Hydraulic Conveying Association of South Africa

4th One Day Seminar on Hydraulic Transport in the Mining Industry

7 April 2003, Indaba Conference Centre

How to Reduce Pipe Friction in Slurry Flows

Dr Nigel Heywood
Aspen Technology, Harwell, UK

Abstract
This paper describes three main methods for reducing the frictional pressure loss, and
therefore the pump discharge pressure requirement, when transporting viscous, often nonNewtonian, slurries and pastes in pipelines. The first method reduces the degree of
flocculation of the particles in the slurry using suitable chemical additives, and thereby
reduces the slurry viscosity. The second method makes use of boundary liquid (such as water,
oil, or polymer solution) which is injected at comparatively small flowrates into the pipe
downstream from the pump to form a lubricating annulus adjacent to the pipe wall. The third
method involves gas injection into the pipe downstream from the pump to form a slug flow
pattern which results in substantial frictional pressure loss reductions for shear-thinning, nonNewtonian slurry, initially flowing in the laminar flow regime prior to gas injection.
1.

Introduction

Many new developments have taken place over the last few years in slurry handling practice
(Heywood, 1999), and particularly in slurry pipeline technologies (Heywood & Alderman,
2003). One example of this is the increased tendency for slurries and pastes containing very
fine particles to be pumped at increasingly high concentrations. These slurries tend to be
pseudo-homogeneous and do not segregate readily under gravity forces. They are often highly
viscous and exhibit highly shear-thinning, non-Newtonian flow properties. Figure 1 indicates
the typical consistency of these slurry types.

Figure 1: Viscous, Fine Particle Slurry Discharging from a Pipe

In addition, it is also possible to pump relatively low moisture, unsaturated (compressible)

filter and centrifuge cakes (Figure 2) using both reciprocating positive displacement pumps
and some classes of rotary pump using bridge breakers and single or double intermeshing,
contra-rotating augers at the base of feed hoppers.

Figure 2: Unsaturated Sewage Sludge from a Compression Cake Filter

In order to pump both classes of slurry (either saturated paste or unsaturated cake) high pump
discharge pressures are frequently required. These discharge pressures result in:

High pumping power consumption

High pump differential pressures, leading to pump slippage and higher wear rates in some
pump types

More expensive, thicker-walled pipe

Less flexibility to pump slurry at higher, more viscous solids concentrations

There are various techniques to reduce the frictional pressure loss in pipe flow, which is often
the major contribution to the pump discharge pressure. This paper describes three of these
methods:
1. Reduction in the level of particle flocculation through the use of additives to reduce the
zeta potential on particle surfaces;
2. Injection of water or some other liquid (such as oil or aqueous polymer solution) into the
pump discharge pipe using an appropriate injection ring, thus creating a lubricating
annulus in the pipe for the viscous slurry;
3. Injection of air (or inert gas) into the pump discharge pipe to reduce the proportion of the
inner pipe wall wetted by viscous slurry.

2.

Use of Additives to Disperse/Deflocculate Fine Slurry particles

Adding soluble ionic compounds to flocculated slurries (i.e. slurries where a significant
proportion, say 5 to 10%, of solids are below approximately 5 m) can result in substantial
pressure drop reductions in pipe flow in the laminar flow regime. However, the effect is
usually not discernible in the turbulent regime. The ionic compounds disperse the particles,
thereby breaking up the flocculated particle network that gives rise to higher shear stresses in
pipe flow. In order to disperse particles, the charge on their surfaces needs to be of the same
sign, and the higher the charge the greater the repulsive forces between particles.
It is only relatively recently that the reduction in pressure drop has been related to the degree
of deflocculation in quantitative terms. Several studies (Horsley et al, 1980 & 1982a, b) have
been undertaken in which the zeta potential on particle surfaces, defined as the potential in the
electrochemical double layer at the interface between a particle moving in an electric field and
the surrounding liquid, has been measured and correlated with the pressure drop reduction.
The zeta potential is a measure of the repulsive forces acting on the particles and thus is
useful in measuring the dispersing effects of chemical additives.
Figure 3 shows some typical head loss-slurry velocity data (Horsley & Reizes, 1980) for the
flow of a 43% by volume sand slurry (37% by weight of particles less than 10 m) at different
pH levels in the range 6.2 to 10.8; the pH was controlled by the addition of nitric acid and
sodium hydroxide. The changes in pressure drop in the laminar regime were observed to be
greater as the sand concentration was raised.

Figure 3: Effect of pH and Zeta Potential on 43% Volume Concentration Sand Slurry
(d50 =17 m) in Pipe Flow (Horsley & Reizes, 1980)

Figure 4 shows a plot of head loss against zeta potential. This illustrates that the higher the
zeta potential (i.e. the larger the negative value) the lower the pressure drop.

Figure 4: Effect of Zeta Potential on Head Loss Gradient for 33% and 43% Volume
Concentrations of Sand Slurry (Horsley & Reizes, 1980)
The effects of chemical additives have been studied (Sikorski et al, 1982)) on a number of
mineral slurries including drilling muds (thinners such as sodium acid pyrophosphate and
sodium hexametaphosphate), phosphate rock slurries (caustic soda), limestone cement feed
(combination of sodium tripolyphosphate and sodium carbonate), and coal slurry (sodium
tripolyphosphate, sodium dioctyl sulphosuccinate and sodium carbonate).
Various alkaline additives have been used to modify the flow properties of coal-water slurries
(Shook & Nurkoski, 1977 & Teckchandani & Shook, 1982). Several thinners have been
investigated (McInnes, 2002) at different concentrations to reduce the viscosity of chalk
slurry, so facilitating long distance pumping, and additives have been used to reduce pumping
energy requirements for flyash waste slurries from power stations (Thomas & Sobota, 2002).
The level of dispersion of a flocculated slurry, and therefore indirectly its viscosity level, can
now be assessed on-line through zeta potential using commercially-available instrumentation.
Off-line zeta potential measurements have been possible for some time. With the on-line
instrument, an electroacoustic sensor (Hunter, 1998 & 2001) applies high-frequency
alternating voltage pulses across the slurry. This causes the slurry particles to oscillate at a
velocity that depends on their size and electric charge (or zeta potential). This particle motion
generates sound waves, which in turn depend on particle size and zeta potential. The input
voltage pulse is applied across two flat, parallel platinum electrodes that are in contact with
the slurry.
The slurry flows vertically upwards through a polyphenylenesulphide (PPS) spacer in the
sensor. One of the platinum electrodes is coated onto a rectangular glass delay line, at the
opposite end of which is mounted a thin ultrasonic transducer. The gated amplifier produces a
pulse of high frequency alternating voltage of about 3 s duration, which is applied across the
parallel electrodes. The resulting high frequency sound wave produced by the motion of the
slurry particles in the alternating electric field travels down the glass delay line and is detected
by the ultrasonic transducer.

The measured electrical signal, called the ESA, contains information about the particle size
and charge, and is the primary measurement made by the electroacoustic sensor. The ESA
measurement is repeated a number of times at a range of frequencies from 1 MHz to 20 MHz.
The Fourier Transform of these signals is referred to as the ESA frequency spectrum. From
this spectrum, the particle size distribution and the zeta potential are ultimately calculated.
3.

Injecting Boundary Layer Liquid into Pipe

Very highly concentrated slurries can now be pumped using either progressive cavity or
reciprocating piston pumps (Zey, 1999) by force-feeding the slurry into the pump body using
various auger designs and bridge breakers at the base of wedge-shaped hoppers. Even
unsaturated solid/liquid/air mixtures such as compressed filter or centrifuge cakes can be
pumped in this way. To reduce the frictional pressure loss in the pump discharge pipe, it is
now common for many pump manufacturers to offer boundary layer injection facilities
whereby a liquid is injected at three or four points through the pipe wall to generate an
annulus that helps to lubricate the flow. The liquid injected is often water but greater
reductions in frictional pressure loss can be achieved using aqueous polymer solution, waste
or heating oil or polyelectrolytes. Because the central slurry core is so concentrated and
viscous, mixing between the annular wall layer of injection liquid and the slurry can be
minimal so the friction reduction effect is maintained over a significant pipe length.
Figure 5 shows a liquid injection arrangement supplied by Schwing America for their
reciprocating piston pumps, and Figure 6 shows how a lubricating annulus is formed in the
pipe.

Figure 5: The Boundary Layer Injection Method used by Schwing Pumps

Figure 6 : Details of the Schwing Pumps Boundary Layer Injection Method

Figure 7 shows the extent of the reduction in pump discharge pressure for a progressive cavity
pump which is pumping sewage sludge at various solids concentrations, and using water at
two different concentrations of polymer solution. It can be seen that a 0.5% polymer solution
injected at 20 litre/h into the pipe carrying sludge at 2 m3/h (1:100 flowrate ratio) gives rise to
the greatest reduction in discharge pressure from 13 bar down to about 1.8 bar. Other
conditions also give substantial reductions in discharge pressure.

Figure 7: Reductions in Pump Discharge Pressure for Sewage Sludge using Alternative
Boundary Layer Liquids (Courtesy, Seepex Pumps)

The nature of the boundary layer fluid appears to have a significant effect on the pressure drop
reduction on the pipe wall. Various liquids are used by Putzmeister Pumps depending on the
application (Zey, 1999). Table 1 from Putzmeister shows the various liquids they use.

Table 1 : Boundary Layer Fluids used by Putzmeister Pumps

Boundary layer fluid
Water

Advantages
Cheap

Heating oil/waste oil

Greater cost
benefit when used
as combination
aid
High efficiency

Polyelectrolytes
PMLC

Extremely
efficient
Does not mix
with slurry

Disadvantages
Mixes with
slurry/sludge
Used only in
incineration plant

Pressure Reduction
20-50%

Mixing station may

be required
Mixing station
required

50-75%

25-50%

70-90%

Figure 8 shows the substantial effect that either water injection or other special lubricant can
have on the pressure gradient (Zey, 1999).

Figure 8: Putzmeister Pumps Data for Pressure Gradient Reduction

for the Flow of 37 to 47% Sewage Sludge

4.

Injecting Air Downstream From Pump

It has been known for several decades that injecting air (or another gas) into a shear-thinning
slurry in laminar pipe flow will result in a reduction in frictional pressure loss. No such effect
occurs for the laminar flow of a Newtonian slurry, or for the turbulent flow of a slurry having
any specific laminar flow property. Figure 9 shows some typical data; the drag ratio in this
figure is defined as the ratio of frictional pressure gradient along the pipe with gas injection to
that with no gas injection, at constant superficial slurry velocity, i.e., constant slurry flowrate.

Figure 9: Typical Reductions in Frictional Pressure Loss for the Horizontal Pipeflow of
Shear-thinning Slurry at Various Superfical Slurry Velocities (Farooqi et al, 1980)

The friction reduction effect occurs in both horizontal (Heywood & Richardson, 1978, and
Farooqi et al, 1980) and vertical (Heywood & Charles, 1980, and Khatib & Richardson, 1984)
slurry pipe flows, and there is the additional advantage of reduced static head in vertical pipe
flows. Figure 10 shows how the gas can distribute itself within the slurry in both pipe
orientations, giving rise to six identifiable flow patterns in horizontal pipe flow, and four in
vertical pipe flow. In horizontal pipeflow, frictional pressure loss reduction occurs for
practical purposes mainly in bubble and plug or slug flow (intermittent flow), but it can occur
in stratified flow at low slurry flowrates (Heywood & Charles, 1979).
For a given flowrate combination of gas and slurry in a pipe, it is possible to predict the
resultant flow pattern. This information is often presented in the form of a flow pattern map.
An example of one developed for gas and non-Newtonian slurry flow in a horizontal pipe is
given in Figure 11.

Figure 10: Flow Patterns for Horizontal and Vertical Gas/Slurry Pipe Flow

Figure 11: Flow Pattern Map for Gas/Slurry Flows in Horizontal Pipes
(Chhabra & Richardson, 1984)
Friction reduction is greater the more shear-thinning the slurry and a maximum effect occurs
when the combined gas and slurry pipe flows nears the laminar-turbulent transition for the
slurry flow. In this way, the maximum effect can be reliably predicted from a knowledge of
the slurry rheological properties, the pipe diameter and the gas and slurry flowates. Figure 12
shows the maximum reduction in frictional pressure drop as a function of the pipe Reynolds
number for slurry flow alone.

Figure 12: Maximum Reduction in Pipe Friction (Minimum Drag Ratio) for a Power Law,
Shear-thinning Slurry with various n and K Parameter Combinations
(Farooqi & Richardson, 1982)
The maximum reduction in pipe friction can also be correlated using a dimensionless factor, J,
which is defined as the ratio of the superficial slurry velocity in the pipe to the critical value
for laminar flow breakdown, raised to the power of (1-n). The parameter, n is the exponent in
the power law model. This correlation is shown in Figure 13 which is particularly useful
because it allows estimation, a priori, of the minimum achievable drag ratio from a knowledge
only of the slurry properties (density and power law parameters) and the operating conditions
(pipe diameter and superficial slurry velocity, Vsl. The corresponding gas velocity id
calculated as the difference between the critical slurry velocity for laminar flow breakdown,
(Vsl)c. and Vsl.

Figure 13: Correlation of Maximum Reduction in Pipe Friction using Gas Injection
(Farooqi & Richardson, 1982)

There are many advantages to using air injection:

(1) reduced discharge pressure requirement for a slurry pump for a given slurry flowrate
though a given discharge pipe length;
(2) increased capacity of an existing pipeline carrying a given slurry while retaining the same
pump system;
(3) extension of an existing pipe run while maintaining the same discharge pressure;
(4) application of an existing pump and pipeline combination to more viscous, shear-thinning
slurry, while maintaining the same discharge pressure.
(5) reduced pump differential pressure, and therefore reduced slippage in some pump types,
with a corresponding reduction in pump wear.
Surprisingly, the advantages of using air injection have still largely been overlooked by
industry, although a Polish sugar factory takes full advantage of the technology when
pumping waste molasses (Dziubinski & Fidos, 1992). Numerous examples of highly viscous,
shear-thinning slurries being pumped through pipework occur in industry, e.g., red mud waste
from alumina production, pulverised fuel ash slurry from power stations, titanium dioxide
slurry, chalk and clay slurries, etc. Many of these operations could benefit from the
appropriate application of air injection.
5.

Conclusions

This paper has described three alternative methods to reduce pipe friction for highly viscous,
often non-Newtonian slurries. In addition to frequent economic advantages to be had by
employing one of these methods, other benefits also accrue. These include lower wear rates
and therefore maintenance costs for pumps, and reduced instances of pipe blockages. These
methods also increase the flexibility of existing pipeline systems when there is a requirement
to increase slurry concentrations, and therefore slurry viscosities. It is recommended that each
of these three methods is considered whenever an existing pipeline needs upgrading, or a new
pipeline system is to be designed.
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