a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 15 October 2008
Received in revised form 6 January 2009
Accepted 12 January 2009
Available online 6 February 2009
Keywords:
Motivation
Intrinsic
Extrinsic
Volunteerism
Role identity
Motive
Prosocial
a b s t r a c t
The present study incorporated the constructs of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation into an investigation
of dispositional factors that contribute to volunteering. Recent research has conceptualized motivational
tendencies as akin to personality variables, stable across time and situations. Volunteer motives, volunteer role identity, and prosocial personality were assessed, along with motivational orientation and time
devoted to volunteering. Intrinsic motivation was positively associated with a volunteer self-concept,
prosocial personality, volunteer time, and motive strength. This was particularly true for internal
motives, those that are satised by the volunteer activity itself. Extrinsic orientation was most closely
associated with external motives (specically career aspirations), which require an outcome separate
from the volunteer work in order to be fullled. The study was the rst to consider constructs from
the prevailing conceptual view of the volunteer process in the context of motivational orientation. The
wider theoretical perspective offers insight into human behavior beyond volunteerism.
2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
The present study incorporated the constructs of intrinsic and
extrinsic motivation into an investigation of dispositional factors
that contribute to volunteering. We dene volunteerism as ongoing, planned, and discretionary prosocial behavior that benets
non-intimate others and offers little or no tangible reward (Penner,
2002). To explore the factors that contribute to volunteerism, we
adopted a conceptual perspective that integrates two theories of
long-term helping: functional analysis and role identity theory.
654
655
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Table 1
Means, standard deviations, reliabilities, and intercorrelations for motivational
orientation, volunteer motives, prosocial personality, role identity, and time.
Table 3
Summary of regression analysis for time spent volunteering from antecedents and
aspects of the volunteer experience.
Variables
Variable
1. Intrinsic
2. Extrinsic
3. Internal
motives
4. External
motives
5. Otheroriented
6. Helpfulness
7. Role identity
8. Time
(.73)
.10
.39***
(.72)
.13*
(.94)
.21***
.26***
.52***
(.85)
.41***
.07
.33***
.08
(.83)
.46
.32***
.16**
.05
.02
.04
***
.28
.66***
.41***
.03
.33***
.20**
.32***
.41***
.06
(.73)
.30***
.25***
(.86)
.40***
42.44
5.45
40.37
5.79
65.49
17.30
16.57
4.73
79.59
9.60
25.33
4.75
16.65
4.17
Mean
SD
***
Time
B
Intrinsic
Extrinsic
Internal
External
Other-oriented
Helpfulness
Role identity
R2
40.93
13.65
Note: n = 287.
*
p < .05.
**
p < .01.
***
p < .001.
tendencies and external motives was not stronger than that between intrinsic tendencies and external motives for volunteering,
t(284) = .66, ns.
Hypothesis 2 examined the relationship between motivational
orientation and a prosocial personality, and the data were consistent with predictions. Intrinsic motivation correlated signicantly
with both other-oriented empathy and helpfulness (r = .41, p < .001
and r = .46, p < .001, respectively). Though we expected the relationship with other-oriented empathy to be stronger, there was no
signicant difference [t(284) = .85, ns]. Extrinsic motivation
showed no signicant relationship with either dimension of the
PSB (r = .07 for other-oriented empathy and .05 for helpfulness).
We found, as anticipated, that intrinsic tendencies correlated signicantly more strongly than extrinsic with both other-oriented
empathy, t(284) = 6.62, p < .01 and helpfulness, t(284) = 5.77, p < .01.
Turning to Hypothesis 3, as anticipated, role identity showed a
signicant positive correlation with an intrinsic motivational orientation (r = .32, p < .001), and the relationship was stronger than
that between role identity and extrinsic motivation (r = .02, ns),
t(284) = 4.49, p < .01.
The correlations in Table 1 suggested systematic differences in
the relationship between motivational orientation and constructs
fundamental to functional analysis and role identity theory. However, the correlation matrix also revealed large intercorrelations
among many of the variables. To determine the unique contributions of motives, role identity, and prosocial personality to intrinsic
and extrinsic motivation, regression equations were calculated. All
variables were simultaneously entered as predictors of intrinsic
and extrinsic motivation, respectively.
SE B
.10
.02
.21
.00
.24
.47
.93
.16
.13
.06
.18
.09
.18
.24
b
.04
.01
.26**
.00
.17**
.16**
.28***
.25
Note: n = 286.
p > .01.
***
p < .001.
**
Table 2
Summary of regression analysis for motivational orientation from antecedents and
aspects of the volunteer experience.
Variable
Intrinsic
B
Internal
External
Other-oriented
Helpfulness
Role identity
R2
Note: n = 286.
p < .01.
p < .001.
**
***
Extrinsic
SE B
.06
.11
.14
.37
.05
.02
.07
.03
.06
.09
b
.20**
.10
.24***
.33***
.04
.34
SE B
.03
.33
.05
.12
.22
.03
.08
.04
.08
.11
b
.09
.27***
.09
.10
.16
.10
teering. Thus, while the construct may affect the nature of the volunteer commitment, motivational orientation does not seem to affect the strength of that commitment. Ryan and Deci (2000)
convincingly argued that, contrary to prevailing perceptions,
extrinsic objectives are not necessarily inferior to intrinsic motivations for engaging in a behavior. For example, a student who studies in order to gain admission into the college of his choice is
motivated by extrinsic factors. Nonetheless that individual can
appreciate the value of studying.
Similarly, the functional analysis of volunteerism posits that
different individuals can engage in the same volunteer work for
very different reasons. The task of an organization is to satisfy
the relevant motives. Clary and Snyder (1999) and Clary et al.
(1998) examined the role of motives and their fulllment in initiating and sustaining volunteerism in a variety of organizations.
When the experience satised their motives for volunteering, individuals reported greater satisfaction and stronger intentions to
continue volunteering than if those objectives remained unrealized. Motive fulllment also correlated with later volunteer activity (Omoto & Snyder, 1995).
Although motivational orientation may not predict volunteer
activity, differences do suggest different strategies for retaining
volunteers. One study of mandatory volunteerism by Stukas,
Snyder, and Clary (1999) suggested that external controls can inhibit the formation of a volunteer role identity and the desire to continue volunteering. Requiring college students to engage in
community service reduced their intentions to volunteer in the future. The negative effects of mandatory volunteerism even applied to students who previously had freely engaged in volunteer
work. Similar effects were found with blood donors (Callero
et al., 1987). For intrinsically oriented individuals, whom the
current data show are motivated by internal goals and develop a
volunteer role identity, mandatory volunteering may be counterproductive. However, the approach may help recruit extrinsically
oriented volunteers, spurred as they are by external motives.
Like external controls, the lure of external rewards can inhibit
intrinsic interest (e.g., Lepper et al., 1973). However, interference
is not a given. Deci (1971) observed that although money decreased intrinsic motivation, verbal reinforcement and positive
feedback about ones performance did not. Similarly, performance-contingent rewards, those reserved for a task done well,
were not the threat to intrinsic motivation that task-contingent
rewards were (Deci & Ryan, 1985). These studies suggest that
intrinsically motivated volunteers may prefer honest feedback to
unalloyed praise. Presumably the issue would not affect extrinsically oriented individuals; for them, fulllment of their external
goals (career advancement, stronger social ties) would be the more
important inuence.
4.1. Study limitations/future directions
That our sample consisted solely of college students limits the
generalizability of the ndings. At each stage in life, myriad variables can differentially affect reasons for volunteering and the extent of that commitment. Cross-sectional studies such as this
provide a snapshot of an individual at a single point in time, and
the inuences on volunteer activity change over time (e.g., Finkelstein, 2008). While our self-report procedure may raise questions
of accuracy, our interest was less in an objective accounting of volunteer activity than in peoples perceptions of their behavior and
its inuences.
Because of the large sample size, some statistically signicant
correlations were small, but they uniformly were consistent with
our theoretical framework. Future work is planned to further test
and rene that framework. Arguably more important than the distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic is whether volunteering is
657
congruent with ones self-concept and core values (e.g., Deci &
Ryan, 2000). Activities undertaken because of internal pressures
are no more satisfying than those resulting from external controls
(Sheldon & Elliot, 1999; Sheldon et al., 2004). We are planning a
study to investigate congruence and its effect on volunteer satisfaction and longevity.
5. Conclusion
Examined within the framework of motivational orientation,
volunteering provides a means of studying basic psychological processes. Our ndings help to place constructs underlying functional
analysis and role identity theory in a more general psychological
context.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported in part by a Research & Development
grant from the University of South Florida College of Arts &
Sciences.
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