type
of
foundation
is
governed
by
some
and
smaller
Deep foundations are usually piles or piers which transmits the load of the
building to the good bearing stratum. They usually cost more and require well
trained engineers to execute.
If the explored soil layers are soft for considerable depth and no bearing
stratum is found at a reasonable depth, floating foundations could be used.
To build a floating foundation, a mass of soil, approximately equal to the weight of the
proposed building, is to be removed and replaced by the building. In this case, the
bearing stress under the building will be equal to the weight of the removed earth (D)
Shallow Foundations
Shallow foundations are those executed near the ground surface or at shallow
depths. As mentioned before in the previous chapter, shallow foundations are
used when subsoil exploration proves that all soil strata affected by the building
could resist
settlements.
the
superimposed
stresses
(p)
without
causing
excessive
Footings
Footing foundation is one of the oldest and most popular type of shallow
foundations. A footing is an enlargement of the base of a column or wall for the
purpose of distributing the load on the supporting soil at a pressure suiting its
properties.
Types of Footings
There are different types of footings to suit the nature of the structure. Footings
could be classified into three main classes
It runs underneath the wall by its full length as shown in Fig.3. it is usually used
in the bearing wall type structures.
Load Compilations
Loads affecting the usual types of buildings are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Dead Load
Live Load
Wind Load
Earthquake Load
(D.L)
(L.L)
(W.L)
(E.L)
Dead Load
The full dead load acting on the elements of the structures should be considered in the
design.
Live Load
It is not probable that the full intensity of the live load will be acting at the same
time on all the floors of a multi-storey building. Consequently, the codes of
practice allow a certain reduction in the intensity of live load. According to the
Egyptian Code of practice the following reduction in live load is allowed:
No. of floors
Ground floor
zero %
1st floor
zero %
2nd floor
10.0 %
3rd floor
20.0 %
4th floor
30.0 %
40.0 %
The live load should not be reduced for ware houses and public buildings such
as schools, cinemas, and hospitals.
should be reduced by
1-Shear
Shear stresses ate usually control the depth of spread footings. The critical section for
wide beam shear is shown in Fig.8-a. It is at a distance d from the column or wall face.
The values of the shear stresses are given in table 1.The critical section for punching
shear (Two-way diagonal shear) is shown in Fig.8-b. It is at distance of d/2 from the
face of the column. This assumption is according to the American Concrete Institute
(A.CI) Code.
Types of stresses
symbol
Allowable stresses in
kg/cm2
Cube strength
fcu
180
200
250
300
Axial comp.
fco
45
50
60
70
fc
70
80
95
105
q1
Other members
q1
q2
15
17
19
21
Punching shear
qcp
10
Shear stresses
Reinforcement
Mild steel 240/350
1400
1600
Steel 360/520
2000
Steel 400/600
2200
Steel 280/450
fs
Punching shear will generally control the depth of the spread footings. From principles
of statics Fig.8-b , the force on the critical section for shear is equal to the force on the
footing beyond the shear section caused by the net soil pressure f n.
where
It can be assumed that the critical section for punching shear is at the column face and
in this case the allowable punching shear stress can be taken as 10.0 kg/cm2 (for cube
strength = 160).
The footing is usually designed to ensure that the depth is great enough to resist the
shear by concrete with out web reinforcement..
2- Bond
Bond stress is computed as
where the shear force Q is taken at the same critical section for bending moment, or
where changes in concrete cross section or steel reinforcement occur. For footings of
constant section, the section for bond is at the face of column or wall. The reinforcing
bar should have enough length dd , Fig.9 to avoid the pull-out (bond failure) or a splitting
of the concrete. The value of dd is computed as follows:
For the first computation take fs equal to allowable working stress. If the calculated
3- Bending moment
The critical sections for bending moment are determined from Fig.10 as follows:
For concrete wall and column, this section is taken at the face of the wall or the column
Fig.10-a.
For masonry wall this section is taken halfway between middle and the edge of the wall
Fig.10-b.
For steel column, this section is located half way between the edge of base plate and
the face of the column Fig.(10-c).
The depth required to resist bending moment is
4-
Bearing
on
top
of
footing
When a reinforced concrete column transmits its load to the footing, the steel of the
column, which is carrying a portion of the load, cannot be terminated on top of footing
since this may overstress the concrete in column contact area. Therefore it is necessary
to transmit the portion of load carried by the column steel by bond stress into the footing
by either extending the column steel or by dowels. From Fig.11:
Where fn
Design Procedure:
Consider 1.0 meter length of the wall.
1.
2.
3.
If the bond stress is not safe, we either increase by using steel bars with
smaller diameter, or
increase
reinforcement at the edges of the footing helps in resisting bond stresses. The
diameter of the main steel reinforcement should not be less than 12 mm. To
prevent cracking due to uneven settlement below the wall itself, additional
reinforcement is used as shown in Fig.13-c and d. It is taken as 1.0% of the
concrete cross section under the wall and distributed equally at top and bottom.
19.
American Codes of Practice is equal to the moment about the critical section y-y of the net
stress acting on the hatched .area abcd Fig. 16-a. According to the Continental Codes of
practiceMmax. is equal to either; the moment of the net stresses acting on the hatched
area abgh, shown in Fig.16-b, about the critical section y-y or 0.85 the moment of the net
stresses acting on the area abcd in Fig.16-a about y-y.
8.
9.
It should be noted that dm computed by continental method is larger than that compute
by American code. The larger depth will decrease the amount of steel reinforcement
and usually satisfies the depth required for punching. American code gives smaller d m
with higher value of steel reinforcement but by using high tensile, steel, the area of the
steel reinforcement can be reduced. In this text, the bending moment will be calculated
according to the American Code while b is taken either equal to b c + 20 when the
ordinary steel is used or equal to B when high tensile steel is used.
The footing depth d may be taken any value between the two values computed by the
two above methods. It should be mentioned that, for the same bending moment, a large
depth will require smaller area of reinforcement steel which may not satisfy the
minimum percentage of steel . Also a small depth will require a large area of steel
especially when using ordinary mild steel.
10.
11.
The reinforcement in the long direction (Side L) is calculated from the bending moment ,
and is uniformly distributed over the width B. The reinforcement in the short direction
(Side B) is calculated from the bending moment M11. In locating the bars in the short
direction one has to consider that the support provided to the footing by the column is
concentrated near the middle, consequently the area of footing adjacent to the column
is more effective in resisting bending. For this reason an adjustment of steel in the short
direction is made. This adjustment place a percentage of the steel in a zone centered
on the column with a width equal to the length of the short direction of the footing. The
remainder of the reinforcement shall be uniformly distributed in two end zones, Fig.18.
According to the American Concrete Institute, the percentage of steel in the central
zone is given by:
SEMELLES
Single footings should be tied together by beams known as semelles as shown in
Fig.19.a. Their function is to carry the ground floor walls and transfer their loads to the
footings. Semelles can prevent relative settlement if they are of very stiff section and
heavily reinforced.
The semelle is designed as continuous reinforced concrete rectangular beam carrying
the weight of the wall. The width of the semelle is equal to the width of the wall plus 5
cm and it should not be less than 25 cm. It should resist the shearing forces and
bending moments to which it is subjected, semelles must
be reinforced at top and bottom to counteract the differential settlements. by the equal
reinforcement As.
The top level of the semelle should be 20 cm below the level of the platform surrounding
the building. If the level of the ground floor is higher than that of the platform, the level of
the inner semmelle can be taken 20 cm below the ground floor level
columns.
The soil-pressure resultant under eccentrically loaded footing is assumed to
coincide with the axial load P, but not with the centroid of the footing, which results in a
linear non-uniform pressure distribution. The maximum pressure must not exceed the
maximum allowable pressure on the soil. Tilting of the footing due to the higher intensity
of soil pressure at the toe is possible to occur . This can be reduced by using a large
safety factor when computing the allowable soil pressure. Chapter 1, Section "Footings
with Eccentric or Inclined Loads" provide for a reduction in allowable soil pressure for
eccentrically loaded footings.
where
qa
Where the bending moments on a column come from any direction, for example from
wind loads, a square footing-; is preferable unless the space restrictions dictate the
choice of rectangular footing. If the bending moments always act in the same direction,
as in columns supporting rigid framed structures, the footing can be lengthed in the
Combined Footings
Introduction
The preceding section presented elements of the design of spread and wall footings. This
section considers some of the more complicated shallow-foundation problems. Among
these are footings supporting more than one column in a line (combined footings), which
may be rectangular or trapezoidal in shape, or two pads connected by a beam, as for a
strap footing. Eccentrically loaded footings and un-symmetrically shaped footings will also
be considered.
The design of a rigid rectangular footing consists in determining the location of the center
of gravity (cg) of the column loads and using length and width dimensions such that the
centroid of the footing and the center of gravity of the column loads coincide. With the
dimensions of the footing established, a shear
and moment diagram can be prepared, the depth selected for shear (again it is
conventional to make the depth adequate for shear without using shear reinforcement to
satisfy rigidity requirements implicitly), and reinforcing steel selected for bending
requirements. Critical sections for shear, both diagonal-tension and wide-beam, should
be taken as indicated in the previous section. The maximum positive and negative
moments are used to design the reinforcing steel and will result in steel in both bottom
and top of the beam.
In the short direction, obviously, the entire length is not going to be effective in resisting
bending. That zone closest to the column will be most effective for bending, and it is
recommended that this approach be used. This is basically what the ACI Code specifies
In selecting dimensions for the combined footing, the length dimension is somewhat
critical if it is desired to have shear and moment diagrams mathematically close as an
error check. This means that unless the length is exactly the computed value from the
location of the cg of the columns, an eccentricity will be introduced into the footing,
If the footing is loaded by more than two columns, the problem is still statically
determinate; the reactions (column loads) are known as well as the distributed loading,
i.e. the soil pressure.
6- Determine the depth for shear. It is conventional to make the depth adequate for
shear without using shear reinforcement. The critical section for shear is at
distance d from the face of column having maximum shear, Fig.30
7-Determine the depth for punching shear for both columns. According to ACI the
critical section it at d/2 from column face. Fig.30.
Combined trapezoidal footing:Combined trapezoidal footing for two columns as used when column carries the
largest load is near the property line where the projection is limited or when there is
restriction on the total length of the footing. Referring to Fig.32 ,
The position of the resultant of columns loads R locates the position of the centriod of the
trapezoid. The length L is determined and the area A is computed from:
The design procedure is the same as rectangular combined footing except that the shear
diagram will be a second degree curve and bending moment is a third degree curve.
A strap footing consists in two column footings connected by a member termed a strap,
beam, or cantilever which transmits the moment from the exterior footing. Fig.33
illustrates a strap footing. Since the strap is designed for
moment, either it should be formed out of contact with the soil or the soil should be
loosened for several inches beneath the strap so that the strap has no soil pressure
acting on it. For simplicity of analysis, if the strap is. not very long, the, weight of the
strap may be neglected.
In designing a strap footing, it is first necessary to proportion the footings. This is done
by assuming a uniform soil pressure beneath the footings; that is, R 1 and R2 (Fig.33) act
at the centroid of the footings.
The strap must be a massive member for this solution to be valid. The development of
Eq.1 implies rigid body rotation; thus, if the strap is not able to transmit the eccentric
moment from column 1 without rotation, the solution is not valid. To avoid exterior
footing rotation it is recommended to be .
Istrap/Ifooting > 2
It is desirable to proportion both footings so that B and q are as nearly equal as possible
to control differential settlements.
reaction under the interior footing will be decreased by the same value, referring to
Fig.33
1- The design begins with trial value of e
6- Check that the centroid of the areas of the two footings coincide with the
resultant of column loads.
7- Calculate the moments and shear at various parts of the strap footing.
8- Design of the strap
The strap represents a single-span beam loaded upward by the loads transferred
to it by the two footings and supported by downward reactions at the centre lines
of the two columns. Thus the upward load over the length L is equal to R 1/L t/m'.
The location of the maximum moment is obtained by equating the shear force to
zero. The moment decreases toward the interior column and is zero at the center
line of that column. Hence half the strap reinforcement is discontinued where no
longer needed and the other half is continued through the interior column. Check
shear stresses and use stirrups, and bent bars if necessary.
9- Design of the exterior footing
The exterior footing acts exactly like a wall footing of a length equal to L. Even
though the column is located at the edge the balancing action of the strap is such
as to transmit the reaction R1 uniformly over the length L1 thus resulting in the
desired uniform soil pressure. The design is carried out exactly as for a wall
footing.
10- Design of the interior footing
The interior footing may be designed as a simple single column footing. The main
difference is that the punching shear should be checked along the perimeter fghj,
Fig.33.
RAFT FOUNDATIONS
Introduction
The raft foundation is continuous footing that cover the entire area beneath a structure
and supports all the walls and columns. The term mat is also used for foundation of this
type. It is used generally on soil of low bearing capacity and where the area covered by
spread footings is more than half the area covered by the structure. Raft foundation is
also used where the soil mass contains compressible lenses or the soil is sufficiently
erratic so that differential settlement would be difficult to control. The raft tends to bridge
over erratic deposits and reduces the differential settlement.
It was noticed in practice that using an allowable bearing capacity under the raft equal
to twice the allowable bearing capacity determined for an ordinary footing. resting on
the same sand will give a reasonable and acceptable amount of settlement.
If the water table lies at a depth equal to or greater than B, the width of the raft, the
allowable bearing capacity, determined for dry condition, should not be reduced. If there
is a possibility that the water table rises up till it floods the site, the allowable bearing
capacity should be reduced by 50%. If the water table is at a depth intermediate between
B and the base of the raft, an appropriate reduction between zero and 50% should be
made.
If the estimated differential settlement under the raft is more than tolerable or if the
weight of the building divided by its area gives a bearing stress greater than the
allowable bearing capacity, floating or partially floating foundation should be considered.
where the weight of the excavated soil equals to the weight of the structure, figure 2. In
this case, the excess superimposed stress p at foundation level equals to zero and
consequently, the building will suffer no settlement.
If the full weight of the building =Q
and the weight of soil removed =W s
and the excess load at foundation level =Qe
Qe=QW s
In case of floating foundation ;
Q = Ws
In case of partially floating foundation, Qe has a certain value which when divided by
foundation area gives the allowable bearing capacity of the soil ;
In flexible raft foundation the design cannot be based only on the strength requirements
but it is necessary to be subjected due to the predicted settlement. The thickness and
the amount of reinforcement of the raft should be selected in a such way to prevent
development of cracks in the slab. As the differential settlement is not considered in the
structural design it is customary to reinforce the raft with twice its theoretical amount of
reinforcement. The quantity of the steel may be taken as 1% of the cross sectional area
divided at top and bottom. The thickness of the slab should not be greater than 0.01 of
the radius of curvature. The thickness may be .increased near columns to prevent shear
failure.
The total loads acting upon the column strip BDEQ, Fig.35-a are assumed as triangular
loading diagrams shown in Fig.35-b. The total load on part DE, PDE, is assumed to be
the net pressure acting upon the area DHEJ.
where
Q = weight of building at ground level, and
A = area of raft (along the outside of the exterior columns).
If this pressure is greater than the net allowable soil pressure, the area of the raft should
be increased to an area large enough to reduce the uniform pressure to the net
allowable value. This can be achieved by projecting the slab beyond the outside face of
exterior columns.
Referring to Fig. 38 , the various elements of the raft can be designed as follows:
Design of slab:
1-Design of transverse beams B1 and B2
The uniform distributed load/m' on
Let R1 and R2 be the central reaction of beams B1 and B2 on the central main beam B3
respectively. The end beams B1 carries only part of the load carried by the beam B2
and hence the central reaction R1 is assumed to be equal to
KR2 where K is a factor based on comparative area, then
Also it is assumed that the sum of the central reactions from the transverse beams B1
and B2 is equals to the total loads from central columns, thus
2R1+8R2 =2P1 + 2 P2
(2)
3-
The loading, shearing force, and bending moment diagrams are shown in Fig.40-b The
section can be designed as T-beam