The design of condensers for the condensation of vapors from noncondensing gases is
complicated by unusual conditions of heat transfer not encountered in total condenser design. In
condensing part of the vapors in a gas stream, all of the properties of the gas stream vary greatly
as the condensable vapor is removed. The heat-transfer coefficient of the gas film, the mass rate
of gas flow, and the physical properties of the gas stream can change considerably as
condensation proceeds. The condensation depends upon the diffusion of the vapor molecules
through the gas mixture to the condensing surface. This involves two types of diffusion:
1. Molecular diffusion
2. Eddy diffusion
Molecular diffusion involves the movement of individual molecules of condensable vapor from
the main bulk stream onto the condensate film under the influence of concentration (partial
pressure) gradient. Eddy diffusion is the movement of groups of molecules of the bulk stream by
turbulent motion to the condensate surface. The main resistance to condensation now occurs
between the bulk stream of vapor and the surface of the condensate. Therefore, mass-transfer
coefficients must be considered as well as heat-transfer coefficients in the mechanism of
condensation rate.
The overall heat-transfer relationship for the heat transfer occurring in partial condensers must be
written as:
dA=
dq
U t
Where t
= (tc tw)
A=
0
dq
U t
(1)
In general, it is not possible to integrate this relationship formally using analytical expressions
for both U and t as functions of q.
The method of Colburn and Hougen is generally accepted as the basis for obtaining rigorous
design of cooler-condensers. The method is tedious since it involves successive trial and error
substitutions.
The rate of transfer of sensible heat from the gas stream on the shell side of the exchanger to the
outside of the tubes is given by:
d qs
=h0 (t gt c )
dA
(2)
The rate of transfer of latent heat from the gas stream on the shell side of the exchanger to the fin
side of the tubes due to mass transfer of condensable material to the tube surface is given by:
d qL
=k m ( p g p c )
dA
(3)
The total rate of heat transfer, given by the sum of (2) and (3) above, must be transferred through
the tube and water film:
q
A
= h0 (t g t c )
Where:
k m ( p g pc )
= Ucomb.
(t c t w )
= Ut
(4)
kg
sq . m.
1
A0
A
A
+ 0 r i+( 0 )
Am
Ai
Aihi
( h1 )+ r + r +r ( ) ( )
0
cond
(5)
Where
hcond = condensing film coefficient.
The gas film heat transfer and mass transfer coefficients (h0 and k respectively) are obtained in
the following manner. The fin side gas film heat transfer coefficient could be obtained from
literature. The relationship for 19 fin per inch tubes in unbored shells is:
1/ 3
h0 De
DeG 0.6 c p
0.14
=0.155(
) (
) ( )
k
k
w
(6)
The fin side gas film mass transfer coefficient is obtained using the heat transfer coefficient
obtained from the above equation and the J factor relationships for heat and mass transfer. The
heat transfer J factor is defined as:
jh =
h0 c p 2 /3 w
(
)
cp G k
0.14
( )
(7)
jm =
Dv
k m M m P gf
G MV
(8)
km =
w 2/ 3
c p D v 2/3
k
h0 M v
c p M m Pgf
Where
jh = heat-transfer j factor (dimensionless)
h0 = gas film heat-transfer coefficient, J/hr-m2-0C
CP = Specific heat at constant pressure, J/kg-0C
G = mass velocity, kg/hr-m2
= viscocity, kg/m-hr
(9)
1
3
A
1
3 2
B
P(V +V )
1
1
+
MA MB
Where:
T = absolute temperature, 0K
T = 0Rankine, change constant to 0.0069
P = Pressure, atmosphere
Heat transfer
Vapour-liquid separation and
Energy utilization
The vapour-liquid separators are variously called bodies, vapour heads, or flash chambers. The
term flash chambers is also used to denote the minimum building block of an evaporator,
comprising one heating element (the fluid with sensible heat) and one vapour head. This type is
the choice here in this design project.
Heat transfer is the most important single factor in evaporator design since the heating surface
represents the largest part of evaporator cost. Equipment costs are usually correlated as function
only of heating-surface area, materials of construction, and evaporator type. Other things being
equal, the evaporator selected is the one having the highest transfer coefficient under operating
conditions in terms of amount of energy per hour per degree temperature per cost of installation.
Vapour liquid separation may be important for a number of reasons. Most important is usually
prevention of entrainment because of value of product lost, pollution, contamination of the
condensed vapour or fouling or corrosion of the surfaces on which the vapour is condensed.
The thermodynamic efficiency of energy utilization in an evaporator is very low since the
minimum energy requirement is only equal to the heat that will be liberated if the feed were
reconstituted by mixing product and liquid solvent. Consequently, evaporator performance is
rated on the basis of steam economy.
Product quality considerations may require low hold up time and low temperature operation to
avoid thermal degradation. The low hold up time eliminate some types of evaporator and some
types are also eliminated because of poor heat transfer characteristic at low temperature. Product
quality may also dictate special materials of construction to avoid metallic contamination or a
catalytic effect on decomposition of the product.
Flash evaporators- as the feed to evaporation ratio is increased in a forward- feed evaporator
having the feed heated by vapour blend from each effect, a point is reached where all the vapours
is needed to preheat the feed and none is available to heat the succeeding effect. Then all ther
heating surface is in the feed heaters and the evaporator themselves becomes merely flash
chambers. This heating case is called a flash evaporator
Calculations
The calculation of the heat and material balance on a flash evaporator is relatively easy once it is
understood that the temperature rise in each heater and temperature drop in each flash must all be
substantially equal. This equality is almost exact if the condenser from each heater is flashed to
the following heater. The steam sensory (E/S) may be approximated from ;
E
1.1 T
=
S
T
A+ R+
N
Where T
A is the approach between vapour and temperature from the flasher and the liquid leaving the
heater where the vapour condensed
N is the number of stages
R is the boiling point rise in the flash
Evaporator Accessories
Condenser
The vapor from the effect of an evaporator is usually removed by a condenser. Surface
condensers will be employed in this design, because the mixing of condensate and condenser
cooling water is not desired.
Surface condensers use more cooling water and are so much more expensive that they are never
used where a direct contact condenser is suitable. The ratio of water consumption to vapour
condensed can be determined from the following equation:
H (T 232)
water
= v
vapor flow
T 2T 1
Vent systems
Non- condensable gases may be present in the evaporator vapor as a result of leakage air
dissolved in the feed, or decomposition reactions in the feed. As the non-condensable increases,
they tend to impede the heat transfer.
In any event, non-condensable gases should be vented well before their concentration reaches
10% since gas concentration are difficult to measure the usual thing is to over-vent.
Evaporator Costs
Capital costs
Approximate selling prices of various type of evaporator are given by Zimmerman and Lavine
(1958). These prices include all auxiliary equipment that a manufacturer would normally supply
such as vapour piping barometric condenser, steam jet, condensate flash tanks, and in some
cases, liquor piping and pumps.
Installed costs
The installed cost of a number of types of evaporator is given by Chilton (1949). The costs
include foundation steel work, evaporator assembly, pumps, piping, insulation, painting, and a
moderate of instrumentation. It is usually impossible to estimate the effect of a change in body
material. In some cases, welded alloy bodies are cheaper than cast iron bodies.
Operating costs
Operating labour requirement depend mainly on the proximity of the evaporator to other process
unit where occasional assistance and maintenance help can be obtained. Occasional maintenance
labour will be required for the repacking of pumps and valve and repair of piping.
The minimum number of stages Nmin is obtained from Fenske equation which is,
Where LK is the average relative volatility of the light key with respect to the heavy key, and xLK
and xHK are the light and heavy key concentrations. The suffixes d and b denote the distillate
(tops) (d) and the bottoms (b),
Average geometric relative volatility LK = 1.51
Acetaldehyde = (7416.67/44) = 168.56 kmol
Water = 0 kmol
At the distillate section acetaldehyde is the light component, xLK = 1.00, meanwhile water is the
heavy component xHK = 0.00
For the bottoms, crotonaldehyde is lighter so, xLK = 0.2190, and xHK =0.7810
Therefore, Nmin = 20
By trial, = 0.85
N N min
R Rmin
0.75 1
N 1
R
0.566
Column diameter
The principal factor which determines column diameter is the vapour flow-rate.
----------------------------------Eq2
where uv = maximum allowable vapour velocity, based on the gross (total) column
cross-sectional area, m/s,
Lt = plate spacing, m, 0.62 is chosen.
V = density of vapour product,acetaldehyde = 0.7791g/cm3= 777.91 kg/m3
L = density of liquid product, (crotonaldehyde) + (H20) =
= Total mass/(Total volume)
Mass of crotonaldehyde formed = 240.80 kg/hr
Mass of water = 220.79 kg/hr
Density of water = 1000kg/m3
Density of crotonaldehyde = 0.846 g/cm3 846 kg/m3
Volume = Mass/(density)
Volume of water = (220.29 kg/hr)/(1000kg/m3) = 0.2201 m3/hr
Volume of crotonaldehyde = (240.80 kg/hr)/(846 kg/m3) = 0.2846 m3/hr
Total volume = volume of crotonaldehyde + volume of water = 0.5047 m3/hr
Total of mass = 220.29 + 240.80 = 461.09 kg/hr
Density of liquid product, L =( Total mass)/(Total volume) = 913.59 kg/m3
Capacity Parameter:
Assumed tray spacing = 18 inch (0.5 m)
The flooding velocity can be estimated from the correlation given by Fair (1961):
Ac = An + 0.15(Ac)
Ac = An / 0.85
Ac=0.6458 m2
So Diameter of Column Is
Ac =(/4)D2
D = (4Ac/)
D = 0.8223 meter
(based upon bottom conditions)
From figure 11.31 Coulson & Richardson 6th volume 4th edition, which gives the relation
between downcomer area and weir length,
Lw / Dc = 0.80
Lw = 1.4513 *0.80
= 1.1616m
Weir length should be 60 to 85% of column diameter which is satisfactory
Take
weir height, hw= 50 mm
Hole diameter, dh = 5 mm
Plate thickness = 5 mm
From fig 11.30 (weep- point correlation(Eduljee, 1959)), Coulson and Richardson Vol.6
K2 = 30.1
Where Uh = minimum vapour velocity through the holes (based on the hole area), m/s,
dh = hole diameter, mm= 5 mm
K2 = a constant, dependent on the depth of clear liquid on the plate = 30.1
Also recall v =777.91 kg/m3. By that Uh = 0.4209 m/sec
The recommended compressor for refrigeration service is a screw type compressor that comes as
a package unit. The screw compressor package units consist of screw compressor, motor,
coupling, oil separator, local logic controller, oil pump and filter.
Scroll compressors are also positive displacement compressors. The refrigerant is compressed
when one spiral orbits around a second stationary spiral, creating smaller and smaller pockets
and higher pressures. By the time the refrigerant is discharged, it is fully pressurized.
A compressor is considered to be single stage when the entire compression is accomplished with
a single cylinder or a group of cylinders in parallel. Many applications involve conditions
beyond the practical capability of a single compression stage. Too great a compression ratio
(absolute discharge pressure/absolute intake pressure) may cause excessive discharge
temperature or other design problems. Two stage machines are used for high pressures and are
characterized by lower discharge
temperature (140 to 1600C) compared
For practical purposes most plant air reciprocating air compressors over 100 horsepower are built
as multi-stage units in which two or more steps of compression are grouped in series. The air is
normally cooled between the stages to reduce the temperature and volume entering the following
stage. (National Productivity Council, 1993).
Reciprocating air compressors are available either as air-cooled or water-cooled in lubricated and
non-lubricated configurations, may be packaged, and provide a wide range of pressure and
capacity selections.
Compressor Efficiency
Several different measures of compressor efficiency are commonly used for the design :
volumetric efficiency, adiabatic efficiency, isothermal efficiency and mechanical efficiency.
Adiabatic and isothermal efficiencies are computed as the isothermal or adiabatic power divided
by the actual power consumption. The figure obtained indicates the overall efficiency of a
compressor and drive motor.
Compressor Power
The power of a compressor is given by;
P=
Work/Kmol = Zi Ti R
n
P2
n1 P 1
( )
n1
n
T 2 P2
=
T 1 P1
316
308
= 1.025
The value of n will depend on the design and operation of the machine.
The design is more effective in a polytropic process, hence n is approximately 1.64
Substituting values,
Work/Kmol = 1 x 308 x 8.314 x
1.64
( 1.025 )
1.641
1.641
1.64
308
273
= 1.29 m3/s
From fig 3.6 (graph of compressor efficiency, Ep against volumetric flow rate) in Richardson and
Coulson vol.6, the corresponding flow rate is 65%
From Heuristics, Compression ratio is about the same in each stage of a multistage unit,
ratio = (Pn/P1) x 1/n, with n stages.
Efficiencies of reciprocating compressors: 65% at compression ratio of 1.5, 75% at 2.0, and 8085% at 3-6. Efficiency of large centrifugal compressors at suction is 76-78%. The compression
ratio is 1.5 and the compressor is not very large.
0.206 x 267.73
65
Power =
= 84.85 kJ /s = 84.85 kW
The specific power consumption kW/TR is a useful indicator of the performance of refrigeration
system. By measuring refrigeration duty performed in TR and the
kiloWatt inputs, kW/TR is used as a reference energy performance indicator.
power consumption
TR
84.85
= 10.37
= 8.18
Although the kW/ TR can serve as an initial reference, it should not be taken as an absolute value
since this value is derived from 100% of the equipment's capacity level and is based on design
conditions that are considered the most critical. These conditions occur may be, for example,
during only 1% of the total time the equipment is in operation throughout the year.
Consequently, it is essential to have data that reflects how the equipment operates with partial
loads or in conditions that demand less than 100% of its capacity. To overcome this, an average
of kW/TR with partial loads ie Integrated Part Load Value (IPLV) have to be formulated.
The IPLV is the most appropriate reference, although not considered the best, because it only
captures four points within the operational cycle: 100%, 75%, 50% and 25%.
Furthermore, it assigns the same weight to each value, and most equipment usually operates at
between 50 % and 75% of its capacity. This is why it is so important to prepare specific analysis
for each case that addresses the four points already mentioned, as well as developing a profile of
the heat exchanger's operations during the year.
Leak quantification
For rotary compressors, there is an easy way to estimate the amount of leakage in the system.
This method involves starting the compressor when there are no demands on the system (when
all the air -operated, end-use equipment is turned off). A number of measurements are taken to
determine the average time it takes to load and unload the compressor. The compressor will load
and unload because the air leaks will cause the compressor to cycle on and off as the pressure
drops from air escaping through the leaks. Total leakage (percentage) can be calculated as
follows:
Leakage (%) =
T x 100
T+t
Leakage (5 %) =
1.5 x 100
1.5+t
t = 28.5 mins
For the compressor capacity of 1.29 m3/s = 77.4 m3/min
Leakage capacity =
1.5 x 77.4
1.5+28.5
= 3.87 m3/min