
[p.u,]
[%]
Low Speed (87.5 rpm) and current on q axis (controlled rectification)
Internal
87.5
106
857
45.7
7.1
0.89
88.1
External
87.5
101.8
823
43.9
7.1
0.86
88.2
Compact
87.5
107.8
733
24.7
13.4
0.30
74.2
High Speed (350 rpm) and current on q axis (controlled rectification)
Internal
350
107
3734
182.9
7.1
0.90
95.2
External
350
102.6
3588
175.8
7.1
0.88
95.5
Compact
350
108.5
3665
98.8
13.4
0.36
92.1
Low Speed (87.5 rpm) and diode bridge rectification (*compact design does
not work with diode bridge)
Internal
87.5
91.1
680
45.7
7.1
1
81
External
87.5
82.8
600
43.9
7.1
1
79.0
High Speed (350 rpm) and diode bridge rectification (*compact design does
not work with diode bridge)
Internal
350
90.7
2950
182.8
7.1
1
88.8
External
350
80.0
2650
175.6
7.1
1
90.4
IV. CONCLUSIONS
This paper illustrates simple steps that can be used to obtain
a design for a suitable generator for a small wind turbine. It is
split into two sections. The first section studies the
performance of a brushless motor (designed for use in a water
pump) when utilized in a generator application. This is a
modern high-efficiency design with a low phase reactance and
good power factor. The second section shows the design of a
low-speed generator. Basic design principles are followed to
realize the geometry and it is illustrated that an external rotor
machine is more compact. An attempt was made to further
compact the machine by reducing the diameter and increasing
the electrical loading but it was found that this led to reduced
efficiency and power factor. This was to the extent were a
diode bridge rectifier load is inappropriate and a fully
controlled rectifier would have to be used.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
M. Chinchilla, S. Arnaltes and J. C. Burgos, Control of PermanentMagnet Generators Applied to Variable-Speed Wind-Energy Systems
Connected to the Grid, IEEE Trans on Energy Conversion, vol 21, pp
130-135, March 2006.
Y. Higuchi, N. Yamamura, M. Ishida and T. Hori, An Improvement of
Performance for Small-Scaled Wind Power Generating System with
Permanent Magnet Type Synchronous generator, IEEE Industrial
electronics Annual Meeting IECON, pp. 1037-1043, 22-28 October 2000.
O. Ojo, J. Cox and Z. Wu, DC Power Generation Using Interior
Permanent-Magnet Machine, IEEE Trans on Energy Conversion, vol
12, pp 351-256, December 1997.
N. Naoe, Voltage Compensation of Permanent-Magnet Generator with
capacitors, IEEE International Electric Machines and Drives
Conference, pp. WB2 14.1-14.3, 18-21 May 1997.
O. Ojo and J. Cox, Investigation into the Performance Characterisitics
of an Interior Permanent Magnet Generator Including Saturation
Effects, IEEE Industry Applications Society Annual Meeting,, pp 533540, 6-10 October 1996.
A. Binder and T. Schneider, Permanent magnet synchronous generators
for regenerative energy conversion a survey, European Conference on
Power Electronics and Applications, 11-14 September 2005.
E. Spooner and B. J. Chalmers, Torus: A slotless toroidal-stator,
permanent-magnet generator, IEEE Proceedings-B, vol. 139, pp. 497506, November 1992.
M. A. Rahman, A. M. Osheiba, T. S. Radwan and E. S. Abdin
Modelling and Controller Design of an Isolated Diesel Engine
Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator, IEEE Trans on Energy
Conversion,, vol. 11, pp 324-330, June 1996.
J. Rizk and M. Nagrial Design of Permanent-Magnet Generators for
Wind Turbines, Third International Conference on Power Electronics
and Motion Control,, pp 208-212, Beijing, 15 -18 August 2000.
K.-C. Kim and J. Lee The Dynamic Analysis of a Spoke-Type
Permanent Magnet Generator with Large Overhang, IEEE Trans on
Magnetics,, vol. 41, no. 10, pp 3805-3807, October 2005.
W. Wu, V. S. Ramsden, T. Crawford and G. Hill A Low Speed HighTorque Direct Drive Permanent Magnet Generator for Wind Turbines,
IEEE Industry Applications Society Annual Meeting,, pp 147-154, Rome,
8-12 October 2000.
Z. Chen, E. Spooner, W. T. Norris and A. C. Williamson, CapacitorAssisted Excitation of Permanent-Magnet Generators, IEE Proc.
Electrical Power Applications, vol. 145, pp 497-508, November 1998.
H. Polinder, F. F. A. van ser Pijl, G.-J. de Vilder and P. Tavner,
Comparison of Direct-Drive and Geared Generator Concepts for Wind
Turbines, IEEE International Conference on Electrical machines and
Drives, pp 543-550, 15-18 May 2005.
J. R. Hendershot and TJE Miller, Design of Brushless permanent
Magnet Motors, Magna Physics Publishing and Clarendon Press
Oxford, 1994.

!#! !!!% &
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9

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 52, NO. 5, OCTOBER 2005
1383
Design of a Miniature Permanent-Magnet Generator

and Energy Storage System
Jiabin Wang, Senior Member, IEEE, Weiya Wang, Geraint W. Jewell, and David Howe
DC Output voltage (V).

Magnet pole-arc to pole-pitch ratio.
Angular airgap between adjacent stator teeth ( ).
Flux at the stator bore (Wb).
Permeability in free space (H/m).
Relative recoil permeability of magnets.
Relative permeability of stator core.
Flux linkage per turn of stator coil (Wb).
Resistivity of copper ( m).
Efficiency.
Rotor angular velocity (rad s ).
Electrical conductivity of stator core laminations
(S m ).
Density of stator core (Kg m ).
AbstractThe paper describes a methodology for optimizing the

design and performance of a miniature permanent-magnet generator and its associated energy storage system. It combines an analytical field model, a lumped reluctance equivalent magnetic circuit, and an equivalent electrical circuit. Its utility is demonstrated
by means of a case study on a 15-mW, 6000-r/min generator, and
the analysis techniques are validated by measurements on a prototype system.
Index TermsDesign optimization, energy storage system,
miniature permanent-magnet generator.
NOMENCLATURE
Radial flux density (T).

Remanence of permanent magnets (T).
Emf (V).
Electrical frequency (Hz).
Airgap length (m).
Stator current (A).
Stator current density ( A m ).
Empirical specific hysteresis loss constants.
Specific excess iron loss constant.
Inductance of stator coil (H).
Thickness of stator core.(m).
Axial length of stator coil (m).
Effective axial length of generator (m).
Number of turns on stator coil.
Number of pole pairs.
Stator coil packing factor.
Output power (W).
Resistance of stator coil ( ).
Outer radius of rotor magnets (m).
Inner radius of rotor magnets (m).
Inner radius of stator core (m).
Outer radius of stator coil (m).
Equivalent reluctance for inter-pole leakage in
stator ( H ).
Equivalent reluctance of stator tooth body (H ).
Equivalent reluctance of assembly gaps in stator
(H ).
Equivalent reluctance of stator yoke (H ).
Time (s).
Electrical period (s).
Manuscript received February 18, 2003; revised March 5, 2004. Abstract published on the Internet July 15, 2005.
J. Wang, G. W. Jewell, and D. Howe are with the Department of Electronic
and Electrical Engineering, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield, S1 3JD, U.K.
(e-mail: g.jewell@sheffield.ac.uk).
W. Wang is with Ultralab, Anglia Polytechnic University, Chelmsford, CM1
ILL, U.K.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TIE.2005.855658
I. INTRODUCTION
ITH THE proliferation of portable electronic consumer
products and electronic security devices, there is an ever
increasing need for relatively low power supplies (typically
W). In many applications, on-board power generation would
be preferable to the use of batteries, which have a limited capacity and lifetime and contain toxic materials [1], [2]. One
means of generating electrical power is to directly convert mechanical energy to electrical energy by incorporating a miniature permanent-magnet generator. The mechanical input power
could be derived from intermittent movements, which might be
associated with the random motion of a limb, such as the arm,
or due to a specific action, such as inserting a key. Linear permanent-magnet generators systems which are capable of extracting and storing energy from both reciprocating and intermittent motion have been reported previously [2], [3]. However, in common with many other direct-drive electromagnetic
devices, these tend to have a relatively poor specific power capability since the input speed is limited. Hence, rather than directly converting the kinetic energy to stored electrical energy,
it is often advantageous, in terms of both efficiency and specific power capability to initially accumulate the mechanical
input energy in a spring. The stored energy can then be discharged at a prespecified rate to drive a high-speed miniature
rotating generator [4]. Such an approach is employed in kinetic
"self-winding" quartz analog watches, which utilize kinetic energy associated with wrist movements [5], [6]. By way of example, Fig. 1 shows a generator topology which is widely employed in such watches [5]. However, although being conducive
to low-cost manufacture, it has a relatively low power density
kW m ) due to a number of factors, including
(typically
the inefficiency of the magnetic circuit. In order to satisfy potential application requirements for miniature generators, there
0278-0046/$20.00 2005 IEEE
1384
Fig. 1. Schematic of two-pole generator of the type which is currently

employed in quartz analog watches.
is a need to improve their design and performance, particularly

with regard to power density. This requires the adoption of an
alternative topology to that shown in Fig. 1.
When assessing the merits of different generator topologies,
it should be borne in mind that, although aspects of machine
design are scalable over a wide range of power ratings, there
are practical constraints that can compromise various topologies as the machine dimensions are reduced. For example, ultimately, the number of stator coils is limited by the need for
terminations and interconnections, which poses practical problems with extremely fine gauge conductors. Furthermore, since
an increased proportion of the slot area becomes occupied by
insulation, the winding packing factor (i.e., the proportion of
the slot which is occupied by copper) can be rather low. An
inevitable consequence is that conventional permanent-magnet
machine topologies, such a radial-field machines which have a
multiphase slotted stator, become inappropriate.
Fig. 2 shows an alternative topology of a single-phase generator which has the potential for a considerably higher power
kW m ) than the topology shown in Fig. 1, while
density (
at the same time retaining much of the simplicity in that it employs a single coil. It comprises a four-pole-pair rotor with parallel magnetized surface-mounted, sintered NdFeB magnet segments and an imbricated-pole stator (also commonly known as
a "claw-pole" stator) which is made up of two halves which encircle a single coil. The output power of the generator is rectified
by a Schottky-diode bridge, and the electrical energy is stored
in a super-capacitor. The paper describes the analysis, design
optimization, and testing of such a generator and its associated
power conditioning electronics, which are capable of producing
15 mW at 3 V at a nominal rotational speed of 6000 r/min.
II. MAGNETIC FIELD DISTRIBUTION AND EMF PREDICTION
A simple first-order consideration of the performance capability of an imbricated-pole machine suggests that its torque ca-
pability increases in direct proportion to the number of stator

poles. However, the rate of increase in torque capability with
pole number diminishes, due to the increased inter-pole flux
leakage in both the rotor magnet/airgap region and between the
two sections of the stator core [7]. Indeed, there is an upper limit
on the pole number, beyond which the torque capability reduces
due to excessive flux leakage.
As a consequence of the relative complexity of the stator geometry, the field distribution is highly three-dimensional (3-D),
and although 3-D finite element analysis has been employed for
such a machine topology [8], this is inappropriate during the
initial stages of design. However, the geometry of the stator is
too complex to enable a full analytical field model to be derived. Thus, a method is employed which couples a two-dimensional (2-D) analytical model of a simplified representation of
the airgap region to a lumped-parameter equivalent magnetic
circuit model of the stator core, in order to derive estimates of
the winding flux linkage and impedance and, hence, facilitate
initial dimensioning and optimization of the winding, the power
conditioning electronics, and the energy storage supercapacitor.
An expression for the airgap field is first derived based on
the 2-D model shown in Fig. 3. Although it neglects the axial
variation of the field and a number of significant features of the
stator geometry, it provides a useful starting point for estimating
the magnitude of the flux at the stator bore while accounting for
inter-pole flux leakage and flux de-focusing within the magnets,
which can be significant when the magnet thickness is comparable with the pole pitch (as is often the case in small machines
for which the minimum magnet thickness is usually limited by
mechanical considerations). In the simplified model of Fig. 3,
in the
the radial component of flux density at any point
airgap can be shown to be [9]:
(1)
where
is given as shown at the bottom of the page, and
The flux which links the stator, , can be estimated by integrating

around a circumferential path located at the stator
over an angular displacement , where
bore radius
and
is the angular airgap between adjacent stator teeth. Thus
(2)
WANG et al.: DESIGN OF A MINIATURE PERMANENT-MAGNET GENERATOR AND ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEM
Fig. 2.
1385
Schematic of miniature imbricated-pole permanent-magnet generator.
Fig. 3. Analytical field model.
Fig. 4.
Lumped-parameter magnetic equivalent circuit.
where
Fig. 5. (a) Open-circuit flux paths. (b) Cross section through stator.
Having established the magnitude of the flux at the stator bore,

the flux which links the stator coil can be estimated using the
lumped-parameter magnetic equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 4,
which accounts for flux leakage between the stator teeth, saturation within the stator core, and the presence of any assembly
gaps between the two halves of the stator (which may have a
significant influence given the small dimensions). The magnitude of the flux source in the equivalent circuit is derived from
(2). With reference to the flux paths in Fig. 5(a), the reluctances
, , and
represent the reluctance of the leakage flux
path between adjacent stator teeth, the reluctance of the stator

teeth, the reluctance of the assembly gap between the two havles
of the stator, and the reluctance of the stator yoke, respectively,
and can be calculated as follows:
(3)
(4)
1386
(5)
(6)
where
is the relative permeability of the stator core,
is
are given
the length of the assembly gap, and , , and
by
Note that the reluctance due to the stator claws is relatively small
compared to the other components and therefore is neglected.
Also, the assembly gaps between the stator core pieces are represented in the interface between the teeth and yoke for convenience of the analysis. The influence of saturation in the stator
core is accounted for by employing the nonlinear magnetization
curve for the ferromagnetic material and calculating the relative
by an iterative approach. Initially, however, the
permeability
peak flux and the unsaturated value of the relative permeability
are used to determine the peak flux density in the stator teeth
and yoke. In turn, this allows a revised estimate of
to be
determined from the magnetization curve. This process is reon successive iterations becomes
peated until the change in
smaller than a specified tolerance. The effective th harmonic
can hence be calcuof the flux which links the stator coil
lated. The total flux which links the stator coil is obtained from
(7)
Fig. 6. Generator output power capability as a function of R =R

number of pole pairs.
and
the yoke and teeth, as shown in Fig. 5(b), the coil self-inductance
can be estimated from
(11)
The electrical power which is produced by the generator is given
by
(12)
Thus, the coil current can be related to the leading dimensions
of the generator by
and the induced emf in each turn of the coil is obtained from
(8)
(13)
(9)
Further, by substituting (8), (10), and (13) into (12), the electrical output power can be calculated for any given combination
of pole number and generator dimensions as follows:
where
III. DESIGN OPTIMIZATION

In miniature generators of the type shown in Fig. 2, the maximum power capability is generally limited by the impedance of
the stator coil rather than by thermal considerations, particularly
if the duty cycle is intermittent. Hence, in order to optimize the
maximum power capability for a given generator, specifically in
terms of establishing the preferred pole number and "split-ratio"
(i.e., the ratio of
to
), it is necessary to determine the
impedance of the stator coil. This can be estimated from the
simplified stator cross section shown in Fig. 5, for which the
coil resistance is deduced as
(10)
Assuming that the flux which will result when the stator coil
carries current essentially flows around a rectangular path via
(14)
Fig. 6 shows the calculated variation of the output power capability of a generator running at 6000 r/min as a function of the
and the number of pole pairs, with the remaining
ratio
design parameters having the values given in Table I. As will be
seen, the power capability increases significantly as the number
of pole pairs is increased from 1 to 4. However, beyond four pole
pairs, the rate of increase in power capability diminishes, since
the influence of inter-pole leakage flux becomes more significant. It will also be observed that, for a given pole-pair number,
which results in maximum
there is an optimal ratio of
output power.
The number of pole pairs also has an influence on the iron
loss and, hence, on the efficiency. Thus, the open-circuit iron
TABLE I
SPECIFICATION OF PROTOTYPE GENERATOR
TABLE II
FIXED PARAMETERS EMPLOYED IN THE OPTIMIZATION
NUMBER AND SPLIT RATIO
1387
OF
POLE
TABLE III
DESIGN PARAMETER OF PROTOTYPE GENERATOR
Fig. 7. Variation of open-circuit iron loss as a function of pole-pair number at

optimal ratios of R =R for maximum output power.
loss (i.e., neglecting armature reaction) was estimated using the

equation
(15)
to calculate the hysteresis, eddy current, and excess loss components [10]. The total open-circuit iron loss in the stator is obtained by summing the losses in the teeth and stator yoke, in
both of which the flux density waveform is estimated by geometrical scaling of the flux density at the stator bore.
Fig. 7 shows the variation of the predicted open-circuit iron
loss with pole-pair number when the generator is running at
6000 r/min, assuming that the stator teeth and yoke are 49%
,
,
,
cobalt-iron (
kg m ,
S m ). It is worth
noting that the iron loss is relatively small compared to the maximum apparent power capability and that the rate of increase
in iron loss with pole number is relatively small (being significantly less than proportional to the increase in fundamental
electrical frequency). This is a consequence of an increase in
inter-pole leakage flux with increasing pole number (and, hence,
a lower overall stator flux) and, more particularly, a decrease in
the stator yoke flux density with increasing pole number since
all of the generator designs assume a fixed outer diameter and

hence a fixed stator yoke and tooth thickness.
On the basis of Fig. 7 and Table II, a generator with four pole
ratio of 0.48 was prototyped, with the other
pairs and a
dimensions given in Table III. It should be noted that this ratio
of
is slightly smaller than the optimal value of 0.55 in
order to accommodate the required number of turns given the
available conductor gauge, as will be explained.
Having established the leading dimensions of the generator,
it was then necessary to design a coil for maximum power
transfer to the load while maintaining a high system efficiency.
The output of the generator is connected to a full-wave rectifier
which then charges a supercapacitor to store the generated
electrical energy, as shown in Fig. 8(a). For the purpose of
designing the coil, the generator can be represented as a voltage
source in series with the coil resistance and inductance. If the
rectifier diodes are modeled as having a fixed on-state voltage
in series with a resistor
, and the supercapacitor
drop of
in series with an internal resistor
is modeled by a dc voltage
, the system may be represented by the equivalent circuit of
Fig. 8(b), which consists of an series circuit excited by
three independent voltage sources and for which typical current
and voltage waveforms are shown in Fig. 9. The output current
of the generator can be calculated from the equivalent
circuit as
(16)
1388
Fig. 10. System efficiency as a function of number of turns on coil, with

generator running at 6000 r/min.
Fig. 8. Rectifier and energy storage circuit. (a) Circuit diagram. (b) Equivalent
circuit.
Fig. 9. Typical voltage and current waveforms.
where
is given by
(17)
and
The conduction period
is the time constant of the circuit.

is determined by solving
(18)
The average output power from the generator is, therefore, given
by
(19)
Thus, the average input power to the supercapacitor is given by
(20)
while the power which is dissipated in the equivalent circuit
resistances, ,
, and
is
(21)
Fig. 11. Power stored in capacitor and dissipated in coil resistance and diodes
as functions of number of turns in the stator coil.
The overall efficiency of the system, with due account of the

stator iron loss, is given by
(22)
Figs. 10 and 11 show the variation of ,
, and
as a
function of the number of turns
on the coil for a generator
having the parameters given in Table III. As will be seen, the
.
system attains its maximum efficiency when
However, the average input power to the supercapacitor is
is increased to 760, the average
then only 6.57 mW. When
input power to the supercapacitor increases to 18.85 mW, although the efficiency also decreases. However, any further increases in , although increasing the energy which is stored in
the supercapacitor, significantly decreases the system efficiency.
is deemed to be a suitable compromise
Therefore,
between the optimal values for maximum efficiency (520) and
maximum power transfer (1040).
Fig. 12.
1389
Prototype generator.
TABLE IV
MEASURED AND PREDICTED COIL RESISTANCE AND INDUCTANCE
Fig. 14. Predicted and measured generator output voltage with a 0.22-F
capacitor. (a) Predicted. (b) Measured.
Fig. 13.
Variation of measured and predicted emf (rms) as a function of speed.
IV. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

In order to validate the design and analysis techniques which
have been developed, a generator having the design parameters
given in Table III was prototyped. Fig. 12 shows the generator,
prior to final assembly. The stator is 49% cobalt-iron which was
heat-treated to optimize its magnetic properties, while the individual rotor magnets were wire-eroded from sinetered NdFeB
(34KC1 from UGIMAG, Inc.).
As will be seen in Table IV, the measured and predicted coil
resistance and inductance (measured at the rated fundamental
frequency of 400 Hz) are in good agreement. Fig. 13 shows
Fig. 15. Measured and predicted charging current waveforms at 6000 r/min
and 3 V.
the variation of the predicted and measured open-circuit emf

(rms values) with rotor speed, which are also in good agreement.
The full-load performance of the generator was measured by
connecting a 0.22-F, 3.0-V supercapacitor via a Schottky-diode
bridge rectifier, and driving it at 6000 r/min by a dc motor.
1390
Fig. 14 compares the predicted and measured output voltage

waveforms. Again, there is good agreement in terms of the
amplitudes, although the harmonic content differs slightly.
The measured and predicted super-capacitor charging current
waveforms are compared in Fig. 15, where the corresponding
generator powers are 14.56 and 16.45 mW, respectively.
The fluctuation of the measured current waveform results
from the asymmetrical magnetic poles due largely to the
manufacturing tolerance.
V. CONCLUSION
A miniature eight-pole permanent-magnet generator with an
imbricated multipole stator has been described and analyzed and
its performance experimentally validated. A model of the power
generation system has been presented, and a design methodology to achieve maximum output power at a specified operating voltage has been developed. It has been shown that the
power density is significantly higher than that of two-pole generators of the type which are currently being used in applications
such as quartz analog watches. The proposed generator topology
may also be employed for multiphase machines and scaled up
or down to suit other specific applications, in the mobile communications sector, for example.
Jiabin Wang (M96SM03) was born in Jiangsu

Province, China, in 1958. He received the B.Eng. and
M.Eng. degrees from Jiangsu University of Science
and Technology, Jiangsu, China, in 1982 and 1986,
respectively, and the Ph.D. from the University of
East London, London, U.K., in 1996, all in electrical
and electronic engineering.
From 1986 to 1991, he was with the Department of
Electrical Engineering, Jiangsu University of Science
and Technology, where he was appointed a Lecturer
in 1987 and an Associate Professor in 1990. He was
a Postdoctoral Research Associate with the University of Sheffield, Sheffield,
U.K., from 1996 to 1997 and a Senior Lecturer with the University of East
London from 1998 to 2001. He is currently a Senior Lecturer with the University
of Sheffield. His research interests range from motion control to electromagnetic
devices and their associated drives.
Weiya Wang was born in Jiangsu Province, China,

in 1957. She received the B.Eng. degree from
Jiangsu University of Science and Technology,
Jiangsu, China, in 1982 and the M.Sc. degree from
the University of East London, London, U.K., in
1996, both in electrical and electronic engineering.
From 1982 to 1993, she was with the Department
of Electrical Engineering, Jiangsu University of
Science and Technology, where she was appointed a
Lecturer in 1988. She was a Research Associate with
the University of Sheffield, Sheffield, U.K., from
1997 to 1998 and is currently a Senior Research Fellow with Anglia Polytechnic
University, Chelmfsford, U.K. Her research interests include electromagnetic
devices, miniature mobile robots, meta-level learning, and electronic learning.
REFERENCES
[1] C. B. Williams and R. B. Yates, Analysis of a micro-electric generator
for microsystems, Sens. Actuators A, Phys., vol. 52, no. 19, pp. 811,
1996.
[2] J. Wang, W. Wang, G. W. Jewell, and D. Howe, Design and experimental characterization of a linear reciprocating generator, Proc.
IEEElectr. Power Appl., vol. 145, no. 6, pp. 509518, 1998.
, A low power linear permanent magnet generator/energy storage
[3]
system, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 49, no. 3, pp. 640648, Jun.
2002.
[4] B. Gilomen, J.-L Bguim, and R. Bugmann, Mouvement quartz dont
nergie est fournie par une gnratrice, calbre ETA 205.111, SSC J.
dtude, pp. 4549, 1997.
[5] T. Hara, Seiko kinetic quartz, in Proc. 63th Workshop Swiss Soc.
Chronometry, Grenchen, Switzerland, 1995, pp. 7174.
[6] M. Hayakawa, A study of the new energy system for quartz watches, in
Proc.. Eur. Conf. Chronometry, Geneva, Switzerland, 1988, pp. 8185.
[7] Z. Q. Zhu and D. Howe, Magnet design considerations for machines
equipped with surface-mounted permanent magnets, in Proc. 13th Int.
Workshop Rare-Earth Magnets and Their Applications, Birmingham,
U.K., Sep. 1114, 1994, pp. 151160.
[8] I. Ramesohl, G. Henneberger, S. Kuppers, and W. Hadrys, Three-dimensional calculation of magnetic forces and displacements of a clawpole generator, IEEE Trans. Magn., vol. 32, no. 3, pp. 16851688, May
1996.
[9] Z. Q. Zhu and D. Howe, Instantaneous magnetic field distribution in
brushless permanent magnet dc motors, IEEE Trans. Magn., vol. 29,
no. 1, pp. 124158, Jan. 1993.
[10] K. Attallah, Z. Q. Zhu, and D. Howe, The prediction of iron losses in
brushless permanent magnet dc motors, in Proc. Int. Conf. Electrical
Machines, 1992, pp. 814818.
Geraint Jewell was born in Neath, U.K., in 1966.

He received the B.Eng. and Ph.D. degrees from the
University of Sheffield, Sheffield U.K., in 1988 and
1992, respectively.
From 1994 to 2000, he was a Lecturer with
the Electrical Machines and Drives Research
Group, University of Sheffield, where he now
holds an Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council Advanced Research Fellowship.
His research interests cover many aspects of both
permanent-magnet and reluctance-based electrical
machines and actuators.
David Howe received the B.Tech. and M.Sc. degrees

from the University of Bradford, Bradford, U.K., in
1966 and 1967, respectively, and the Ph.D. degree
from the University of Southampton, Southampton,
U.K., in 1974, all in electrical power engineering.
He has held academic posts at Brunel University,
London, U.K., and the University of Southampton,
and spent a period in industry with NEI Parsons Ltd.,
Newcastle-Upon-Tyne, U.K., working on electromagnetic problems related to turbogenerators. He is
currently a Professor of electrical engineering at the
University of Sheffield, Sheffield, U.K., where he heads the Electrical Machines
and Drives Research Group. His research activities span all facets of controlled
electrical drive systems, with particular emphasis on permanent-magnet excited
machines.
Prof. Howe is a Chartered Engineer, a Fellow of the Institution of Electrical
Engineers, and a Fellow of the Royal Academy of Engineering (U.K.).
Design of a 100 W, 500000 rpm Permanent-Magnet

Generator for Mesoscale Gas Turbines
C. Zwyssig and J.W. Kolar
W. Thaler and M. Vohrer
Power Electronic Systems Laboratory

Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich
8092 Zurich, SWITZERLAND
zwyssig@lem.ee.ethz.ch
ATE Antriebstechnik und Entwicklungs GmbH

88299 Leutkirch, GERMANY
w.thaler@ate-system.de
AbstractMesoscale gas turbine generator systems are a

promising solution for high energy and power density portable
devices. This paper focuses on the design of a 100 W, 500000 rpm
generator suitable for use with a gas turbine. The design
procedure selects the suitable machine type and bearing
technology, and determines the electromagnetic characteristics.
The losses caused by the high frequency operation are minimized
by optimizing the winding and the stator core material. The final
design is a permanent-magnet machine with a volume of 3.5 cm3
and experimental measurements from a test bench are presented.
Keywords - Generator design; permanent-magnet; high-speed;
gas turbines; portable power
I.
INTRODUCTION
The increasing need for high energy density portable power

devices has led to intense research and development efforts on
mesoscale systems with power outputs up to a hundred Watts
[1]. In this power range traditional batteries are challenged by
devices that use fuel since the fuel provides significantly higher
chemical energy density.
An especially promising way of converting the energy
stored in the fuel into electrical energy is to use gas turbine
generator sets. Accordingly, several international research
groups are downscaling traditional gas turbines. For example,
researchers at the Tohoku University, Japan, are building a
100 W, 870000 rpm gas turbine [2] and a team at the Stanford
University, USA, has demonstrated a compressor/turbine
assembly running at 420000 rpm with a design speed of
800000 rpm [3]. A turbine designed at K.U. Leuven, Belgium,
has an electrical power output of 44 W at a speed of
160000 rpm when coupled to a low power commercial
generator [4].
All power supply systems of this type require an electrical
system consisting of a high-speed generator/starter, power
electronics, a control platform and a form of energy storage to
power the starting of the turbine (Fig. 1). However, the
research so far has only concentrated on the turbine design, and
very little research effort has occurred on determining the
requirements and the design of the electrical system. Therefore,
this paper focuses on the design of a high-speed generator with
a rated speed of 500000 rpm and an electrical power output of
100 W. The main challenges of the generator design are the
compressor turbine
air
high speed
generator/
starter
combustion
exhaust
recuperator
energy fuel
storage
electric
output
power
electronics
control
electrical system
Figure 1. components of a gas turbine generator set.
losses due to the high frequency in the stator core and

windings, the bearing technology, the rotor dynamics and the
thermal design with rotor temperatures up to 300 C resulting
from the close proximity to the gas turbine.
The design method starts with the selection of the machine
type and the bearing technology, then the magnetic and electric
characteristics are obtained with the help of finite-element
methods. Losses in the windings and in the stator core are
determined by analytical calculations. To verify the
dimensioning, a test bench setup is realized including
mechanical stress analysis and rotor dynamics. Finally, first
measurements for reduced speed operation are presented.
II.
MACHINE SELECTION
There are two basic concepts of electromechanical energy

conversions, machines based either on electric or magnetic
fields. At the required power level and for the expected
machine dimensions in the millimeter range, a magnetic
machine is the better choice [7].
The rated current of a magnetic machine scales proportional
with the machine dimensions [8]. Therefore, the flux density in
an electrically excited motor, e.g. induction machines (IM) or
switched reluctance machines (SRM), decreases with
decreasing size. In contrary, permanent magnet flux density
remains constant for decreasing machine volume. Therefore,
only permanent magnet machines are considered with the aim

for a low system volume.
High-speed operation requires a simple and robust rotor
geometry and construction. A commutation system employed
for the current commutation in dc machines produces
additional friction and limits the speed (to typically
25000 rpm). Therefore, the only machine types left that meet
both small size and high-speed requirements are the brushless
dc (BLDC) machine, fed by square-wave currents, and the
identically constructed permanent magnet synchronous
machine (PMSM), fed by sinusoidal currents. For these
machines both slotless and slotted stators could be employed.
In [9] the slotless configuration is found to be the better choice
for high-speed operation because of the simpler manufacturing
of the stator core and the reduction of eddy current losses in the
rotor (no slotting harmonics and less armature current
reaction).
The generator volume can be estimated with scaling laws
that have been verified by investigating existing small
permanent-magnet motors [8]. There, a torque-per-volume
constant of C = 0.0006 Nm/cm3 is identified. It is found that
the friction (mechanical friction and magnetic stator core
losses) is approximately 5% of the generated torque, although
there is a wide variation for the analyzed motors. With a
friction of 10% of the produced torque the generator volume V
is estimated as
V = 1.1
III.
60 Pr 1
= 3.5 cm 3 .
2n r C
(1)
BEARING SELECTION
For machine speeds in the range of 500000 rpm the

selection of a suitable bearing is a main issue. In this section
the possible choices are compiled and briefly compared.
High-speed ball bearings are commonly used in the dental
industry, and bearings are available for speeds exceeding
500000 rpm. The main advantages of ball bearings are the
robustness and small size. The main disadvantages are the
limited operating temperature and a lifetime dependent on
lubrication, load and speed.
Static air bearing, dynamic air bearings and foil
bearings levitate the rotor with air pressure, either generated
with an external supply (static) or by spinning the rotor
(dynamic and foil). They all show low friction losses and a
long lifetime. Foil bearings are reported for speeds up to
700000 rpm and temperatures up to 650 C [11], but are not
commercially available and require a complex design
procedure.
Magnetic bearings levitate the rotor using magnetic forces
and have similar advantages as air bearings. However, active
magnetic bearings require sensors, actuators and control, which
results in high complexity and increased bearing volume.
In summary, all bearings apart form ball bearings have no

wear and just air friction and therefore a long lifetime and low
losses. However, due to the simplicity, robustness, small size
and avoidance of auxiliary equipment, ball bearings are
selected for a first test bench setup. Foil bearings are an
interesting alternative, especially for

temperatures, and are considered further.
IV.
higher
operating
ELECTROMAGNETIC DESIGN
The electromagnetic machine design is carried out with the

help of the finite-element software FEMAG [12] for a rated
power of 100 W at a speed of 500000 rpm in a compact and
simple design.
The volume is set to the value calculated with (1) and a
length-to-diameter ratio of 1:1 is defined. This leads to a short
shaft which increases the critical speed. The machine has an
active length of 15 mm and a stator diameter of 16 mm.
The peak value of the back EMF is set to 16 V in order to
allow the use of low on-resistance power MOSFETs in the
power electronic converter.
A. Rotor
The dimensions for the rotor are mainly defined by
mechanical aspects such as inner bearing diameter (3.175 mm),
rotor dynamics, centrifugal forces, prevention of unbalance and
manufacturability.
The permanent magnet can be realized as one cylindrical
piece. Beside simple manufacturing this has the advantage of
producing a sinusoidal air gap field. For highest torque density,
high-energy rare earth magnets such as sintered NdFeB or
SmCo are the only choices. An Sm2Co17 based magnet is
chosen because of its outstanding thermal characteristics
(operating temperatures up to 350 C).
A retaining sleeve is used in order to limit the centrifugal
force stress on the brittle magnet. The outer rotor diameter is 6
mm.
B. Stator
The stator consists of the stator core and the winding. Both
are optimized with respect to losses (Section IV.D.2 and
IV.D.3). Two possibilities for the slotless winding structure, a
ring-wound, i.e a toroidal winding around the stator core (Fig.
2) and a cup-shaped surface winding on the inner side of the
stator core are considered.
outer winding
core insulation
stator core
permanent magnet
sleeve/shaft
air gap
inner winding
Figure 2. Layout of the slotless brushless permanent-magnet generator with

ring-wound stator. The rotor diameter is 6 mm, the stator core inner diameter
is 11 mm, the stator core outer diameter is 16 mm and the active length is
15 mm.
1) Electric Rotor Losses

Electric rotors losses occur in the sleeve and permanent magnet
due to eddy currents induced by variations in the flux density
with respect to the rotor. In slotless machines this is only due to
the switching frequency armature current ripple and the phase
cyclic commutation in the case of square-wave currents. For
sinusoidal currents, the field due to the armature currents
rotates synchronously with the rotor and this does not cause
flux density variations and therefore no losses.
Due to the large air gap of a slotless BLDC machine the
flux density on the surface of the rotor caused by square-wave
armature currents is about a factor 1000 lower than the flux
density generated by the permanent magnet. Therefore, the
losses are negligible compared to the bearings and air friction
losses.
2) Stator Winding Losses
The fundamental frequency in the stator at rated speed is
fs = 8.3 kHz. At this frequency, the skin effect has to be taken
into account. Furthermore, the active part of the winding is
exposed to the magnetic field produced by the permanent
magnet that rotates with the same frequency. This results in
additional eddy current losses. These two losses can be
calculated separately and then summed up [13]. The proximity
effect is not considered, because the field caused by the
permanent magnet is much larger than the field resulting from
neighboring wires.
For a single round wire the losses caused by the dc
resistance and the skin effect are given by (2). The losses
caused by the external magnetic field are independent of the
current as can be seen from (3). The total losses Ptot = Ps + Pp
have a minimum for a certain diameter because (2) decreases
and (3) increases with increasing diameter (Fig. 6).
Ps =
I 2
F
2
(2)
phase voltages u a,b,c (V)
10
0
-10
-20
2
3
4
rotor position (rad)
Figure 3. Back EMF of the three phases obtained by finite-element

simulations.
5
phase currents i a,b,c (A)
D. Losses
In addition to electric losses in rotor and stator, there are
friction losses in the bearings and air friction losses of the
rotor. The standard loss calculation for ball bearings is not
valid anymore for these high speeds and air friction is difficult
to calculate. Therefore both these losses are determined
experimentally using a test bench.
20
-5
2
3
4
Figure 4. Impressed armature currents of the three phases, either sinusoidal

or squarewave.
x 10
-3
1.5
torque (Nm)
C. Finite Element Calculations

The results of finite-element simulations presented in this
section are carried out for the generator layout according to
Fig. 2. The sinusoidal magnetic flux density has a peak value
of 0.32 T in the middle of the air gap. The voltage is sinusoidal
and the desired peak value of 16 V is achieved with two nineturn windings connected in series (Fig. 3). For a power output
of 100 W at a speed of 500000 rpm the torque has to be
1.9 mNm, and this is produced by either a sinusoidal current of
4.1 A peak (2.9 A rms) or a squarewave current with an
amplitude of 3.7 A (Fig. 4). Depending on the armature current
waveform, the produced electrical torque is either constant or
contains a ripple component (Fig. 5).
1
0.5
0
squarew ave currents

sinusoidal currents
0
2
3
4
Figure 5. Resulting torque obtained by finite-element simulations. The

torque ripple due to square-wave currents is clearly visible.
Pp = H e2 G
(3)
where is the peak current and He the peak magnetic field

strength, and the coefficients F and G are dependent on the
conductor diameter, length, conductivity and frequency.
By using litz wire the current in each turn is divided into
strands. For any number of strands, and a resulting current per
0.25
2.
Amorphous iron-based materials
3.
Nanocrystalline iron-based materials
4.
Ferrite
5.
Nickel-iron, 100 m laminations
6.
Soft magnetic composites
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
diameter (mm)
0.35
0.4
Figure 6. Losses of one copper conductor (Ptot) versus diameter of the

conductor. The conductor has a length of 15 mm, an amplitude of the
sinusoidal current of = 4 A with a frequency of 8.3 kHz, in a sinusoidal
magnetic field of He = 255 kA/m (B = 0.32 T) with the same frequency.
0.2
0.1
0
P V,Cu (W)
For sinusoidal induction the core losses for most magnetic

materials can be determined using the Steinmetz equation
(4)
where Cm, and are directly taken from datasheets or

calculated from core loss curves using a least square method.
For a first comparison of the materials, the stator core losses
are calculated for a frequency of f = 10 kHz and a peak
magnetic flux density of Bm = 0.5 T (Table I).
Due to the lowest losses and the high Curie temperature
nanocrystalline materials look very promising. However,
currently only ring tape cores are manufactured. This is optimal
for power inductors and transformers, where the magnetic flux
flows along the core. But in the generator the magnetic flux
lines enter the core in radial direction, which results in higher
eddy current losses in the vicinity of the entering areas.
In high-speed motors for the dental industry, mainly Ni-Fe
is used as stator core material. As an example, in a Ni-Fe core
with a volume of 1.6 cm3, a peak flux density of 0.5 T and a
frequency of 10 kHz, stator core losses of PV,core = 1.2 W occur.
V. THERMAL ANALYSIS
The thermal analysis of the generator depends strongly on
the design and the mechanical coupling to the gas turbine. Due
to the small size of the whole system and the close proximity of
the generator to the turbine, high generator operating
temperatures are to be expected. Therefore, the temperature
limits for different materials are determined and compared, in
order to insure the highest possible operating temperature.
From Table II it can be seen that the stator core material is
limiting the temperature to values below 200 C, if Si-Fe is not
considered. A meaningful thermal analysis can only be
undertaken for an integrated system with a gas turbine.
20
40
60
80
100
20
40
60
80
100
80
100
0
10
Aw (mm 2 )
PV ,core = C m f B m
P t ot
0.1
d ideal (mm)
Silicon-iron, 168 m laminations
Pp
0.15
3) Stator Core Losses

In the stator core, the magnetic field rotates with high
frequency (8.3 kHz) and therefore, a high frequency stator core
material is required. Possible choices are:
1.
Ps
0.2
P V,Cu (W)
strand, there exists an optimal strand diameter. With this

optimal diameter, the total copper losses of the generator can
be calculated for different number of strands (Fig. 7). Above
one hundred strands the losses decrease only slightly. A
diameter of 0.071 mm is commonly available and then the
ideal number of strands is 60. This results in total copper losses
of PV,Cu = 1.85 W and the used area including isolation is
Aw = 7.5 mm2, which is still below the available winding area
of Aw,a = 8.3 mm2.
Aw,a
5
0
20
40
60
number of strands
Figure 7. Ideal diameter of one strand (dideal), total generator copper losses
(PV,Cu) and resulting winding area (Aw) versus number of strands. Aw is
calculated with a copper filling factor of 0.31. The available winding area is
Aw,a = 8.3 mm2. The average magnetic flux in the winding is B = 0.32 T at a
frequency of 8.3 kHz.
TABLE I.
Density
(g/cm3)
CORE MATERIAL PROPERTIES

Curie
temp.
(C)
Rel. perm.
r
Sat.
Bmax (T)
Lossesa
(W/cm3)
1. Si-Fe
7.6
740
2000
1.7
3.5
2. Am.
7.29
358
<20000
1.41
0.15
3. Nanoc.
7.3
570
<70000
1.3
0.02
4. Ferrite
4.85
120
<15000
0.5
0.175
5. Ni-Fe
8.2
310
<80000
1.48
0.746
6. SMC
3.18
450
<500
2.8
a. Losses at a frequency of 10 kHz and a peak flux density of 0.5 T.
TABLE II.
MAXIMUM OPERATING TEMPERATURES
Permanent magnet
TABLE III.
Titanium
grade 5
Austenitic steel
Permanent
magnets
Alloy
Ti-6Al-4V
Fe, Cr, Mn,

Mo, N
Sm2Co17
200 C
Density
4.4 g/cm3
8 g/cm3
8.3 g/cm3
Class F, 155 C
Modulus of
Elasticity
Tensile
Strength
114 GPa
180 GPa
190 GPa
895 MPa
975 MPa
120a/800b MPa
Yield strength
826 MPa
615 MPa
120a/800b MPa
Coefficient of
thermal exp.
9.1e-6 1/K
15.5e-6 1/K
8-11e-6 1/K
Max. operating temp.

Sm2Co17
350 C
High-speed ball bearings

High-speed lubrication
Copper litz wire
Typical insulation
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF ROTOR MATERIALS
High temperature insulation
240 C
Stator core
Amorphous/nanocrystalline
150 C
Ni-Fe
180 C
a. flexural strength, b. compressive strength.
(5)
F = r 2 .
Therefore, two main issues have to be considered: First, the
stresses in the cylindrical permanent magnet and the sleeve and
second, the contact pressure in between the magnet and the
sleeve. Both can be calculated analytically [14] and with 2D
finite element simulations.
A. Mechanical Stresses
The permanent magnet material used in the rotor ideally
has a high compressive strength (800 MPa) and a medium
flexural strength (120 MPa) (Table III), but it is very brittle.
Therefore, the stresses on the magnet due to high speeds are
limited by a steel or titanium retaining sleeve with an
interference fit assembly achieved by shrinkage.
The biggest stresses in the whole rotor occur on the inner
side of the retaining sleeve. For a titanium alloy sleeve and
interference fit of 15 m the tangential stress becomes
300 N/mm2 at standstill and 325 N/mm2 at rated speed (Fig. 8,
Fig. 9). The main part of the stress is due to the interference fit,
whereas the body load due to rotation only adds 25 N/mm2 at
the critical inner side of the retaining sleeve.
To ensure a safe area of operation the Von Mises stress V
[14] is calculated from (6) and compared to the tensile stress of
the materials for standstill up to rated speed.
V = + r
2
r
(6)
where denotes the tangential stress and r the radial stress

component. This leads to a maximum Von Mises stress at the
inner side of the titanium sleeve of 328 N/mm2 for standstill
and 347 N/mm2 for rated speed respectively, which is a
sufficient safety margin to the tensile strength of titanium
(Table III). The stresses in the permanent magnet are low for
standstill up to rated speed. The 2D finite element simulations
correspond to the calculations within less than 1%. Fig. 10 and
11 show the Von Mises stresses for a quarter of the rotor. The
rotor setup is analysed for room temperature (23 C). At higher
temperatures the stresses decrease due to the larger coefficient
stress (N/mm 2 )
MECHANICAL ANALYSIS
The centripetal body load of a rotor with density increases

proportional with the radius r and with the square of the
angular velocity
300
r,pm
250
,pm
200
r,t it
150
,t it
100
50
0
-50
-100
0.5
1.5
2
radius (mm)
2.5
Figure 8. Stresses in Sm2Co17 permanent magnet and titanium sleeve at

standstill and a temperature of 23 C and an interference fit of 15 m.
350
stress (N/mm 2 )
VI.
350
300
r,pm
250
,pm
200
r,t it
150
,t it
100
50
0
-50
-100
0.5
1.5
2
radius (mm)
2.5
Figure 9. Stresses in Sm2Co17 permanent magnet and titanium sleeve for a

speed of 500000 rpm and a temperature of 23 C and an interference fit of 15
m.
of thermal expansion (CTE) of the sleeve material compared to

the permanent magnet material.
B. Contact Pressure
With increasing speed the interference fit loosens due to the
body load. The contact pressure must be large enough over the
whole speed range in order to guarantee the torque transfer
from the permanent magnet to the retaining sleeve, which also

acts as shaft (Fig. 13). With a titanium sleeve the contact
pressure decreases less with increasing speed because the
modulus of elasticity compared to the density is higher than for
steel (Fig. 12). The contact pressure is calculated for room
temperature (23 C). At higher temperatures the interference fit
loosens due to the larger CTE of the sleeve material compared
to the permanent magnet material. Therefore titanium is the
preferred sleeve material as it has a similar CTE as the
permanent magnet material. This means that the contact
pressure stays relatively constant as a function of temperature
compared to steel.
VII. TEST BENCH
Figure 10. Von Mises Stresses (N/mm2) in Sm2Co17 permanent magnet and
titanium sleeve at standstill and a temperature of 23 C and an interference fit
of 15 m.
An experimental test bench is built in order to verify

theoretical considerations and the generator concept. As no
turbine with the appropriate specifications is presently
available, two machines are arranged on a common shaft, one
is operated as driving motor, and one as generator. The rotor is
supported by two radial single row high-speed ball bearings
and contains two permanent magnets, one for each machine.
The stator is wound according to Fig. 2. Fig. 13 shows a cut
away representation of the test bench setup.
A. Rotor Dynamics
In order to run the test bench in between two critical
speeds, the bending modes of the rotor are determined with
finite element simulations. The spring constant of the bearing
system is taken into account, which shifts the bending modes to
lower frequencies. The length of the shaft is adjusted such that
rated speed (500000 rpm, 8333 Hz) falls between the second
and the third bending modes. This is verified by the results
given in Fig. 14 and Table IV.
Figure 11. Von Mises Stresses (N/mm2) in Sm2Co17 permanent magnet and
titanium sleeve for a speed of 500000 rpm and a temperature of 23 C and an
interference fit of 15 m.
contact pressure (N/mm 2 )
60
50
40
B. Hardware
Different winding types and core materials are to be tested
to determine the various electric and magnetic losses. For the
first test bench configuration the rotor consists of a titanium
retaining sleeve integrating two diametrically magnetized
Sm2Co17 permanent magnets (one for the motor and one for the
generator). The stator is a ring-wound litz wire around a Ni-Fe
core. One phase consists of two nine-turn windings connected
in series and the three phases are star-connected. The core has a
volume of 1.6 cm3 and the overall machine volume is 5 cm3.
The active length of one machine is 15 mm. The individual
parts can be seen in Fig. 15.
30
20
10
0
titanium sleeve
steel sleeve
0
3
4
speed (rpm)
6
x 10
Figure 12. Contact pressure between the permanent magnets and the sleeve as
a function of the speed at a temperature of 23 C and an interference fit of
15 m for titanium and 10 m for steel.
winding
rotor sleeve
permanent magnet
high-speed ball bearing
stator core
cooling sleeve
motor
generator
Figure 13. Test bench setup with two machines on a common shaft.
TABLE IV.
BENDING MODES
Sleeve material
Titanium
Steel
First bending mode
2400 Hz
2300 Hz
Second bending mode
4250 Hz
3730 Hz
Third bending mode
9880 Hz
9020 Hz
a)
b)
c)
Figure 15. One stator and the common rotor with mounted ball bearings of the
test bench.
d)
Figure 14. Bending modes of the rotor in the test bench. Standstill (a), first
bending mode (b), second bending mode (c) and third bending mode (d).
C. Torque Sensor
The torque is transformed with a moment arm into a force.
With a distance of 50 mm the rated torque of 1.9 mNm is
translated into a force of 38 mN or a weight of 3.9 g. To
measure this small force a special piezoresistive sensor is
employed in the test bench. The sensor has a measurement
range of 0 to 530 mN and a linearity of <0.2% full scale (FS).
This results in an accuracy for the torque of better than 0.053
mNm. The sensor is ideal for static measurements because of
its long term stability of less than 0.5% FS. Fig. 16 shows the
whole test bench including the torque measurement setup.
VIII. MEASUREMENTS
With all the parts assembled in the test bench, the
theoretical results are verified with initial measurements. The
motor is driven open loop with an impressed three phase
current of 2.5 A that is of adjustable frequency. For the first
tests an impressed current with a frequency of 833 Hz is used
to rotate the motor and generator at 50000 rpm. The speed is
limited because of the current source driving the motor and
further refinements required to hold the stator winding in place.
From the no-load test on the generator side a back EMF of
1.6 V peak at 50000 rpm is measured. Since the back EMF is
proportional to the speed this matches the 16 V peak for
500000 rpm predicted by finite element analysis. As can be
seen from Fig. 17 the back EMF is perfectly sinusoidal.
An adjustable resistive three phase load is then connected
to the generator side. The generator phase currents are varied
between 0.6 A and 2 A, the torque is measured and compared
to the finite-element calculations. Again, there is a very good
agreement between predictions and tests (Fig. 18). At these low
torques the measurement has to be carried out very carefully.
Figure 16. Test bench with motor in the left and generator in the rigth flange.
The piezoresistive force sensor in the fornt of the picture is preloaded to half
of its full scale.
Small forces from vibrations and the wiring can influence the
results.
IX.
FUTURE STEPS
In order to spin the rotor at the desired 500000 rpm suitable

power electronics and sensorless control for both motor and
generator will be built. The challenges are the high switching
frequency due to the already high fundamental frequency of
8.3 kHz and the voltage measurement due to the low back EMF
at low speed. Efficiency and loss measurements will be carried
out for different stator materials, including amorphous and
nanocrystalline alloys which should show lower losses than
standard machine core materials. A cup-shaped surface
winding will also be tested instead of the ring-wound type.
However, this is a trade off between volume and losses. The
desired result of these measurements is to produce an optimal
high-speed low power generator.
are constructed using Ni-Fe cores with litz wire in a ringwound configuration. The critical speeds for the test bench
rotor are identified by finite-element analysis. The length of the
shaft is adjusted such that rated speed falls between the second
and the third bending modes. The measurements on the test
bench of the back EMF and the torque match the values
obtained by finite-element simulations very well. Further
measurements will be carried out with custom-built power and
control electronics for motor and generator.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
Figure 17. Measured back EMF of the generator in the test bench at
50000 rpm (0.5 ms/div, 1 V/div).
x 10
[3]
-3
predicted
measured
sensor accuracy
torque (Nm)
1.5
[4]
[5]
0.5
[6]
0.5
1
1.5
2
phase current (A)
2.5
[7]
Figure 18. Comparison of predicted and measured torque over phase current.
[8]
X.
CONCLUSION
A high-speed, 100 W, 500000 rpm permanent magnet

generator design for mesoscale gas turbines has been presented
in this paper. The integral design method includes the machine
type and bearing selection, the electromagnetic and the
mechanical design. The losses in the copper winding due to the
high frequency currents and magnetic field from the permanent
magnet are calculated. The total copper losses are reduced by
choosing an appropriate litz wire. To minimize the stator core
losses different magnetic materials are compared and it is
shown that amorphous and nanocrystalline materials are the
best choices. The rotor is designed with a sufficient safety
margin for the mechanical stresses. Titanium is used as
retaining sleeve material in order to limit the stresses on the
high-energy Sm2Co17 magnets.
To verify the analytical calculations a test bench has been
built, which consist of two machines (one acting as motor and
one as generator) on a common shaft. A common titanium
rotor encloses two Sm2Co17 permanent magnets and the stators
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
S. A. Jacobson and A. H. Epstein, An informal survey of power

mems, ISMME2003, Tsuchiura, Japan, December 1-3, 2003, pp. 513520.
K. Isomura, S. Tanaka, M. Murayama, H. Yamaguchi, N. Ijichi, T.
Genda, N. Saji, O. Shiga, K. Takahashi, and M. Esashi, Development
of micro-turbo charger and micro-combustor as feasibility studies of
three-dimensional gas turbine at micro-scale, Proc. ASME Turbo Expo
2003, Power for Land, Sea, and Air, Atlanta, Georgia, USA, June 16-19,
2003, Paper GT2003-38151.
S. Kang, J. P. Johnston, T. Arima, M. Matsunaga, H. Tsuru, and F. B.
Prinz, Micro-scale radial-flow compressor impeller made of silicon
nitride - manufacturing and performance, Proc. ASME Turbo Expo
2003, Power for Land, Sea, and Air, Atlanta, Georgia, USA, June 16-19,
2003, Paper GT2003-38933.
J. Peirs, D. Reynaerts, and F. Verplaetsen, Development of an axial
microturbine for a portable gas turbine generator, Journal of
Micromechanics and Microengineering, vol. 13, no. 5, 2003, pp. 190195.
M. K. Senesky and S. R. Sanders, A millimeter-scale electric
generator, IEEE Industry Applications Conference 2004, Conference
Record of the 39th IAS Annual Meeting, Seattle, USA, October 3-7,
2004, vol. 1, pp. 346-352.
A. H. Epstein, Millimeter-scale, mems gas turbine engines, Proc.
ASME Turbo Expo 2003, Power for Land, Sea, and Air, Atlanta,
Georgia, USA, June 16-19, 2003, Paper GT2003-38866.
P. L. Chapman and P. T. Krein, Micromotor technology: electric drive
designers perspective, IEEE Industry Applications Conference 2001,
Conference Record of the 36th IAS Annual Meeting, Chicago, Illinois,
USA, Septemper 30-October 4, 2001, vol. 3, pp. 1978-1983.
U. Kafader and J. Schulze, Similarity relations in electromagnetic
motors - limitations and consequences for the design of small dc
motors, ACTUATOR 2004, 9th International Conference on New
Actuators, Bremen, Germany, June 14-16, 2004, pp. 309-312.
N. Bianchi, S. Bolognani, and F. Luise, Potentials and limits of highspeed pm motors, IEEE Trans. Industry Applications, vol. 40, no. 6, pp.
1570-1578, Nov.-Dec. 2004.
J. Peirs, P. Vleugels, T. Waumans, M. Verlinden, D. Reynaerts, and F.
Verplaetsen, Development of high-speed bearings for micro gas
turbines, MME04, 15th MicroMechanics Europe Workshop, Leuven,
Belgium, September 5-7, 2004, pp. 313-316.
M. Salehi, H. Heshmat, J. F. Walton II, and M. Tomaszewski,
Operation of a mesoscopic gas turbine simulator at speeds in excess of
700,000 rpm on foil bearings, Proc. ASME Turbo Expo 2004, Power
for Land, Sea, and Air, Vienna, Austria, June 14-17, 2004, Paper
GT2004-53870.
K. Reichert, A simplified approach to permanent magnet motor
characteristics determination by finite-element methods, 16th
International Conference on Electrical Machines ICEM, Cracow,
Poland, September 5-8, 2004.
J. A. Ferreira, Electromagnetic modeling of power electronic converters.
Norwell, Massachusetts: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1989, ch. 6.
S. P. Timoshenko and J. N. Goodier, Theroy of elasticity. McGraw-Hill
Kogakusha, Ltd. 1970, ch. 4.

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Henkel

Your partner worldwide

Design Guide for

Henkel Canada Corporation

Henkel Capital, S.A. de C.V.

2225 Meadowpine Blvd.

Blvd. Magnocentro No. 8 Piso 2

Electric motor and generator manufacturers

TABLE 1. COMPARISON OF ADHESIVE TYPES FOR GENERAL BONDING

Fast fixture speed

High gap filling

High gap fill

Limited gap fill

E-20HP High Impact

Dissimilar substrates bonded

TABLE 2. COMPARISON OF ADHESIVE TYPES FOR BONDING MAGNETS

Fast fixture speed

Fast fixture speed

60- to 90-second open time

Must allow parts to cool

Must allow parts to cool

Impact Strength (Steel)

Permanent upon cooling

E-214HP High Strength

Will not chip magnets

* Can be used with stainless steel

TABLE 3. COMPARISON OF ADHESIVE TYPES FOR GASKETING

Fast room temperature

Metal flanges only

Limited open time

Must have dispensing

Must have dispensing

Henkel has been replacing or augmenting

They offer the following benefits over

Table 3 compares and contrasts the most commonly

TABLE 4. COMPARISON OF ADHESIVE TYPES FOR POTTING

Epoxy, OnePart Heat Cure

High gap fill

Fast fixture speed

Two-part polyurethanes and epoxies are economical

5620 Fast Cure

3364 Very Fast, UL 94

5240 Dual Cure

TABLE 5. COMPARISON OF ADHESIVE TYPES FOR RETAINING

Cannot be used with plastics

Cannot be used with plastics

3,000 to 4,000 psi

3,000 to 4,000 psi

Shear Strength (Steel)

-65F to 300F (-54C to 149C)

-65F to 300F (-54C to 149C)

When plastic components require retaining,

TABLE 6. COMPARISON OF ADHESIVE TYPES FOR TACKING

acyrlic, light cure

Light source required

Low gap fill

May have poor adhesion to metals

-65F to 300F (-54C to 149C)

-65F to 180F (-54C to 82C)

-65F to 250F (-54C to 121C)

Hot melt dispenser

3972 General-Purpose, Low cPs

4203 Low cPs - Thermally Resistant

Fast fixture speed

High gap filling

* Can be used with stainless steel

Fast room temperature

Must have dispensing

Must have dispensing

Cannot be used with plastics

Semisolid form will not drip

Semisolid form will not