1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

In process control the main objective is to regulate the value of a specific

quantity. Regulation is to maintain the quantity at some desired value called set point,
regardless of the external influences. The desired value is called the reference value or
the set point. Conventional Control Strategies use programmed microcontrollers to
control the process. However, they are prone to error due to involvement of human in
data collection and processing.
In modern automation control strategies Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC),
Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition (SCADA) and DCS are used in the
industries. PLC follows centralized control strategy but has its own inherited problem of
redundancy and reliability. If one station fails the entire system fails. In DCS the
controls are distributed with interconnected web of control stations, and hence even
when a station fails, the system is decentralized and the main system will work with
other stations and co-ordinated for data exchange from the fields. However failure of a
station will not affect other stations.
DCS is one of the most popular control systems in the process industry. DCS is
used because of its increased flexibility; redundancy and high performance capability in
desalt process control than any other centralized systems. DCS ensures accurate process
condition and this in-turn means better plant performance. An interface card using
Centum VP software is developed, which is proprietary to Yokogawa. Further, the use
of DCS provides scope for increment in quantity and quality. Because of redundancy in
DCS the plant can be operated economically.

The project is aimed at controlling various parameters involved in refineries

especially in controlling the desalting process. Desalting / Dehydration removes salt and
thereby enhance the crude oil quality and assay number. The main motive is to provide
methods and tools for designing and implementing efficient industrial distributed control
applications.

CHAPTER 2

OVERVIEW OF THE PROJECT

This chapter explains the methodology followed in the implementation of the

project.
2.1 INTRODUCTION
To provide dynamic control of desalter / dehydration plant in petroleum refinery
through distributive control systems intended to increment the performance of control
application while maximizing the resource utilization and to design and develop the
application software and hardware architectures allowing the real time execution of
control as developed and transfer of controls to the stations at desalted plant to automate
the process.
2.2 STEPS INVOLVED IN AUTOMATION USING DCS
Step1: The first and foremost step in automating an industry is to analyze the process
involved. The literature survey of the process enables the automation engineer to realize
the complications that may arise during the designing stage. Similarly the study of the
desalting process enabled us to understand the logics and interlocks involved in the
programming part in a better manner.
Step 2: The next step is to design the Piping and Instrumentation (PI) diagram.
Normally in industries, this step is outsourced to a third party. However engineers from
the parent company are actively involved in discussions regarding the type of standards
to be followed. The PI diagram serves as the backbone for software programming.

Step 3: The next and the most important step is to analyze the control loops present in
the process. It is during this process the automation engineer decides the control
strategies used for the project. The desalting process involves simple open loops for
monitoring; closed, feed forward and ratio control loops for controlling.

Step 4: Once the control loops are identified it becomes easier to define the input and
output parameters than the other way around. This step marks the starting of the
software programming part. The desalting process involves almost 200 input and output
parameters.

Figure 2.1 Steps for automation using DCS

Step 5: The next important step is to identify the logics involved in the process. It is
here that the literature survey brings in dividends, as a clear understanding of process
simplifies the understanding of logics. The desalting process involves complex logics
like 2 out of 3, mode change being the most prominent of them.
Step 6: The input and output parameters and the logics are then utilized to do the backend programming. In Yokogawas Centum VP this involves using various pre-defined
control blocks which simplify the work of the engineer to a certain extent. The project
includes basic blocks like PIO and PVI which aid in monitoring; PID, RATIO and
CASCADE which aid in controlling and REL, ST-16, LC-64 and CALCU which aid in
creating logics.
Step 7: The next step is to define interlocks involved. Although this is a part of the
previous step, a special attention is given to it since it involves loops affecting the
overall safety of the plant. Most often than not, the engineer is provided with a Block
Interlock (BI) diagram explaining the critical interlocks in the process in detail. This
project involves only a level safety interlock.
Step 8: Then the critical parameters which have to be constantly monitored from a
remote location are assigned with faceplates. The important thing to be noted here is that
the faceplate name given to a parameter should be the same as the tag name defined
earlier. It is through these faceplates that the program is checked for any possible errors.
Step 9: The next step involves the creation of front-end graphics to be used in the
engineering station. Much care is given to this step since this is the part of the
programming that is to be used by the customer on a day-to-day basis. So, it is important
to link various blocks and parameters used in the back-end programming to their
counter-parts in the graphic windows. The desalting process consists of an overview
window and four other graphic windows.

Step10: The previous step marks the end of the primary cycle of programming. The next
step is to check the correctness of the program by simulating various operating
conditions. The Centum VP software enables us to perform this by using a tool called
test function. In this step any control loop can be checked by calling the faceplates of
the blocks in that group and forcing values. Once the test function is generated the
values change as if the plant is in operation which enables us to check for any possible
errors.
Step11: If no error is present then the programming part is over and the software can be
installed for real-time application in the corresponding plant after necessary connections
are made between different field instruments and the DCS hardware setup using suitable
bus-communication networks. If any error is present, the automation engineer has to do
the grueling task of retrace his programming path, right from the step involving analysis
of control loops.
These are the basic steps followed while automating a plant using DCS. Though
Goliath of a task, the advantages of a DCS automated plant including the safety and
performance-enhancing features, overshadow the man and machine hours spent in
designing it.

CHAPTER 3

DESALTING THEORY

This chapter gives the literature survey of the desalting process.

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Crude oils are complex mixtures containing many different hydrocarbon
compounds that vary in appearance and composition from one oil field to another. Crude
oils range takes form from water to tar-like solids, and in colour from clear to black. An
"average", crude oil contains about 84% carbon, 14% hydrogen, 1%-3% sulphur, and
less than 1% each of nitrogen, oxygen, metals, and salts. Refinery crude base stocks
usually consist of mixtures of two or more different crude oils.
Crude oils are also defined in terms of American Petroleum Institute (API)
gravity. Crude with a high API gravity are usually rich in paraffin and tend to yield
greater proportions of gasoline and light petroleum products. Crude oils that contain
appreciable quantities of hydrogen sulphide or other reactive sulphur compounds are
called "sour." Those with less sulphur are called "sweet."
All crude oils are assayed and valued depending on their potential yield. Crude
oil with low assay numbers is referred to as "Opportunity Crude". This type of oil will
be more difficult to process due to higher levels of contaminants and water. This type of
crude will typically give desalter equipment the most trouble and require the greatest
skill of the operator.

The Desalter removes contaminants from crude oil by first emulsifying the crude
oil with chemicals and wash water to promote thorough contact of the water and oil. The
salts containing some of the metals that can poison catalysts are dissolved in the water
phase. After the oil has been washed and mixed as an emulsion of oil and water,
demulsifying chemicals are then added and electrostatic fields are used to break the
emulsion. Desalters are sized to allow the water and oil to settle and separate according
to Stokes Law.
In addition, solids present in the crude will accumulate in the bottom of the
desalter vessel. The desalter must be periodically washed to remove the accumulated
solids. A "mud washing" system is installed at the bottom of the vessel to periodically
remove the solids. Mud washing consists of recycling a portion of the desalter effluent
water to agitate the accumulated solids so that they are washed out into the effluent
water. These solids are then routed to the wastewater system.
Desalter effluent or "undercarry" is a combination of many things including the
mud wash done at periodic intervals, produced water that come with the crude, and the
brine wash water resulting from the dilution and removal of salts and other
contaminants.
Section 3.2 describes about the operating conditions involved in the process.
Section 3.3 defines the factors affecting the performance of the process and followed by
Section 3.4 which identifies the parameters used for controlling the process.

3.2 DESALTER PROCESS

To accomplish desalting, the crude is first preheated to 55o to 70o C with heat
exchangers in order to reach the required viscosity level normally in the range of 5-15
centi-stoke. The temperature is limited by the vapor pressure of the crude-oil feedstock.
About 2-6% wash water is metered in ahead of the desalter as an extraction agent to help
dissolve salts and sediments. Intense mixing then takes place over a mixing valve.

Once in the pressurized desalter vessel, the salts and sediment settle with wash
water and tend to form emulsions. The wash water is separated by electrostatic
precipitation using de-emulsifiers and acid. The salts that are removed are mainly
chlorides and carbonates. They can cause corrosion and fouling downstream in the heat
exchangers, furnaces, and distillation units, if not removed.

Pump 2
Crude oil
Tank

Fresh Water
Val 2

Electric Power

Alternater

Val 1

Desalted crude
Desalter

Pump 1

Val 4

Val 3
Heater 4

Water waste
Val 5
Solid Wastes

Figure 3.1 PI DIAGRAM - Control Drawing of Desalting of Crude Oil

Electrical desalting is the application of high-voltage electrostatic charges to
concentrate suspended water globules in the bottom of the settling tank. Surfactants are
added only when the crude has a large amount of suspended solids. Other less-common
processes involve filtering heated crude using diatomaceous earth and chemical
treatment and settling. Ammonia is often used to reduce corrosion. Caustic or acid may
be added to adjust the pH of the water wash.
Wastewater and contaminants are discharged from the bottom of the settling tank
to the wastewater treatment facility. The desalted crude is continuously drawn from the
top of the settling tank and sent to the crude distillation tower. A properly performing
desalter can remove about 90% of the salt in raw crude.

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3.3 FACTORS AFFECTING DESALTING PERFORMANCE

The main objective of a desalting plant is to break the films surrounding the
small water droplets, coalescing droplets to form larger drops, and allowing water drops
to settle out during or after coalescing. The most important variables affecting desalting
performance that have been identified include (1) settling time, (2) chemical /
demulsifier injection, (3) heat, (4) adding freshwater, and (5) mixing (emulsion,
chemical, and the freshwater).
The five factors are explained below:
1) Settling time: Most desalting / dehydration equipment relies on gravity to separate
water droplets from the continuous oil phase. Gravity difference is the active element in
this process, the produced formation water droplets are heavier than the volume of oil
they displace. The produced water usually carries some salts and solids coated
predominantly with a thin film of oil or just freely flowing along the emulsion stream.
2) Chemical / demulsifier injection: Emulsions can be further treated by the addition of
chemical destabilizers. These surface-active chemicals adsorb to the water-oil interface,
rupture the film surrounding water drops, and displace the emulsifying agents back into
the oil. Breaking the film allows water drops to collide by the natural force of molecular
attraction. Time and turbulence aid diffusion of demulsifiers through the oil to the
interface. Experience has shown that the mechanism of the chemical process is not
explicable by any simple theory. Nevertheless, there is a rule of thumb learned in the
field that states that the lower the water percentage in an emulsion the more difficult it is
to treat.
3) Heating: Heat causes a decrease in viscosity, thickness, and cohesion of the film
surrounding water drops. Heat also reduces the continuous phase (oil) viscosity, helping
water drops to move freely and faster for coalescing. Controlling the temperature during
operations is a very delicate job. Any excessive heat might lead to evaporation, which
results not only in a loss of oil volume, but also in a reduction in price because of a
decrease in the API gravity.

11

4) Dilution with freshwater: Salts in emulsion sometimes come in solid crystalline

form. So, the need for freshwater to dissolve these crystal salts arises and dilution with
freshwater has become a necessity in desalting / dehydration processes. Freshwater is
usually injected before heat exchangers to increase the mixing efficiency and to prevent
scaling inside pipes and heating tubes. Freshwater is injected so that water drops in
emulsions can be washed out and then drained off, hence the term wash water. The
quantity / ratio of freshwater injected depends on the API gravity of the crude, but,
generally, the injection rate is 3-10% of the total crude flow.
5) Mixing: High shear actions form emulsions. Similarly, when dilution water
(freshwater) is added to an emulsion, one needs to mix them in order to dissolve the salt
crystalline and to aid in coalescing finely distributed droplets. Mixing works in three
steps: (1) helps smaller drops to join together, (2) mixes chemical / demuslifier with the
emulsion, and (3) breaks the free injected volume of wash water into emulsion-sized
drops and evenly distributes it.
3.4 PROCESS CONTROL FACTORS
In a desalting / dehydration process, there are several parameters that can be altered
in order to reach an optimum combination of operating conditions. This daily practice
that takes place in most desalting/dehydration plants is the theme of this experimental
section. Under this study, five parameters will be altered to reach the goal of the study,
an optimum combination of parameters.
These include:
1. Crude temperature (oC)
2. Mixing time (min)
3. Settling time (min)
4. Chemical/ demulsifier dosage (ppm)
5. The amount of freshwater added (%) in ratio to that of the wet crudes quantity.

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CHAPTER 4

IMPLEMENTATION OF DCS

This chapter completely describes about the hardware and software aspects of
DCS.
4.1 INTRODUCTION TO DCS
The modern problems in industries, which are to be solved by process control,
supervision, control of small parts of production plant to the integral control and
management of a large plant. This, in consequence implies the need of different
approaches for design of hardware and software of the automation systems.
DCS is process control system that created a new era in industrial automation.
As the name implies the control is distributed among various field control stations. Since
the control is distributed if one FCS fails only the loops that are connected to the station
get affected. Also redundancy is available at various levels, which ensures proper
functioning of the process in case of any component failure. The whole process is
incorporated by software, which has been created by various organizations. The software
not only supports the whole process but also provides man machine interface. To control
and monitor the plant from far off places they are web enabled and can be run on open
architecture of a Personal Computer. The first DCS was introduced in the 1970s.
The important components of a DCS are as follows:
1. Field Control Station (FCS)
2. Human Interface Station (HIS)
3. Networks

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The FCS controls the plant. The FCS is a control system designed to perform
regulatory or sequence control over the terminal device. It has an interface function to
convert process I/O signals from fields into data handled inside the system. An FCS
consists of a Field Control Unit, which performs data processing tasks, up to 8 nodes,
and a remote I/O (RIO) bus that connect each node to the FCU.
HIS form the man machine interfaces. The HIS is mainly used for operation and
monitoring- it displays process variable, control parameters and alarm necessary for
users to quickly grasp the operating status of the plant. It also incorporates the open
interfaces so that supervisory computers can access trend data, messages, and process
data. The networks: the FCS and HIS stations are networked using VNET/IP and
Ethernet.

Figure 4.1Block diagram of DCS

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The Section 4.2 describes the architecture of DCS. The next Section 4.3
mentions the applications of DCS. Details about CentumVP are explained in Section 4.4
and following this the control strategies involved in the process are explained in
Section 4.5. The last Section 4.6 gives the details of PID algorithm.
4.2 DISTRIBUTED CONTROL ARCHITECTURE:
1. I/O data handled locally and transmitted only when an event occurs, creating a
less communication intensive architecture.
2. Control does not depend on a master controller, creating architecture less
vulnerable to failure.
3. Control resides close to machinery to establish zone control, station control or
line control.
4. The cost of distributed system is lower than that of centralized system, which
performs the same functions. Small computers are relatively inexpensive and,
when linked together they provide more computing power than a large
mainframe system.
4.3 APPLICATIONS OF DCS
DCS is being used by all the major industries. Today it is the system of choice in
over fourteen thousand installation around the world in key industries such as:
1. Petrochemicals and refineries
2. Pharmaceuticals
3. Refineries
4. Food and beverage industries
5. Paper and pulp
6. Water supply
7. Generation of power and electricity

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Companies involved in DCS

1. Yokogawa
2. Tata Honeywell
3. ABB
4. Allen Bradley
5. Foxbro
6. Fanuc
7. Emerson etc.
4.4 THE CENTUM VP
4.4.1 System Configuration
This Section introduces the Centum VP system configuration, and the main
equipment that Centum VP consists of System Configuration diagram below
(Figure 5.1) shows representative devices in a basic Centum VP system.

Figure 4.2CentumVP system configuration

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4.4.2 Instrument Faceplates

The instrument faceplate consists of following components,
1. Comment display area
2. Status display area
3. Parameter display
4. Area instrument
5. Display area
6. Operation mark
The following Figure 4.3 show examples of instrument faceplates with the name
of the each item indicated.

Figure 4.3 Instrument faceplate

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4.4.3 Standard Operation And Monitoring Windows

This section describes the use of the following for process monitoring and
operation:
1. Graphic window
2. Tuning window
3. Trend window
Graphic window
1. Graphic windows use graphic objects to provide view of the plant.
2. Graphic windows can display graphic objects, control objects, overview objects
or a combination of these types of object.
The Figure 4.4 shows an example of a graphics window.

Figure 4.4 Graphics Window

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Tuning window
The Tuning window displays a detailed control status for individual function
blocks. This window can be used for monitoring and be used to change tuning
parameters. It can also be used for taking the controller to calibration mode. The tuning
window consists of trend, face plate and tuning option.
The Figure 4.5 shows an example of a tuning window.

Figure 4.5 Tuning Window

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Trend window
The Trend window acquires different types of process data and displays time series
changes in a graph. The time-series changes for the acquired process data are referred to as
trend data.
There are two types of trends:
1. Real time
2. Historical
In a Trend window, a maximum of eight channels of trend data may be displayed.
4.5 CONTROL STRATEGIES
Many real time embedded systems make control decisions. These decisions are usually
made by software and based on feedback from the hardware under its control (termed the
plant). Such feedback commonly takes the form of an analog sensor that can be read via A/D
converter. A sample from the sensor may represent position, voltage, temperature, or any other
appropriate parameter. Each sample provides the software with additional information upon
which to base its control decisions.
4.5.1 Automatic Mode / Closed Loop System
The control algorithm manipulates the output to hold the process measurements at their
set-point. This should be the most common mode for normal operation. The Figure 4.6 shows
an automatic feedback control.

Figure 4.6 Automatic feedback control loop

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The Figure 4.7 shows a simple closed loop diagram as used in the back-end
programming in CentumVP. The process value can be manually forced through the faceplate
which is shown in the Figure 4.8.

Figure 4.7 Control Diagram of a closed loop system

Figure 4.8 Faceplate of a Closed Loop System

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4.5.2 Manual Mode/ Open Loop System

The operator adjusts the output to operate the plant. During the start-up, this mode is
normally used. The Figure 4.9 pictorially explains the manual control over the loop.

Figure 4.9 Manual mode of operation of closed loop control

The Figure.4.10 shows a simple open loop diagram as used in the back-end
programming in CentumVP. The process value can be manually forced through the faceplate
which is shown in the Figure 4.11.

Figure 4.10 Control Diagram Of a Manual Mode Closed System

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Figure 4.11 Faceplate Of a Manual Mode Closed Loop Control

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4.6 PID CONTROL ALGORITHMS

PID is an acronym for proportional band, integral and derivative. This control action
allows measurement (process variable) to be controlled at a desired set point by continuously
adjusting a control output. These control parameters act on the error or deviation between set
point and process variable.
P Proportional band in %
I Integral time in sec/repeat
D Derivative time in seconds
PROPORTIONAL+ INTEGRAL + DERIVATIVE = PID
The PID control scheme is named after its three correcting terms, whose sum
constitutes the manipulated variable (MV). The proportional, integral, and derivative terms are
summed to calculate the output of the PID controller. Defining u(t) as the controller output,
the final form of the PID algorithm is:

(4.1)
Where,
Kp

: Proportional gain, a tuning parameter

Ki

: Integral gain, a tuning parameter

Kd

: Derivative gain, a tuning parameter

: Error = SP - PV

: Time or instantaneous time (the present)

: Variable of integration; takes on values from time 0 to the present

This mode has advantages of all modes. The integral mode eliminates the offset error
of the proportional mode and the response is also very fast due to derivative mode. The sudden
response is produced to derivative mode. Thus it can be used for any process condition.With

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the PID control action; there is no offset, no oscillation with least settling time. So there is
improvement in both transient as well as steady state response.
The Figure 4.12 shows the response of various control modes to unit step load change.

Figure 4.12 Response of PID

The proportional and PD control produces the offset error. It requires significant time
to attain the steady state. The PI control eliminates the offset but at the expense of higher
maximum overshoot, a long period of oscillations and more settling time. The PD control
produces the steady state very quickly with least oscillation and smallest maximum overshoot
but offset is significant. With PID control there is no offset and system achieves the steady
state with less settling time. Thus PID is the ultimate process composite controller.

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CHAPTER 5
RESULTS

This chapter describes the simulation results of the desalting process that are obtained
using CentumVP.

5.1 OVERVIEW OF THE STATION

It provides the overall view of the plant, all the processes involved in controlling the
operation of the plant can be controlled through this window and each section can be
individually monitored or operated upon as shown in Figure 5.1. Further, it is used to start/stop
the entire process of the plant.

Figure 5.1 Plant overview control graphic window

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5.2 PREHEATER STATION 1

The crude oil is preheated to a desired temperature by passing through various heat
exchangers. The flow rate of the fluids is highly important for output temperature control.
Various flow measuring devices with transmitter in communication with DCS preset value is
controlled through various control valves as shown in figure 5.2. Motor control is equally
important in flow control of fluids draining in or out of this station and are DCS monitored. In
order to establish redundancy and extra motor with motor bypass is erected. The required
control loops are identified and programmed with Centum VP.

Figure 5.2 Preheater section-1

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5.3 DESALTER STAGE 1

The primary desalting involves removal of brine which is formed after mixing pure
water and raw crude oil. The proper mixing is controlled by monitoring flow of fluids into the
primary desalter drum. The drum level is indicated and controlled by control equipment in
communication to DCS. The level controller indicates the drum level and three level indicators
mounted on drum plays a vital role in measuring the level in drum which is shown in Figure
5.3. 2 out of 3 logic is applied to manipulate the measured data. Other flow data with open and
closed loops are indicated and programmed.

Figure 5.3 Desalter Plant Station-1

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5.4 DESALTER STAGE 2

In the secondary stage the water globules are coalesced by applying electric field.
Brine is separated as before with similar logic of control and hence, shares same kind of
programming.

The

graphic

window

of

this

station

is

Figure 5.4 Desalter Plant Station-2

shown

in

Figure

5.4.

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5.5 PREHEATER STATION 2

In this station desalted crude oil is heated before feeding into the distillation column by
series of heat exchangers. The graphical window of this station is shown in Figure 5.5.

Figure.5.5 Preheater section-2

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5.6 ERROR DETECTION

One of the salient features of CentumVP is detecting errors by forcing values through
test function. If the required output is obtained the program is said to be error free. Any
discrepancy in the programming can be identified by setting alarm limits for various process
values which when exceeded, result in an alarm. Such a case is shown below using Figure 5.6.

Figure 5.6 Limit values

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Figure 5.7 Alarm indication

The Figure 5.7 showcases such a case where the process value has exceeded the preset
alarm limits thus, resulting in an alarm stating CRITICAL.

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CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSION

Thus the DCS programming for automating a desalting plant in oil refineries has been
successfully done using YOKOGAWAs proprietary software CentumVP. The correctness of
the program is also verified by forcing values through test function so as to assess the
performance in plant operating conditions.

SCOPE FOR THE FUTURE WORK

The Desalting process in this project consists of two stages which exhibits higher
efficiency than single stage desalting. However, the efficiency can be further improved by
adopting more number of stages thus, minimising the salt content in the crude oil to maximum
possible extent.