The Design of Cultures

Author(s): B. F. Skinner
Source: Daedalus, Vol. 90, No. 3, Evolution and Man's Progress (Summer, 1961), pp. 534-546
Published by: The MIT Press on behalf of American Academy of Arts & Sciences
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B.

F.

The

SKINNER

Design

undertakes

who

Anyone

a scientific

of Cultures

to improve cultural
practices by applying
is likely to be told that im
of human behavior
a value
the pale of his science
judgment beyond

analysis

involves
provement
and that he is exemplifying
in human

meddle

to
values by proposing
objectionable
on
affairs and infringe
Scientists
human freedoms.

of Western
accept this standard contention
philoso
a kind of wisdom which
it
is
is
that
there
phy,
implies
though
even
to
denied
them
and
scien
the
behavioral
mysteriously
though
tists among them would be hard pressed to give an empirical account
or to discover
its sources.
of such wisdom
themselves

often

even

The
appears

gains unwarranted
proposition
strength
to champion
the natural
the
against

from the fact that it

artificial.

Man

is a

of nature, the argument

runs, but societies are contrived by
product
men. Man is the measure
of all things, and our plans for him?our
customs
succeed
and institutions?will
only if they allow for his
this it might be answered
that man is more than an im
he is a psychological
mutable
processes;
entity,
product of biological
His cause may be as contrived as
and as such also largely man-made.
as weak.
an individual,
He
and possibly
is, nevertheless,
society's
nature.

To

are individuals,
too, who may borrow zeal in his
the one and
from their own role in the great conflict between
the
individual
the
To
with
the many.
side
state, to take a
against
is reassuringly
to defend one's own, even though it
specific example,
its battles only because
that
mankind
has won
be
answered
might
and his defenders

defense

individual
These
with

men
are

plausible

have
merely

lost theirs.
can no doubt be met
in kind, which
The disputing of values is not only possible,

answers

rejoinders.

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The Design

of Cultures

To escape from it we must get outside the system.

can
an
We
do this by developing
empirical account of the behavior
to cultural design,
of both protagonists.
All objections
like design
are
as
forms
of
human
and
studied
such. It is
behavior
be
itself,
may
a
account
that
of
the design of cultures will allay
possible
plausible
it is interminable.

our traditional

anxieties

man's

intelligence
It is reasonable

and prepare
in the construction

the way for the effective

of his own future.

use of

to hope that a scientific analysis will

someday
are trans
arise
how
cultural
and
practices
satisfactorily
explain
to
in them, possibly
mitted
and how they affect those who engage
or at least to con
themselves
of the practices
an
Such
tribute to their
the fact
analysis will embrace
and sometimes
them.
their cultures
that men
talk about
change
the survival

further

successors.

a culture is itself a cultural practice, and we must know as

Changing
it
Under
much as possible about it if we are to question
intelligently.
to use a discredited
do men redesign?or,
what circumstances
term,
in
is the nature of their behavior
way of life? What
a culture a threat to the
Is
the
of
deliberate
so?
manipulation
doing
source
very essence of man or, at the other extreme, an unf athomed
reform?their

it?
of strength for the culture which
encourages
We need not go into the details of a scientific account of behavior
be
to see how it bears on this issue. Its contribution must, however,
or
from any help to be drawn from historical
analogy
distinguished
trends or cycles, as well as from inter
the extrapolation
of historical
or structures.
Such an
based on sociological
principles
pretations
account must make contact with biology, on the one hand, but serve
on the other. If it is to
in an interpretation
of social phenomena,
yield
a
of social
and implementation
analysis of the design
satisfactory
be free of a particular defect. Evolutionary
theory,
to the notion of survival, suffered for a long
especially
to argue that forms of
It was not satisfying
time from circularity.
life which had survived must therefore have had survival value and

practices,

itmust

in its appeal

had

survived

because

chologies based
argue that a man
gence

on

of it. A

similar weakness
or

is inherent
It is not

adaptation.
adjustment
a new environment
because
to
adapts
are then defined
if
these
and emotional
stability

to adapt.
capacities
tions which maximize,

It is true that organisms

phylogenetically,

in psy
to
satisfying
of his intelli
in terms of

in direc
usually develop
the survival of the species
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B.

F.

SKINNER

the adjustment
of the individual; but the mech
and, ontogenetically,
anisms
for
both
kinds
of
responsible
change need to be explained
recourse
without
to the selective
effect of their consequences.
In

this is now being done. Genetics

clarifies and supports
new
with
in doing so elimi
of
kinds
and
facts,
evolutionary
theory
nates the
in
the
concept of survival. A comparable
circularity
step
biology

in the

is to analyze
the mechanisms
of
study of human behavior
action apart from their contribution
to
and
cultural
personal
It is not enough to point out that a
adjustment.
given form of behavior
is advantageous
to the individual or that a cultural
practice
strength
ens the
must explain the
We
of
group.
origin and the perpetuation
both behavior and practice.
human

scientific
analysis which
to individual
organisms
interacting groups of organisms,
itself

Its basic datum

events we

satisfies

these

rather

than

even

in the

conditions

statistical

confines
or

constructs

study of social behavior.

occurrence
of the
of the observable

is the probability
call behavior
(or of inferred

same dimen
events
having the
sions ). The probability
is accounted
of behavior
for by appeal to the
of the organism and its past and present environ
genetic endowment
in the
The
ments, described wholly
language of physics and biology.
an
such
of
their
and
laboratory
techniques
analysis,
technological
the prediction
and control of behavior via the
applications,
emphasize
is found
of variables.
in the suc
Validation
manipulation
primarily
cess with which
can be controlled.
the subject matter
An example of how such an analysis differs from its predecessors
is
at hand. An important group of variables which
conveniently
modify
to do with

the consequences
of action. "Rewards" and
are variables
of this sort, though rather inadequately
"punishments"
in the fact (apart from
identified by those terms. We are interested
that
which
any theory
explains it)
by arranging certain consequences

behavior

have

certain kinds of events contingent

is, by making
upon behavior
a
control.*
achieve
of
Our present
high degree
experimental
the
of
so-called
of
is
reinforcement"
understanding
"contingencies

?that
?we

is a reinforcement
An experimenter
food
organism
on a
the response
with
the
contingent
by connecting
response"
a lever,
is
For
if the response
food magazine.
example,
pressing
a
to close a switch which
be made
operates
magazine
electrically.
of food is said to reinforce
the lever.
pressing

To

hungry

"makes

food

of a
operation
the lever may
The
receipt

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The Design

of Cultures

us to construct
but it nevertheless
undoubtedly
incomplete,
permits
new forms of behavior,
to bring behavior
under the control of new
the
to
it under such control
and
maintain
of
environment,
aspects
for long periods

of time?and

all of this often with

to less rigorously
controlled
Extrapolation
samples
side the laboratory
has already
led to promising
developments.
But the importance
of the principle
instance of human behavior
involves
ment,

and

those who

have

been

surprising
of behavior

out

technological

is embarrassing.

contingencies
to their
alerted

ease.

Almost
of

any
reinforce

by
significance
in pointing
studies often seem fanatical
them out. Yet
laboratory
is important mainly because of its consequences.
behavior
We may
more
we
if
this
recall
fact
the
of
the
readily accept
concept
ubiquity
of purpose.
is
The experimental
contingencies
study of reinforcing
more than a
nonteleological
nothing
of behavior,
of relations which have

purpose.
By manipulating
to standard
which
conform

of the directed

effects
as
been described
traditionally
in
of
reinforcement
ways
contingencies
analysis

in the physical
sciences, we
practices
use
causes.
and
them
to
final
without
study
appealing
We can put this reinterpretation
of purpose to immediate use, for
it bears on a confusion between
the phylogenetic
and the ontogenetic

of behavior which has clouded

development
and
origin
growth of cultures.
Contingencies
similar to what we might
call contingencies
patterns of behavior must have been selected
to survival in ways which are not unlike those

our

thinking about
of reinforcement

of survival.

the
are

Inherited

by their contributions
in which
the behavior

or shaped
by its reinforcing consequences.
or
but very different
processes
adaption
adjustment,
exemplify
must be involved.
mechanisms
of the individual

is selected

Both

of inherited
is as plausible
as
forms of behavior
of any function of the organism when
the environment
can be
as
stable. The
internal environment
regarded
reasonably
satisfies this requirement,
and a genetic endowment
re
of behavior
or
lated to the internal economy?say,
peristalsis
sneezing?is
usually
The external environment
is much
less
question.
accepted without
to generation,
stable from generation
but some kinds of responses
to
The

evolution

the evolution

it are also
selection. The genetic
plausibly
explained by evolutionary
are
similar
to
those
which account for other
presumably

mechanisms

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B.

F.

SKINNER

functions.

But environments

change, and any process which permits

its
is then important. The structures
behavior
organism
modify
which permit modification
must have evolved when organisms were
being selected by their survival in novel environments.
an

to

the mechanisms
which permit modification
of behavior
Although
are inherited,
learned behavior does not emerge from, and is not an
extension of, the unlearned behavior of the individual.
The organism
to
does not simply refine or extend a genetic behavioral
endowment
make itmore effective or more inclusive.
it
collater
Instead,
develops
al behavior, which must be
from an inherited response
distinguished
system even when both serve similar
remember
this when considering
social
it
not
is
intriguing analogies,
Ukely that
are founded on or that
they emerged
of animal
fying
nated

to
It is important
In spite of certain

the social

institutions

from

the

are the achievements

societies.

They
as inherited
their behavior
activities

behavior.

functions.

mechanisms

instinctive

of individuals,
The
permit.

of man
patterns
modi
coordi

or beehive
operate on very different
or a great city.
of a family, a large company,
have developed
social behavior must
through

of the anthill

from those

principles
two kinds
The
different

of

processes,

and

they

are maintained

in force

for different

reasons.

is not a refinement
take a specific example, verbal behavior
so
cries
of
and
on, even though the
alarm, distress,
upon
are
one
case
to the condi
in the
analogous
contingencies
reinforcing
To

instinctive

tions of survival

in the other.

Both may

the mechanisms

be said to serve similar adap

verbal
in acquiring

involved

tive

but

to modification,

set it apart from instinctive

The innate
responses.
is indeed particularly
of an organism
refractory
most
if not all verbal responses being modifications

functions,
behavior
clearly
vocal endowment
of a nonspecific
In general,

behavioral

endowment.

of man has emphasized

modifiability
Inherited
of specific forms of behavior.
and trivial. By far
social responses are fragmentary
in the individual
of behavior develops
through proc

the evolution

rather

than the transmission

verbal

or other

the greater part

of conditioning,

a normal
Man
endowment.
biological
given
men
are
a
other
creature
because
social
becomes
important parts
only
of a child born into a flourishing
The behavior
of his environment.
are
most of which
by variables,
society is shaped and maintained
esses

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The Design
by other people.
in which
the child

of Cultures

the
social variables
compose
in
lives, and they shape his behavior
a
in
in
turn
that
with
such
that
he
culture, usually
way
conformity
it. The behavioral
tends to perpetuate
processes
present no special
a
some
Nevertheless,
problems.
explana
satisfactory account calls for
can have arisen from nonsocial
tion of how a social environment
arranged
"culture"

precursors.
of society,

These

This may seem to raise the hoary question

of the origin
an actual historical
but we have no need to reconstruct

or even a

such as a social compact from

of society can be drawn. We
have only to show that a social environment
could have emerged
from nonsocial
As in explaining
the origin of life, we
conditions.
an actual historical
cannot discover
event but must
be satisfied
event

which

with

conclusions

speculative beginning,
about the nature

a demonstration

functions

that certain

could have

their associated

with

arisen under

of a given

The

structures

conditions.
plausible
form of social behavior
from nonsocial

emergence
is exemplified
antecedents
imitative
be
Inherited
by imitation.
owe its dis
havior is hard to demonstrate.
The parrot may possibly
tinction only to an inherited capacity to be reinforced by the produc
tion of
imitative

imitative
behavior

sounds.

In any

in man

of certain

case,

an

inherited

is insignificant,
compared
of reinforcement
contingencies

of
repertoire
with the product

establish
which
powerful
if
and maintain
For
behaving-as-others-behave.
organism
example,
A sees organism B running in obvious alarm, A will probably
avoid
same
in the
aversive consequences
direction.
Or, if A
by running
sees B
picking and eating ripe berries, A will probably be reinforced
the same berry patch. Thousands
of instances of this
for approaching
sort compose a general contingency
for
the reinforcement
providing
In this sense, behavior exemplifying
imitation
of doing-as-others-do.
or more
it
is
is acquired,
two
inevitable
whenever
yet
practically
one another. The essential conditions
contact
in
with
five
organisms
are not

in themselves

social.

arises from social antecedents.

however,
behavior,
is more
than
social invention.
Unlike
Transmission
the
important
a matter
their
transmission
not
need
cultural
be
of
practices,
origin
Most

social

trans
since the process can be observed. Deliberate
for speculation,
transmission
because
achieved
mission
of
which
is,
(that
practices
is not needed.
For ex
have been reinforced by their consequences)
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B. F.

SKINNER

some
ample,
practices
are
severally replaced.
behavior with respect
teristics of B's behavior,
dividual, C, who might

as the members
of a group
perpetuated
A
If has already developed
specific controlling
to B,
partly upon incidental charac
depending
he may impose the same control on a new in
are

same prac
have generated
just the
who has shaped the vocal responses of her first
verbal repertoire may bring already established

tices in A. A mother

not himself

into a primitive
to bear on a second
contingencies

baby

aversive

interactions

controlling
practices
a second
take
may
by storm
this preparation,
the leader-follower

follower

in the

versed

second

A leader who

child.

in his

with

has acquired
a submissive

even

though, without
have been re
might
is, of
group membership

follower

relation

case.

Overlapping
one factor
to manners,
customs,
only
contributing
and other abiding features of a social environment.
course,

These

simple examples
but to illustrate

are offered

folkways,

not as solutions

to important
of social
analysis

an
to the
approach
to the design of a culture. A special kind of social
in a definite way because of the
behavior
emerges when A responds
on
consider
the importance
the behavior
of
effect
of B. We must
B to A as well as of A to B. For example, when A sees B looking into
a store window,
if he looks too, as in the
he is likely to be reinforced
to B,
if
But
his
of
the
looking is important
berry patch.
example
in
or to a third person who controls B, a
take
place
change may
in order to induce A to
B may look into the window
B's behavior.

problems
behavior

and

do the same.
customers
is seen

The

that behavior
the window
A because

of prospective
shill plays on the behavior
is no longer controlled by what
B's behavior

carnival

in this way.
in the window

but

(directly

or

indirectly)

on A.

by the effect of
for A break down:

(The original contingencies

may not now be "worth looking into.") Action
of B may be called
of its effect on the behavior

taken by

"personal
the
behavior,
properties
important
are mediated
derive from the fact that reinforcements
of which
by
is cultural design.
Another
subdivision
other organisms.1
In analyzing any social episode from this point of view a complete
of both parties as they con
account must be given of the behaviors
of each other.
of the behavior
tribute to the origin and maintenance
control."

For
both

An

example,
speaker

is verbal

subdivision

in analyzing
and listener.

account
we must
for
episode,
is seldom done in the case of non

a verbal
This

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The Design

of Cultures

In noticing
controls
the
control.
how the master
personal
slave or the employer
overlook reciprocal
the worker, we commonly
are led to
effects and, by considering
action in one direction
only,
as
a onesided
or at least the
control
of
regard
gaining
exploitation,
but the control is actually mutual.
The slave controls
advantage;

verbal

as

as the master
the slave, in the sense that
completely
the techniques
of punishment
have been
by the master
employed
to them. This does
selected by the slave's behavior
in submitting

the master

not mean

or that we
is meaningless
of exploitation
In doing so, however, we go
ask, Cui bono?
may not appropriately
account
the
the
social
itself and consider certain
of
beyond
episode
are
effects
to the question
which
related
of value
long-term
clearly
that the notion

A comparable
judgments.
behavior
alters
which
any
We

not be

may

consideration
a cultural

satisfied with

an

arises

in the analysis

of

of the behavior

of

practice.
explanation
The slaves

two parties in a social interaction.

in a quarry cutting
stone for a pyramid work to escape
or death, and the
punishment
is
to
to
the
rising pyramid
sufficiently
reigning pharaoh
reinforcing
to
him
induce
to maintaining
the forces
devote part of his wealth
which

or kill.

An employer pays sufficient wages

to induce
for him, and the products
of their labor reimburse
social
him, let us say, with a great deal to spare. These are on-going
them we may not have taken every
systems, but in thus analyzing
into
account.
The
in whom
thing
system may be altered by outsiders
or
or
fear
the
of
the
lot
slave
of,
sympathy with,
exploited worker
be
is
More
the
that
may
generated.
important, perhaps,
possibility
the system may not actually be in
It may breed
equihbrium.
changes

men

punish
to work

which

lead to its destruction.

Control

through punishment may lead

an
eventual
loss of the support of
viciousness,
increasing
to maintain
those needed
and
the
it;
increasing poverty of the worker
and the resulting
increase in the economic
power of the employer
to

with

also

lead to

action.
countercontrolling
or deferred
raises the question
which
of collateral
is
most
effects
and adopt practices which will
likely to discover
survive or, as conditions
lead to modifications
will
which
change,
in turn will survive. This is an
in
cultural
important
step
design,
but it is not easily taken. Long-term
are
consequences
usually not

may

culture

obvious,

and there

is little inducement

to pay any attention

to them.
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B.

F.

SKINNER

for the
stimulation
may admire a man who submits to aversive
or who eschews
reinforcement
immediate
sake of later reinforcement

We

lead him to be
which
later punishment,
but the contingencies
sense
is part of them) are by
in this
"reasonable"
(our admiration
no means
societies a long time
It has taken civilized
overpowering.
to avoid

to invent
which
seem
where
Thus,
most

the verbal

ethics?

advantages
promote
successfully
in
of
to
the
control
to be particularly
overlook
behavior,
easy
a
undue
have
may
weight.
quick though slight advantage
we boast that the birch rod has been abandoned,
although
children

school

punishment
immediate

is more
results.

are

still under

aversive

control?not

sequences

its measures

of

includes

which

philosophy
measures
between
statements

members

of

reinforcement

con
long-term
a literature or
is usually
by
supported
a set of statements expressing
the relations

To the cultural
designer,
consequences.
as
for effective action; to the
prescriptions
are important
variables
furthering
they
(To both, and to the neutral observer,

and
function

the

because

it yields
in the long run, but because
It is easier for the teacher to control the student
effective

than by using positive

by threatening
punishment
more
effects.
with its deferred,
powerful,
though
to the
sensitive
has become
A culture which

these

and

of morals
precepts
an
Ultimate
outcome.
such

devices?the

group,

effective

self-management.
are sometimes
but this may mean
said to "justify" a measure,
it with
more than strengthening
the measure
by classifying
nothing
or
called
certain kinds of events characteristically
"right.")
"good"
they

Thus, a government may induce its citizens to submit to the hardship

is made
a future in which
the world
and tragedy of war by picturing
aus
or
a
to
or
free
of
safe for democracy
Communism,
program of
lead
to economic
changes which will eventually
terity by pointing
of good things for all. In so doing, it strengthens
to an abundance
to its
is essential
on the part of its citizens which
certain behavior
the
in
reinforces
power
government's
purposes, and the resulting gain
them.
effects and its efforts to formulate
own concern for deferred
The

scientific

study

of behavior
and

the collateral

underlines
unstable

reveals
practices
controlling
interaction which may lead to long-deferred
measures.
or
remedial
effective
dictate
preventive
of

this, however,

by

taking

the

scientist

out

effects

of a given
It may
consequences.
features

of

the

It does

not do

causal

stream.

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The Design

of Cultures

and an
endowment
is the product
of a genetic
or
cultures
the
culture
environmental
history. He also is controlled by
is a
to which he belongs.
Doing-something-about-human-behavior
must be
and by-products
kind of social action, and its products
understood
accordingly.

The

scientist

also

A reciprocal
and the known,
the knower
between
relationship
common to all the sciences,
is important here. A laboratory for the
the environ
contains many devices for controlling
study of behavior
ment

the behavior
of organisms.
for recording
and analyzing
we
the help of these devices
and their associated
techniques,
an
consider
in
various
the
behavior
of
with
ways,
organism
change
in
able precision.
But note that the organism changes our behavior
and

With

quite

as

a fashion.
Our apparatus was
precise
we study, for it was the organism which

by the
designed
led us to choose

organism
a
of stimulation,
categories
particular
particular
manipulandum,
so on, and to record particular
and
modes
of
reinforcement,
particular
for
Measures
which were
successful were
aspects of its behavior.
that reason

reinforcing

and have

as we

been

retained, while
verbal behavior

others

have

with which
The
say, extinguished.
our data has been
a similar way: order and con
in
shaped
to reinforce certain practices which were
sistency emerged
adopted,
while other practices
suffered extinction
and were abandoned.
(All
been,
we
analyze

as well as scientific
itself, are gen
techniques,
knowledge
in this way. A cyclotron
is "designed" by the particles
it is to
a
as
it
is
the
is
to
written
and
control,
theory
by
explain,
particles
and verbal
the behavior
of these particles
shapes the nonverbal
behavior of the scientist. )
scientific

erated

A similarly reciprocal effect is involved in social action, especially

in cultural
economic,
educational,
religious,
design. Governmental,
institutions
in many ways?
and therapeutic
have been analyzed
as
as
for example,
exalt such entities
systems which
sovereignty,
a
is
and
health.
There
considerable
virtue, utility, wisdom,
advantage
as behavioral
in
these institutions
considering
simply
technologies.
set of
Each one uses an identifiable
for the control of
techniques
the
variables
The
human behavior,
distinguished
by
manipulated.
invention
such
and
and their later abandon
of
discovery
techniques
ment
a

or continued

part of the history

use?in

short,
of technology.

or should be,
their evolution?are,
The issues they raise, particularly
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B.

F.

SKINNER

or inventor, are charac

respect to the behavior of the discoverer
teristic of technology
in general.
Both physical
and behavioral
have
shown prog
technologies
sense that new
ress or
in
the
have been
improvement
practices

with

or invented

discovered
vived

and

tested

and

their effects were

because

that some of them have

sur

Men

have found better

reinforcing.
ways, not only to dye a cloth or build a bridge, but to govern, teach,
and employ. The conditions under which all such practices originate
to the extremely
called
range from sheer accident
complex behaviors
are tested and selected
under which
thinking.2 The conditions
they
are
immediate
diverse.
Certain
may
advantages
personal
equally
in the behavior
well have been the only important variables
of the
inventors of both physical
and cultural devices.
But the
primitive
has reduced
the impor
of moral and ethical practices
elaboration
tance

The honorific
reinforcements
aggrandizement.
common
action for the
weal, as well
encourages
a
as the sanctions
it applies
to selfish behavior,
generate
relatively
im
in
field
Even
the
of
disinterested
control,
personal
creativity.
not
immediate
but
for
may be proposed,
exploitation,
provements

of personal
with which
society

as

rulers, political
leaders, benevolent
philosophers,
"the good of all."
an
analysis of moral and ethical practices will clarify the

by religious
and educators?for

Only
behavior

at this stage. He has faced a

designer
in the fact that it is easier to demonstrate
the right
special difficulty
a
treat
to
one's
fellowmen
to
than
the
build
bridge
way
right way
of

the cultural

and clarity of the results ).

reducing to the immediacy
even
has
inventor,
disinterested,
relatively
though
to appeal for support to secular or divine authori
it necessary

( the difference
cultural
The
found

and even to mili

premises,
philosophical
sort
for the greater
been
needed
has
of the
tary persuasion.
Nothing
The wheel was not propagated
by the
technology.
part of physical
its own way.
Cultural
made
of salvation?it
sword or by promises
on
or fallen
only in part because of their effect
practices have survived
the strength of the group, and those which have survived are usually
the current
burdened with unnecessary
By association,
impedimenta.
men look behind any cultural
that
the
fact
is handicapped
by
designer
or threatening
forces.
invention for irrelevant,
ingenuous,
ties, supposedly

There

inviolable

is another

step

in

physical

technology,

however,

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which

of Cultures

The Design
must

have

parallel

in cultural

The practical
design.
application
a new kind of disinterestedness.
The

of scientific

shows
knowledge
is usually concerned with the control of nature apart from
He is perhaps not wholly
his personal
aggrandizement.
"pure," but
for its own sake or for the sake of furthering
he seeks control mainly
other scientific activity. There are practical as well as ethical reasons
scientist

as
becomes more
for example,
the
complex,
technology
is less and less able to pursue the
himself
implica
practical
is very little personal
There
of his work.
reimbursement
for

for this:
scientist
tions

As a result, a new idea

without
improvements
bringing
a
of plotting
social
But
coup.
personal

the most

ideas of modern
profitable
immediate
yield
technological

may
the scientist

under

science.

suspicion
not yet reached this stage. A disinterested
has
considera
technology
tion of cultural practices
from which
for
suggestions
improvement
This is the price we
may emerge is still often regarded as impossible.

( 1 ) have so often improved their control of

pay for the fact that men
other men for purposes of exploitation,
(2) have had to bolster their
social practices with spurious justifications
and (3) have so seldom
shared the attitudes of the basic scientist.
Most

would

people

value

to the proposition
to build
deciding how

subscribe

involved

in

judgment
but would
reject the proposition
one. The most
to
build
deciding
that the scientific
are clear, while
builds a bomb
a cultural
physical
to value

practices
those which

which

that

there

that there

is no

an atomic

is none

significant difference
guide the designer

bomb,
involved
in

here may be
of the bomb

guide the designer of the culture which

cannot
the success or failure of
predict
as we do that of a
the same accuracy
with
It is for this reason that we are said to resort

are not. We

invention
invention.

in the second case. What we resort to is

judgments
guessing.
sense
It is only in this
that value judgments
take up where
science
leaves off. When we can design small social interactions
and, possi

cultures with the confidence we

tech
bly, whole
bring to physical
not
of value will
the question
be raised.
nology,
their cultures
So far, men have designed
largely by guesswork,
some very
lucky hits; but we are not far from a stage of
including
in which
this can be changed.
The change does not
knowledge
we be able to describe
some distant state of mankind
that
require
or
toward which we are moving
"deciding" to move.
Early physical
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B.

F.

SKINNER

could not have foreseen

technology
led to it. Progress
and improvement
our
ourselves
and
world as we go.
We
men

it
the modern
world,
though
are local
better
We
changes.

our cultural
change
practices
in certain ways.
to be reinforced

because
This

as

it is in our nature

is not an infallible

guide.
It could, indeed, lead to fatal mistakes.
For example, we have devel
science to escape from aversive events
oped sanitation and medical
associated with illness and death, yet a new virus could conceivably

arise to wipe out everyone except those to whom chronic illness and
our decision
filth had granted
On the present evidence,
immunity.
in favor of sanitation and medicine
seems to make for survival, but
in the
we may in time look back
light of unforeseeable
developments
upon it as having had no survival value.
From time to time, men have sought to reassure themselves
about
as
some
the future by characterizing
the
out
of
such
progress
working
as the
or collective
or
universal
the
will,
reason,
principle
general
a
seem
if
Such
to
would
valid,
greatest good.
principle,
guarantee
an inevitable,
such principle
Yet

behavior.

in the human condition.

No
a scientific
of
human
supported by
analysis
the nature of man
tells us something.
Just as an

if devious,
is clearly

improvement

if immediate
effect cannot be reached
effects are
genetic
so we must look
to
not beneficial,
the
immediate
consequences
only
in a cultural pattern.
for modifications
of behavior
Nevertheless,
inventions have created current conditions which
cultural
have at
ultimate

connection with future consequences.

It is easy
least a probabilistic
to say that men work for pleasure and to avoid pain, as the hedonists
it. These
have
but in
would
are, indeed, powerful
principles;
con
of
to
behavior
have
led
the
the
men,
they
day-to-day
affecting
struction of cultural devices which extend the range of both pleasure
It is the same man,
and pain almost beyond recognition.
biologically
acts selfishly or for the good of the group, and it is
speaking, who
as a disinterested
the same man who,
scientist, will make human
more
effective
invention.
behavior
through cultural
vastly
References
1 Skinner,

B.

F.,

Verbal

B.

F.,

Science

Behavior.

New

York:

Appleton-Century-Crofts,

Inc.,

1957.
2

Skinner,
pany,

and

Human

Behavior.

New

York:

Macmillan

1953.

546

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Com