Nanophotonics: solar and thermal applications

Shanhui Fan
Ginzton Laboratory and Department of Electrical Engineering
Stanford University

http://www.stanford.edu/~shanhui

Nanophotonic Structures
Photonic crystals

Plasmonic Meta-materials

Au

SOI

2 m
1 m

J. Pan et al, APL 97, 101102 (2010).

L. Verslegers, Nano Letters 9, 235 (2009).

Photon as an important heat carrier

From the sun

On earth

Improving Solar Cell Efficiency

Sun

Semiconductor PN junction

Light management

Absorb sunlight using films

as thin as possible

1. Reduce cost for expensive materials

2. Facilitate carriers extraction to improve efficiency

Challenges of light management for a-Si cell

Full absorption
depth ~ 1000nm
Carriers only travel
for 200-300nm

To facilitate carrier extraction, needs to absorb light with a layer

thinner than the absorption length

a-Si cell (~280nm thick)

Nanocone

Flat

TCO

a-Si

Photocurrent

Ag

Total available: 20.5

mA/cm2

17.5
mA/cm2

11.4
mA/cm2

Absorption spectra

Nanocone

Flat

Broadband anti-reflection and effective light trapping

Broadband antireflection

l = 450nm
air
ITO
a-Si
ITO
Ag

a-Si

Absorption spectra

Nanocone

Flat

Broadband anti-reflection and effective light trapping

Light trapping

l = 750nm
air
ITO
a-Si
ITO
Ag

a-Si

Combine theory with experiment

Flat

Nanocone

J. Zhu, Z. Yu, G. Burkhard, C. Hsu, S. Connor, Y. Xu, Q. Wang, M. Mcgehee, S. Fan, and Y. Cui
Nano Letters 9,279 (2009).

500nm

Significant efficiency enhancement

Flat

Nanocone

Jsc= 11.4mA/cm2

Jsc= 17.5mA/cm2

Efficiency 4.7%

Efficiency: 5.9%
Most recent result: 9.7%

Absorption spectra

Nanocone

Flat

Broadband anti-reflection and effective light trapping

An important theoretical question

What is the fundamental limit of absorption enhancement
using light trapping in solar cells?

Classical Light Trapping Theory

A. Goetzberger IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference (1981).
Optical confinement in thin Si-solar cells by diffuse back reflectors
E. Yablonovitch J. Opt. Soc. Am. A (1982).
Statistical ray optics
P. Campbell & M. Green J. Appl. Phys. (1986).
Light trapping properties of pyramidally textured surface

Weak absorption at semiconductor band edge

Si
Mirror

Absorption

1.0
0.8
0.6

0.4

50 m c-Si
Perfect AR
Perfect back mirror

0.2

0.0
400

600

800

Wavelength (nm)

1000

The Conventional Limit

Si
Mirror

sin 1

1
n

Maximum absorption enhancement factor 4n 2

Derived with a ray tracing argument

E. Yablonovitch, J. Opt. Soc. Am. 72, 899 (1982); Goetzberger, IEEE Photovoltaic
Specialists Conference, p. 867 (1981); Campbell and Green, IEEE Trans. Electron.
Devices 33, 234 (1986).

Maximum absorption enhancement occurs in the

weak absorption limit

Absorption

4n2

with light
trapping
w/o light
trapping

Wavelength (nm)

From conventional to nanoscale light trapping

J. Zhu, Z. Yu, et al, Nano Letters 9,

279 (2009).

M. Green (2001)

~ 50 m

Nanocone

500 nm
Ray tracing

Wave effect is important

Light Trapping With Grating

Active layer

mirror

500nm

Absorption enhanced by guided resonance

Guided resonance peak.
Narrow spectral width for each peak.
Requires aggregate contribution of large number of resonances.

Statistical Temporal Coupled Mode Theory

Instead of thinking about rays

Think about many resonances

Zongfu Yu, Aaswath Raman, and Shanhui Fan

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 107,17491 (2010).

A single resonance

absorption

Resonant frequency

A simple model of a single resonance

Assume no diffraction in free space

Incident plane wave

External leakage rate

Resonator
Intrinsic loss rate

c
n

Under, critical, and over coupling

100%

100%

100%

under-coupling
e i

critical-coupling
e i

over-coupling
e i

Traditional use of resonance for absorption enhancement, such as

resonance enhanced photodetectors, uses critical coupling

Spectral cross-section
Incident spectral bandwidth

Spectral cross-section

A( )d

Contribution of a single resonance to the average absorption over the

bandwidth

Maximum spectral cross-section

A( )d

100%

100%

100%

under-coupling
e i

critical-coupling
e i

over-coupling
e i

MAX =2 i

at the strong over-coupling limit, where the out-of-plane

scattering dominates over the intrinsic absorption

Covering the broad solar spectrum with multiple

resonances

88.5 MHz

97 MHz 106 MHz

Radio a
Radio b

Radio c

Sum over multiple resonances

M resonances

m
m

Multiple plane channels in free space

Take into account diffraction in free space

N channels

M resonances

max

2 i
N

Theory for nanophotonic light trapping

Number of plane wave channels in free
space: N
Number of resonances in the structure: M

M
= 2 i
N
Maximum absorption over a particular
bandwidth

M
=
2 i
N
Zongfu Yu, Aaswath Raman, and Shanhui Fan
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 107,17491 (2010).

Reproducing the conventional limit (the math)

Random texture can be
understood in terms of grating
with large periodicity

d
L

Maximum absorption

M
=
2 i
N

Conventional limit
Large Periodicity L >> l
Large Thickness d >> l

Maximum enhancement factor

F
/ d =4n2

The intuition about the conventional limit from the

wave picture

M
F
Nd

When the thickness

Number of resonance in the film

Thickness of the film

d l

Double the thickness doubles the number of the resonances

The key in overcoming the conventional limit

M
F
Nd

Number of resonance in the film

Thickness of the film

Nanoscale modal confinement over broad-bandwidth

Light confinement in nanoscale layers

Light Scattering Layer

e = 12.5, t = 80nm

Light Confining Layer

e = 12.5, t = 60nm

Light Absorption Layer

e = 2.5, = 400 cm-1, t = 5nm
Mirror

Enhancement: 15 times the conventional limit

Light intensity distribution

5nm thick

60n2
15 times of the classical limit

Simulated Absorption Spectrum

Enhancement Factor

Angular Response

4n2

Red: 4n2 limit

Zongfu Yu, Aaswath Raman, and Shanhui Fan

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 107,17491 (2010).

Statistical Temporal Coupled Mode Theory

Instead of thinking about rays

Think about many resonances

Zongfu Yu, Aaswath Raman, and Shanhui Fan

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 107,17491 (2010).

Guidance for grating design

Assuming isotropic emission (obtained when the grating period is much
larger than the wavelength)

2D

1D

4n2

~ l/2n

Maximum
enhancement
factor F

Zongfu Yu, Aaswath Raman, and Shanhui Fan, Optics Express 18, A366 (2010).

Grating with periodicity on the wavelength scale

Enhancement factor over 4n2
with grating

x
y

Counting number of
channels in free space
ky

kx

2/l
2/L

Zongfu Yu, Aaswath Raman,

and Shanhui Fan, Optics
Express 18, A366 (2010).

Angular sum rule of the enhancement factor

Conventional case

Arbitrary spatial emission pattern

Uniform emissivity with the cone

Zero emissivity outside the cone

Fmax

4n
sin 2

P. Campbell and M. A. Green, IEEE

Transactions on Electron Devices 33, 234
(1986).

2
d

cos

sin

Zongfu Yu, Shanhui Fan, Applied Physics

Letters 98, 011106 (2011).

Nanophotonics for solar cells

With Y. Cuis group at Stanford

J. Zhu et al, Nano Letters 9, 279 (2009).

J. Zhu, C. M. Hsu, Z. Yu, S. Fan, and Y. Cui, Nano
Letters 10, 1979 (2010).

Dr. Zongfu Yu, Aaswath Raman

Z. Yu, A. Raman and S. Fan,

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
107,17491 (2010).
Z. Yu, A. Raman and S. Fan, Optics Express 18,
A366 (2010).
Z. Yu and S. Fan, Applied Physics Letters 98,
011106 (2011).
A. Raman, Z. Yu, and S. Fan, Optics Express 19,
19015 (2011).

Photon as an important heat carrier

From the sun

On earth

Improving Solar Cell Efficiency

Sun

Semiconductor PN junction

Photon Energy

Electron Energy

Basic Semiconductor Physics

Conductance band

k
Power

Solar Spectrum

Valence band
Semiconductor Bandstructure

Photon Energy

Electron Energy

Photons with energy below the band gap

Conductance band

Eg
Eg
k
Power

Solar Spectrum

They do not contribute.

Valence band
Semiconductor Bandstructure

Photon Energy

Electron Energy

Photons with energy above the band gap

Conductance band

Eg
Eg
k
Power

Solar Spectrum

Valence band
Semiconductor Bandstructure

They do contribute, but only partially.

After absorption, each photon contributes to approximately Eg
worth of the energy, the rest is lost due to thermalization.

Photon Energy

Electron Energy

Shockley-Queisser Limit

Conductance band

Eg
Eg
k
Power

Solar Spectrum

Valence band
Semiconductor Bandstructure

A single-junction cell: maximal efficiency 41%.

n Junction Solar Cells-Detailed Balance Limit of Efficiency of p
1961)( 32, 510 .Phys .Appl .Queisser, J . William Shockley and Hans J

Photon Energy

Electron Energy

What if the sun was a narrow-band emitter?

Conductance band

Eg+dE
Eg
Eg
k
Power

Solar Spectrum (Ts=6000K)

Valence band
Semiconductor Bandstructure (Te=300K)

Approach Thermodynamic Limit

Solar Thermo-Photovoltaics (STPV)

P
N
Sun (Ts = 6000K)

Intermediate Absorber and

Emitter (Ti = 2544K)

The sun to the

intermediate

Solar Cell (Te = 300K)

The intermediate
to the cell

R. Swasnson, Proc. IEEE 67, 446 (1979); P. Harder and P. Wurfel, Semicond. Sci. Technol. 18, S151 (2003).

STPV: The Challenge

6000K

2544K

300K
P
N

Design requirement for the intermediate

Broad-band wide-angle absorber
Narrow-band emitter
Material requirement for the intermediate
Need to have large optical loss.
Need to withstand high temperature.
Tungsten is a natural choice of material.

Dielectric Function of Tungsten

Tungsten is a very lossy material in the solar wavelength range.

Absorptivity of a semi-infinite slab of Tungsten

Neither a good absorber or a good emitter.

Nanostructured Tungsten Photonic Crystals

Broad-band absorber

250nm

Narrow-band Emitter

Tungsten Broad-Band Wide-Angle Absorber

E. Rephaeli and S. Fan, Applied Physics Letters 92, 211107 (2008).

Towards ideal solar thermal absorber

An ideal solar thermal absorber

a near-unity absorption in the optical wavelength
a near-zero absorption in the thermal wavelength range

Thermal Emitter

Vacuum Lamp:
1800 - 2700K
Gas Filled Lamp:
Up to 3200K

www.intl-lighttech.com/applications/appl-tungsten.pdf

Narrow-band Tungsten emitter tuned to band gap of 0.7eV

Emissivity

Blackbody 2100K

W
Energy (eV)

E. Rephaeli and S. Fan, Optics Express 17, 15145 (2009).

Si SiO2

Schematic Incorporating both Absorber and Emitter

Beating Shockley-Queisser Limit

6000K

~2000K

0.7eV cell
P

System Efficiency

Solar TPV (0.7eV cell)

Direct PV (1.1eV cell)
Direct PV (0.7eV cell)

# of Suns
E. Rephaeli and S. Fan, Optics Express 17, 15145 (2009).

Photon as an important heat carrier

From the sun

On earth

Active control of thermal transport

Electronic integrated circuit

Can we provide more

active control of thermal
transport?

http://www.aztex.biz/wpcontent/uploads/2009/01/ic-chipexample.jpg

Thermal Rectification (Thermal Diode)

Body 1
Forward
Bias

Body 2

S12

TH

TL
TH >TL

Backward
Bias

TL

S21

TH

Rectification occurs when S12 S21

Previous experiments on phonon and electrons.
Relies upon phonon-phonon or electron-electron interactions.
Novel capability for thermal management

Here, we aim to create

thermal rectification for photons

Our construction
Photon mediated

Heat conducting channel is linear (vacuum)

The nonlinearity is in the dependency of the refractive index with
respect to temperature

SiC (3C)
d=100nm

SiC (6H)

C. Otey, W. Lau, and S. Fan, Physical Review Letters 104, 153401 (2010).

Sharp thermal features in the near field

d = 1000m

d = 2m

SiC (300K)
d = 0.1m
Narrow-band
resonance

Greffet et al, PRL 85, 1548 (2000).

Mechanism for thermal rectification

Body 1

Body 2

1 T
2 T

1 T

2 T

Two different objects, both support narrowband resonances

The resonant frequencies have different temperature dependence.

Forward bias

Body 1

Body 2
Body 1

500K

300K
Body 2

1 T

2 T

Resonances overlap, large thermal transfer

Backward bias

Body 1

Body 2
Body 1

300K

500K
Body 2

1 T

2 T

Resonances do not overlap, small thermal transfer

Our scheme
Narrow-band electromagnetic resonances with temperature
dependent resonant frequency.
orward

everse

C. Otey, W. Lau, and S. Fan, Physical Review Letters 104, 153401 (2010).

A simple rectifier design

Use surface phonon polaritons as our temperature
dependent resonances
SiC has TO phonons that give clean dielectric resonances
in infrared that dominates the near field
SiC-3C and SiC-6H have different TO phonon frequency
temperature dependence

SiC (3C)
d=100nm
SiC (6H)

3C

6H

Spectral heat flux

SiC 3C

SiC 6H

Forward

SiC 3C

SiC 6H

Reverse

Overall heat flux

Tl 300K

S12 S21
Rectification
S21
C. Otey, W. Lau, and S. Fan, Physical Review Letters 104, 153401 (2010).

Summary
Nanophotonic light
trapping

Solar
Thermophotovoltaic

Thermal Diode

SiC (3C)

SiC (6H)

Dr. Zongfu Yu
Aaswath Raman

Eden Rephaeli

Acknowledging support from GCEP, DOE, AFOSR

Clayton Otey
Dr. Wah Tung Lau